Applied Chemistry for Computer Science & Engineering stream BCHES102/202

MODULE 1: SENSORS AND ENERGY SYSTEM

Sensors: Introduction, working, principle and applications of Conductometric sensors,

Electrochemical sensors, Thermometric sensors (Flame photometry) and Optical sensors
(colorimetry). Sensors for the measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO). Electrochemical
sensors for the pharmaceuticals. Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx. Disposable
sensors in the detection of biomolecules and pesticides.
SENSORS
Energy Systems: Introduction to batteries, construction, working and applications of Lithium
ion and Sodium ion batteries. Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s) - Principle,
Properties and Applications.
Self-learning: Types of electrochemical sensor, Gas sensor - O2 sensor, Biosensor - Glucose
sensors.

A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical
environment.

Schematic diagram of components of sensors

Components of Sensors:
1. Receptor: it is a chemical element which is capable of interacting with analyte specifically
and selectively. It produces signal corresponding to interaction in the form of change in
potential, conductivity heat, pH etc.
2. Transducers: Transducers is used to convert the signal created by the receptor-analyte
interaction into a readable value.
3. Electrical signals and Display.
4. The electronic system analyses the signal given by the transducer, converts the signal into
digital form. These signals are then displayed.

Electrochemical Sensors:
These sensors use electrode as transducer component. The main components of electrochemical
sensors are working or sensing electrode, electrolyte, counter and reference electrode. Electrolyte
is a part of the electrochemical Sensors and role is to transport charge within the sensors, contact
all electrode effectively, it is stable under all conditions.
Following steps are involved in working of an electrochemical sensor
1. Diffusion of the analyte to the electrode/electrolyte interface (in the liquid form)
2. Adsorption onto the electrode surface
3. Electrochemical reaction with electron transfer
4. Desorption of the product
5. Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to the bulk of electrolyte or gas
phase.

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Applications:
1. The oxygen sensors are used to determine dissolved oxygen in boiler water and to
monitor dissolved oxygen concentrations in hydrogen fuel cell.
2. Used in security and defence applications like detection of toxic gases.
3. Used in water analysis and environmental monitoring.
4. Used in diagnostic and health care applications.
5. Used in soil parameter analysis and in agricultural applications.

Note: Types of electrochemical sensors

1. Potentiometric Sensors:
In this sensors change in potential during chemical interaction between receptor and
analyte is measured using indicator electrode and reference electrode. Indicator
electrode is used to measure the change in the potential due to redox reaction
occurring on the surface of the electrode.
2. Amperometric Sensors:

Conductometric Sensors
It involves the determination of the concentration of analyte based on the measurement of changes
occur in electrolyte solution. Conductance is depending on
✓ No. of ions
✓ Mobility of ions
Electrode used is conductivity cell. It is made up of two platinum foils with unit cross sectional
area and unit distance between them. Conductance of unit volume of the solution is called specific
conductance and it is given by
1 𝑙
𝑘= ×𝑎
𝑅

Here l/a is known as cell constant, R is resistance.

Applications:
1. Used to estimate acid, base and mixture in the sample
2. Used to check ionic impurities in water sample
3. Used to measure acidity or alkalinity of sea water and fresh water
4. Conductometric biosensors are used in biomedicine, environment monitoring,
biotechnology and agricultural related applications.
Optical Sensors:
1. These sensors based on the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the chemical
species. Commonly UV-Visible-Infrared electromagnetic radiations are used. In an
optical sensor, the optical signal arises from the interaction of the analyte with an
incident radiation. This interaction could results in absorption, emission, scattering
and reflection of light. The intensity of the radiation gives the information on the
concentration of the analyte.
2. Optical sensors are used to determine the concentration of coloured solution. It is
based on the measurement of absorbance of the coloured solution at particular
wavelength. It is governed by Beer-Lambertz law.
3. The optical sensors components are light source, filters, photocell and display system.
4. Schematic diagram is as follows

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Applications:
• Used in the determination of any chemical species which can interact with electromagnetic
radiations
• Can be used in environmental, pharmaceuticals, food related applications

Thermometric Sensors:
It is based on the measurement of thermal changes during the interaction between analyte and
receptor.

Working:
Main component is a small tubular catalytic reactor fitted with a temperature transducer. Analyte
is fed into the reactor. The wall of the reactor is coated with a catalyst which is capable of
catalyzing the reaction, liberating the heat energy. Heat liberated is quantified by transducer and
convert into voltage and fed to the data storage and processing unit.
The two main transducers which convert change in temperature into an electric signal are
1. Resistive transducers: Most commonly used resistive transducer is the thermistor. It is a
semiconductor device made up of oxides of transition metals.
2. Thermocouple: It is a device which converts the temperature difference into an electrical
voltage.

