Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer

(THS)
On many high performance aircraft trimming is effected by varying the angle of incidence of the horizontal stabilizer. The trimmable stabilizer does not move
in response to control column or control stick movement. Instead, it is fitted with elevators which respond to pilot or autopilot input to control pitch and adjust
the aircraft attitude and the entire horizontal tail assembly moves in response to the trim system, to stabilize the aircraft in the pitch axis.

This system is used instead of using elevators alone, to change the angle of attack and camber of the tail plane. The advantage of such a tailplane over
conventional arrangement with elevator and tab is that the trim is more effective; it creates less drag and retains full elevator movement at extreme angles.

The stabilizer trim is normally adjusted to compensate for CG position prior to takeoff to ensure optimum elevator effectiveness. In most cases, a trimmable
stabilizer is either manually or electrically controlled and hydraulically actuated. In some Fly-By-Wire equipped aircraft, the stabilizer automatically adjusts to
a one G loading without the need for pilot action.
The trimmable stabilizer's primary advantage is that it provides tremendous trimming power over the full speed range of the aircraft. Trimmable horizontal
stabilizer overcomes the loss of effectiveness from which use of elevators alone can suffer at high speeds.
The Design of most of the modern and transport aircrafts feature a large, slow-moving Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer (THS), that comes

combined with an independently - moving set of elevators. The elevators are controlled by the pilot or autopilot and primarily serve to change the

aircraft attitude, while the THS is used to trim (maintaining horizontal static equilibrium) and stabilize the aircraft in the pitch axis. The trimmable

stabilizer does not move in response to control column or control stick movement, the entire horizontal tail assembly moves in response to the Trim

System to stabilize the aircraft in the pitch axis.

The primary advantage of THS is that it provides a trimming advantage over the full speed range of the airplane.
The system also reduces drag as the stabilizer surface and the elevator remain in alignment, whenever the
aircraft is in a trim configuration

Among the primary functions, the stabilizer trim is normally adjusted to compensate for Center of Gravity (CG)

position prior to takeoff to ensure optimum elevator effectiveness. In most cases, a trimmable stabilizer function

is either manually or electrically controlled and hydraulically actuated screw jack . In some Fly- By- wire

aircrafts, the Trim Stab automatically adjusts to a one G loading without needing a pilot input.
Advantages of THS:

When high-lift devices are deployed, the center of pressure on the wing shifts backwards by up to a third of wing chord.
Fowler flaps add wing area aft of the trailing edge, and slotted flaps are able to generate high suction peaks. The result is a
large change in trim, and the empennage now has to generate generous downforce. Changing the lift on the empennage by
elevator deflection alone can exceed the maximum practicable deflection angle and leave no margin for control. By
adjusting the stabilizer incidence, the elevator can be held near its neutral position and has reserves for control.

In transonic flight the elevator system may have a nonlinear characteristic. The contour break due to an elevator deflection induces
shockwaves which in turn lead to flow- separation which reduces the control effectivity and can even reverse the control characteristic.
Since the transition from subsonic to supersonic shifts the center of lift backwards, the empennage needs to add downforce when the
aircraft accelerates in the transonic speed range. An elevator deflection might not be able to produce the desired lift change, and only
adjusting the stabilizer such that the elevator can be held neutral can restore trim and control effectiveness.
Trimmable Horizontal
Stabilizer
Trim Wheels

Pilots use stabilizer trim wheels on the control stand to manually move control cables and cable drums. They move the gearbox and jackscrew. Movement
of jackscrew also mechanically moves the elevator to maintain aerodynamic profile.
Control Column Electric Switches

Pilots operate stabilizer trim switches on the control column for operating electrical pitch trim systems. Operating the switches sends electrical
signals to the stabilizer trim system and operates the trim actuator. Actuator moves the stabilizer gearbox. Gearbox operation will move the
jackscrew, in turn moving the horizontal stabilizer.