Applications:
Used in determination of metabolites, bioprocess monitoring and environmental control and
determination of combustible gases

Sensors for the measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO):

The oxygen present in the water in dissolved form is called as dissolved oxygen.
Two types of Sensors are used for measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO)
1. Optical Sensors
2. Electrochemical Sensors

Optical Sensors:
The main component of optical sensors is semi permeable membrane, sensing element, light-
emitting diode (LED) and photo detector. The sensing element contains a luminescent dye.
Working:
When the dye is exposed to light, it moves to excited state and return to ground state by emitting
light with known intensity. When the DO crosses the semi permeable membrane and interacts
with the dye, it reduces the intensity of the light emitted by dye. The intensity of the emitted light

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inversely proportional to the DO concentration. This intensity of light is measured using photo
detector.
Electrochemical Sensors:
In electrochemical sensors, two electrodes are used.
Anode: Zn, Pb or any other active metal
Cathode: Working electrode-Ag
Electrolyte: KOH, NaOH or any other inert electrolyte
Membrane: Teflon

Working:
The difference in potential between the anode and the cathode should
be at least 0.5V.
When electrode is dipped in water to measure DO, anode undergoes oxidation liberating electrons
2𝑍𝑛 → 2𝑍𝑛2+ 4𝑒 −
At cathode, DO undergo reduction. Ag cathode is inert, it only passes electrons to oxygen for
reduction.
𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 4𝑒 − → 4𝑂𝐻 −
Overall reaction is
2𝑍𝑛 + 𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑍𝑛(𝑂𝐻)2
The current produced by the reduction of oxygen at cathode is proportional to the oxygen in the
water sample.

Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx.

Filters: Used to prevent unwanted contaminants, mainly particulate matter

Membrane: A gas-permeable membrane is used to regulate the gas flow into the sensors. It allows
only analyte gas to pass and prevent the leakage of the electrolyte.
Electrodes: two or three electrodes are used on the requirement. Working or sensing, counter and
reference electrode.
Electrolyte: Electrolyte should be ionic conductor and chemically stable. Main role is , it transport
charge within the sensor, contact all electrodes effectively and solubilise the reactant and product
for efficient transport.
Working of electrochemical gas sensors.
➢ The diffusion of gas analyte through filter, membrane and then finally through electrolyte
on to the surface of sensing electrode.
➢ Adsorption of analyte gas molecules on the surface of sensing electrode.
➢ Oxidation of analyte on the surface of sensing electrode, liberating electrons.
➢ Desorption of product from the electrode surface.

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➢ Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to bulk of electrolyte.

Sensors for SOX:

The sensors contains two or three electrodes
Sensing electrode: Au/Nafion
Electrolyte: 0.5M H2SO4

Working:
➢ The diffusion of gas analyte through filter, membrane and then finally through electrolyte
on to the surface of sensing electrode.
➢ Adsorption of analyte gas molecules on the surface of sensing electrode.
➢ Oxidation of analyte on the surface of sensing electrode, liberating electrons.
➢ Desorption of product from the electrode surface.
➢ Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to bulk of electrolyte.
𝑆𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑆𝑂42− + 4𝐻 + + 2𝑒 −

Sensors for NO2:

The sensors contain two or three electrodes.
Sensing electrode: Au, Pt/Nafion.
Electrolyte: 10 M H2SO4

Working:
➢ The diffusion of gas analyte through filter, membrane and then finally through electrolyte
on to the surface of sensing electrode.
➢ Adsorption of analyte gas molecules on the surface of sensing electrode.
➢ Oxidation of analyte on the surface of sensing electrode, liberating electrons.
➢ Desorption of product from the electrode surface.
➢ Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to bulk of electrolyte.
𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − → 𝑁𝑂 + 4𝐻 + + 2𝐻2 𝑂

Sensors for NO:

The sensors contain two or three electrodes.
Sensing electrode: Au/NASICON.
Electrolyte: NaNO2

Working:
➢ The diffusion of gas analyte through filter, membrane and then finally through electrolyte
on to the surface of sensing electrode.
➢ Adsorption of analyte gas molecules on the surface of sensing electrode.
➢ Oxidation of analyte on the surface of sensing electrode, liberating electrons.
➢ Desorption of product from the electrode surface.
➢ Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to bulk of electrolyte.

𝑁𝑂 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑁𝑂32− + 4𝐻 + + 3𝑒 −

Disposable sensors:
Disposable sensors are low-cost and easy-to-use sensing devices designed for short-term or rapid
single-point measurements.
Advantages of disposable sensors:
➢ They transduce physical, chemical, or biological changes in their environment to an
analytical signal.