Autopilot Operation:

If autopilot is engaged, it sends electrical signals directly to the stabilizer trim actuator.
Stabilizer will pivot at a hinge point in response to either autopilot or manual commands. Pilots use electric or autopilot trim cutout switches to stop
movement of the stabilizer trim actuator, in the case of uncommanded motion or runaway situation.
Pilots operate stabilizer trim cutout switches to stop any
runaway electric trim condition. When in cutout position,
autopilot switches open and do not let autopilot commands
reach the stabilizer trim actuator.
Pilot or autopilot will control operation of stabilizer trim actuator operation.
Pilots also control the cable and cable drum position with the help of stabilizer trim
wheels.

Priority for control of trimmable horizontal stabilizer follows the hierarchy below:

- Manual
- Electric Trim
- Autopilot

Mechanical brakes and clutch within the gearbox allow for manual inputs via trim
wheels to the stabilizer trim actuator, overriding autopilot or electric trim
commands.
MACH TRIM
SYSTEMS
As an aircraft accelerates, the aerofoils create more lift.. To maintain level flight, nose down trim is required. If the aircraft is in transonic flight and continues to
accelerate, the resulting shock wave that forms on the wing moves aft and becomes stronger. The attitude change occurring in this manner is known as “Tuck
Under” or “Mach Tuck”..
Mach trim -- When the Mach Trim is engaged, the horizontal stabilizer trim is adjusted at predetermined rates, to
compensate for the aircraft tendency to pitch down at increasing Mach numbers.
If the aircraft is allowed to continue to accelerate beyond the limiting mach number, the centre of pressure may move so far rearward that there is
insufficient elevator authority available to counteract the nose down moment. At this point, it is possible that the aircraft could enter a steep, potentially
unrecoverable dive.

In aircraft that are subject to the effect known as “Tuck Under” the pitch attitude changes arising are compensated as a function of Mach number by mach
trim system. The system remains operational, whether autopilot is engaged or not.
Mach trim system automatically senses the increase of speeds above the appropriate datum Mach number, and by means of servo coupling automatically re-
adjusts the position of trimmable horizontal stabilizer, thus maintaining the pitch trim of the aircraft.

Mach trim system operates independently of the autopilot. A Mach Trim system is provided in aeroplanes that fly at high subsonic speeds and are
susceptible to Mach tuck. At these speeds as the aeroplane approaches it’s critical Mach No. the centre of pressure moves aft resulting in a nose
down attitude known as Mach tuck. This condition is automatically trimmed out by a mach trim system. The mach trim system will be armed at all
stages of flight but will only activate at high subsonic speeds.
The Mach trim system provides automatic pitch trim in response to Mach airspeed changes to increase longitudinal
stability and counteract the center-of-lift movement at speeds above pre- evaluated Mach Tuck- even if the autopilot is
disengaged or inoperative. The system consists of a computer, a trim follow- up, MACH TRIM annunciator and
associated aircraft wiring. The Mach trim system utilizes the primary motor of the horizontal stabilizer pitch trim actuator
to effect trim changes.

During flight, with no autopilot engaged, the Mach trim system will automatically engage at predetermined Mach number.
As the aircraft Mach number changes, the change is sensed by the air data computers and transmitted to the Mach trim
computer. If the aircraft is not retrimmed to compensate for the Mach change, the Mach trim computer will command the
appropriate pitch trim change (nose up for increased Mach and nose down for decreased Mach ) through the horizontal
stabilizer pitch trim actuator. A follow- up on the horizontal stabilizer will transmit a horizontal stabilizer position signal
to the Mach trim computer.

The Mach trim system utilizes the motor of the horizontal stabilizer pitch trim actuator to improve longitudinal stability.
Attitude change is corrected and trimmed out by designing such aircraft so that they have essential stability characteristics and trimming method e.g variable
incidence horizontal stabilizer. Mach trim system automatically senses increase of speed above the appropriate reference Mach number; and by means of servo
mechanism automatically adjust the position of horizontal stabilizer thus maintaining the desired pitch trim of the aircraft.