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➢ Disposable sensors are biodegradable and sustainable
➢ They have a short duration of analysis and fast response times.
➢ It provides digitized chemical and biological information.
➢ Prevents the contamination of samples

The disposable sensors are a type of paper over which receptor and electrodes
are coated. Electrodes reference, working and counter electrode and receptor
is printed on a single platform as shown in the fig. These electrodes are called
screen-printed electrode and are main components of disposable sensors.

Electrochemical sensors for the pharmaceuticals

Electrochemical detection occurs at the interface between an analyte (diclofenac) of interest and
the working electrode to which a potential is applied with respect to the reference electrode, while
the corresponding current is measured.
Electrochemical sensors for detection of diclofenac
Working electrode: Carbon coated with MWCNT or Graphene
Counter Electrode: Carbon coated with MWCNT or Graphene
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl
When the sample containing diclofenac is put in the sensor, oxidation of diclofenac occurs on the
surface of the sensing electrode. The change in potential of the reaction gives the concentration of
diclofenac.

Electrochemical sensors for detection of hydrocarbons (1- Hydroxypyrene)

Working electrode: Carbon coated with chromium containing metal organic frame work) Cr-
MOF) and Graphene Oxide (Composite)
Counter Electrode: Carbon coated with chromium containing metal organic frame work) Cr-
MOF) and Graphene Oxide (Composite)
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl
When the sample containing 1- Hydroxypyrene is put in the sensor, oxidation of 1-
Hydroxypyrene occurs on the surface of the sensing electrode. The change in potential of the
reaction gives the concentration of 1- Hydroxypyrene.

Detection of Ascorbic acid.

Ascorbic acid is a chemical name of Vitamin-C, it is water soluble.

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In the disposable strip, the sensing electrode, counter and reference electrode are printed using
Screen printing technology.
Active material is coated on sensing electrode must be capable of oxidizing ascorbic acid on its
surface.
The active surfaces of the counter electrode and working electrode have been coated with a
conductive ink of C (MWCNT) and modified with gold nanoparticles.
Reference electrode is Ag/AgCl
The sensor is immersed in the analyte. The analyte diffuses and adsorbed on the sensing electrode.
The sensing electrode oxidizes ascorbic acid into dehydroascorbic acid and produces electric
current or voltage and it is proportional to the concentration of the ascorbic acid.

Detection of pesticide such as Glyphosate by electrochemical oxidation method

Electrochemical Sensor for Glyphosate Detection
The sensor is a silicon- based chip comprising of three-electrode system. It is fabricated by electro
deposition technique.
Working Electrode: A gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 200nm thickness gold
nanoparticles
Counter electrode: A gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 20nm thickness gold
nanoparticles
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl/Cl
Electrolytes are added to increase the conductivity of the solution and minimizes the resistance
between the working and counter electrode.

Working:
The electrochemical detection is based on the oxidation of Glyphosate on gold working electrode.
A potential of 0.78V is applied on working electrode, there is a interaction between analyte and
electrode surface.
Glyphosate oxidizes on the working electrode brings a change in current in the electrolyte
medium.
The change in the current is a measure of concentration of Glyphosate

BATTERY

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A battery is an electrochemical cell, it consists of one or more galvanic cells connected in series or
parallel connection. It converts chemical energy into electrical energy during discharging and
charging.
Components of battery: Anode, Cathode, Electrolyte and Separator

Classification of battery
Primary batteries: These batteries cannot be rechargeable
Example: Dry cell. Zn-air battery
Secondary batteries: These batteries can be rechargeable
Example: Lead acid battery, Ni-MH battery, Li ion battery
Reserve batteries: The high energy batteries in which active materials are isolated from battery
due to their high reactivity and are brought into contact whenever high energy is required for
application are called reserve batteries.
Example: Magnesium- water activated batteries, zinc-silver oxide batteries, etc.

LITHIUM-ION BATTERY (LIB)

Introduction:
Lithium is the lightest of metals and it is a highly reactive material. The electrochemical
properties of lithium are excellent. These properties give the potential to achieve very high energy
and power densities in high-density battery applications such as automotive and standby power.
Composition of the battery:
Reactive species at anode : graphite
Reactive species at cathode : LiCoO2
Electrolyte : Lithium salt
Separator : Polypropylene
Output Voltage : 3.6V
Construction:
➢ Anode is made of carbon material (graphite)
with a high energy density and large doping
capacity of lithium ion.
➢ Cathodes are metal oxide material containing
lithium with capable of dedoping lithium ion
during charging and undergo lithium doping
during discharging
➢ Electrolyte is made of lithium salts (LiPF6, LiBF4or
LiClO4) dissolved in organic solvents such as
ether.
➢ Separator used is polypropylene.
➢ The output voltage of this battery is 3.6V.

Working of LIB:
During charging lithium ions in cathodic side (positive electrode) is migrated and move towards
anodic side (negative electrode)
𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2 → 𝐿𝑖(1−𝑥) 𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖 + + 𝑥𝑒 −
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥𝐿𝑖 + + 𝑥𝑒 − + 6𝐶 → 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶6
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 6𝐶 ↔ 𝐿𝑖(1−𝑥) 𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶6

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During discharging lithium ions move from anode to cathode.
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶6 → 𝑥𝐿𝑖 + + 𝑥𝑒 − + 6𝐶
𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖(1−𝑥) 𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖 + + 𝑥𝑒 − → 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖(1−𝑥) 𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶6 → 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 6𝐶

Applications of LIB:
The Li - ion batteries are used in mobile phones, cameras, calculators, LCD TVs, pagers, to
operate laptop computers, in aerospace applications.
SODIUM-ION BATTERY (SIB)
Composition of the battery:
Reactive species at anode : Carbon
Reactive species at cathode : NaCoO2
Electrolyte : Ethylene carbonates (EC),
Diethyl carbonate (DEC)
Separator : Polypropylene
Output Voltage : 1.85 to 3.45 V.

Working of SIB:
During charging sodium ions in cathodic side (positive electrode) is migrated and
move towards anodic side (negative electrode)
𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑜𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑎(1−𝑥) 𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑥𝑒 −
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥𝑁𝑎 + + 𝑥𝑒 − + 6𝐶 → 𝑥𝑁𝑎𝐶6
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 6𝐶 ↔ 𝑁𝑎(1−𝑥) 𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝑁𝑎𝐶6

During discharging sodium ions move from anode to cathode.

𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥𝑁𝑎𝐶6 → 𝑥𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑥𝑒 − + 6𝐶
𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑁𝑎(1−𝑥) 𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑥𝑒 − → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑜𝑂2
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑁𝑎(1−𝑥) 𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝑁𝑎𝐶6 → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 6𝐶

Advantages of SIB:
➢ Rechargeable sodium ion for energy storage.
➢ Easier to recycle
➢ Low market prices
➢ Capable of working at room temperature, good efficiency.
Disadvantages of SIB:
➢ Large ionic size Na+ which require more power to keep energy flowing.
➢ It takes seven days to charge in case you forget to charge it.
➢ Lower operating voltage.
➢ Need high temperature for optimal work

Applications of SIB:
The Na- ion batteries are used in mobile phones, cameras, calculators, LCD TVs, pagers, to
operate laptop computers, in aerospace applications.

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QUANTUM DOT SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS (QDSSC)
➢ Quantum dots are considered to be artificial atoms.
➢ Quantum dots (QDs) are semiconductor particles a few nanometres in size,
having optical and electronic properties that differ from those of larger particles.
➢ A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a solar cell that uses quantum dots as the absorbing
photovoltaic material.
➢ It is used to replace bulky materials such as silicon, or copper indium gallium selenide.
➢ Quantum dots have band gaps that are adjustable through a wide array of energy levels by
changing the size of the dots.

Construction:
➢ Photo Anode: It is conducting glass
over which semiconductor is coated
(TiO2). Outer layer of photoanode is
coated with quantum dots (QDs).
➢ Electrolyte: Photo anode is contact with
redox electrolyte. It is hole conductor.
Polysulphide is used as electrolyte.
➢ Cathode Electrode: It is used to
regenerate electrolyte and complete the
circuit.

Working:
1. QDs are exposed to sunlight.
2. QDs absorb solar energy, electrons move from valence band to conduction band. These
electrons are transferred to semiconductor, leaving behind holes on the surface of QD’s
3. Electrolyte take up the holes from the surface of QD’s and get reduced.
𝑆 2− + 2ℎ+ → 𝑆
2−
𝑆 + 𝑆𝑥−1 → 𝑆𝑥2− (𝑥 = 2 𝑡𝑜 5)
4. Electrons flows from anode to cathode through external circuit.
5. At cathode, electrolyte is regenerated taking up electrons from cathode.
2−
𝑆𝑥2− → 𝑆 + 𝑆𝑥−1
𝑆 + 2𝑒 − → 𝑆 2−

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Advantages of QDSSC:
The following are the benefits of quantum dot solar cells.
➢ They have a favourable power to weight ratio with high efficiency.
➢ Their power consumption is low.
➢ There is an increase of electrical performance at low production costs.
➢ Their use is versatile and can be used in windows, not just rooftops.
Disadvantages of QDSSC:
➢ Cadmium selenide-based quantum dot solar cells are highly toxic in nature and require a
very stable polymer shell.
➢ Cadmium and selenium ions which are used in the core of quantum dots are known to be
cytotoxic.
Applications of QDSSC:
➢ Used for biological labelling.
➢ Imaging and detection and as efficient fluorescence resonance energy transfer donors.
➢ It is used as light-emitting diodes, photoconductors, photodectors and photovoltaic.
➢ It is used in biomedicine and environment.
➢ It is used in catalysis and other reactions.

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