In the case of Concorde aircraft, during transition from subsonic to supersonic speed- the nose down pitching moment is counteracted by transferring fuel from
a front trim tank to rear trim tank so that the centre of gravity is moved rearwards. This removes the couple introduced by movement of the centre of pressure.
Aerodynamic
Buffeting
On 9 August 2016, a Cessna A188B aircraft, registered VH-BCT, took off from a private strip near Hay Airport, New South
Wales, Australia to spread fertilizer on the property. The pilot was the only person on board the aerial agriculture operation. The
pilot had already completed two spreading runs, for the field being treated, and on each occasion, the pilot took-off and banked
the aircraft to the right, and then banked to the left to align with the field. During the third take-off, the pilot noticed a vehicle
traveling along a road at the beginning of the spreading run for that field. The pilot climbed the aircraft to about 200 ft and
commenced an orbit to allow the vehicle to move out of the way.

During the 30-degree turn to the left, the aircraft started experiencing an aerodynamic buffet. The pilot moved the engine
controls to full power but did not notice a difference in engine noise or a change in the aircraft performance. At the same time,
the pilot levelled the aircraft wings, lowered the nose to increase speed and as there was no change in the performance, began
jettisoning the load.

The pilot elected to return to the airstrip to check the operation of the engine and commenced a gentle turn to the left. The
aircraft continued to buffet and the altitude continued to decrease, despite having full engine power selected and the load being
jettisoned. The pilot continued to lower the nose of the aircraft and when it became evident that the aircraft was not going to
make the strip, the pilot elected to land straight ahead. As the aircraft flew over a channel, the tail wheel clipped that channel,
and the aircraft collided with the ground on the flat area between two channels. The landing gear and propeller detached as the
aircraft continued forward and came to rest on the top of the opposite channel.

Upon analysis it was revealed that during a turn, the pilot allowed the speed to decrease and the aircraft started a buffet
and approaching aerodynamic stall. The pilot lowered the nose of the aircraft to increase the speed, levelled the wings, selected
full engine power and started jettisoning the load. The pilot continued to lower the nose of the aircraft in in an attempted to
regain control of the aircraft until it collided with the ground.
The accident after buffeting and subsequent pilot actions highlights the importance of taking positive
action and maintaining aircraft control in both turning back to the strip or conducting a forced landing,
while being aware of flare energy and aircraft stall speeds.
In general, an aircraft should not stall too suddenly, and the pilot should have adequate warning, in terms of handling qualities, of
the approach of a stall. This warning generally takes the form of buffeting and general lack of response to the controls. If a
particular wing design stalls too suddenly, it is necessary to provide some sort of artificial pre-stall warning device or even a stall
prevention device.

Buffeting is an irregular oscillation of any part of an aircraft produced and maintained directly by an eddying flow. It is a
vibration of the aircraft that may appear during maneuvers at cruising speed. Depending on the angle of attack, the flow may
contain separations, which constitute an aerodynamic excitation. The aircraft's structure shakes, due to this excitation, and this
buffeting may endanger the stability of the flight.

The violently turbulent separated air behind a normal shock wave often produces buffeting of the aircraft; this can occur as a
high-speed buffet or low-speed buffet. The small, rapid movements of the control surfaces and vibrations of the airframe caused
by turbulent airflow are ‘buffet.’ It occurs at very low and very high forward speeds. At high altitude, the buffet restricts the
ability of an aircraft to maneuver. The buffet margin is the difference in speed between normal cruise speed and the buffet speed,
the low-speed margin to the low-speed buffet and the high-speed margin to the high-speed buffet. Both margins decrease with
increased altitude and/or increased mass.
Anytime a greater lift demand is made on the wing, whether from too fast an airspeed or from too high an angle of attack
(AOA) near the MMO, the “high speed buffet” will occur. However, there are also occasions when the buffet can be
experienced at much slower speeds known as “low speed Mach buffet.”

The most likely situations that could cause the low speed buffet would be when an aircraft is flown at too slow of a speed for
its weight and altitude causing a high AOA. This very high AOA would have the same effect of increasing airflow over the
upper surface of the wing to the point that all of the same effects of the shock waves and buffet would occur as in the high
speed buffet situation.
The AOA of the wing has the greatest effect on inducing the Mach buffet, or pre-stall buffet, at either the high or low speed
boundaries for the airplane. The conditions that increase the AOA, hence the speed of the airflow over the wing and chances
of Mach buffet are:

• High altitudes—The higher the aircraft flies, the thinner the air and the greater the AOA required to produce the lift
needed to maintain level flight.
• Heavy weights—The heavier the aircraft, the greater the lift required of the wing, and all other things being equal, the
greater the AOA.
• “G” loading—An increase in the “G” loading of the wing results in the same situation as increasing the weight of the
aircraft. It makes no difference whether the increase in “G” forces is caused by a turn, rough control usage, or turbulence.
The effect of increasing the wing’s AOA is the same.

An aircraft’s indicated airspeed decreases in relation to true airspeed as altitude increases. As the indicated airspeed
decreases with altitude, it progressively merges with the low speed buffet boundary where pre-stall buffet occurs for the
airplane at a load factor of 1.0 G. The point where the high speed Mach indicated airspeed and low speed buffet boundary
indicated airspeed merge is the airplane’s absolute or aerodynamic ceiling. This is where if an airplane flew any slower it
would exceed its stalling AOA and experience low speed buffet. Additionally, if it flew any faster it would exceed M MO,
potentially leading to high speed buffet. This critical area of the aircraft’s flight envelope is known as “coffin corner.” All
airplanes are equipped with some form of stall warning system. Crews must be aware of systems installed on their airplanes
(stick pushers, stick shakers, audio alarms, etc.) and their intended function. In a high altitude environment, airplane buffet is
sometimes the initial indicator of problems.
Low - Speed Buffet- At high angles of attack, usually approximately 14 , and with low forward speed the airflow becomes
turbulent this is the low-speed buffet. The IAS at which this occurs is just above the stalling speed (VS), usually
approximately 1.05Vs, at which speed the stall-warning device should activate. The reference stalling speed (VSR) is 2 kt
above the speed that activates the stall-warning device and is approximately 6% above Vs.

High - Speed Buffet (Shock Stall)- We consider air to be incompressible at speeds less than four tenths the speed of sound
(M 0.4). That is, pressure is considered to have no effect on air density. At speeds higher than M 0.4 it is no longer practical
to make that assumption because density changes in the airflow around the aircraft begin to make differences to the behavior
of the aircraft.

At very high Mach numbers, the shockwave above the upper surface of the wing causes the airflow to become
turbulent towards the trailing edge of the wing, which results in small, rapid movements of the control surfaces; this is the
high-speed buffet. The speed at which it occurs is the maximum operating speed, VMO/MMO. Although it is not permitted it
is possible to inadvertently exceed Mmo in the cruise because of:
a. Gust upsets, or
b. Unintentional control movements, or
c. Passenger movement, or
d. When levelling from a climb.
Mach buffet occurs as a result of supersonic airflow on the wing. Stall buffet occurs at angles of attack that produce
airflow disturbances (burbling) over the upper surface of the wing which decreases lift. As density altitude increases,
the AOA that is required to produce an airflow disturbance over the top of the wing is reduced until the density altitude
is reached where Mach buffet and stall buffet converge (coffin corner). When this phenomenon is encountered, serious
consequences may result causing loss of airplane control.
At high altitude, if a large high speed jet transport aircraft will be cruising at a speed marginally above its critical Mach
number, and it will have a small shock wave on the wing. If such an aircraft over- speeds, the shock wave will rapidly grow
larger, causing the static pressure to increase sharply in the immediate vicinity of the shock wave. The locally increased
adverse pressure gradient will cause the boundary layer to separate immediately behind the shock wave, as shown in the
figure. This is called a ‘shock stall’. The separated airflow will engulf the tail area in a very active turbulent wake and cause
severe airframe buffeting - a very undesirable phenomenon.

A maximum speed needle on the ASI shows Vmo up to the altitude at which Vmo = Mmo and above which the
datum becomes Mmo. Because it is possible for Vmo/Mmo to be inadvertently exceeded and for the aircraft to encounter high-
speed buffet, as a result of speed excursions caused by turbulence or by making an emergency descent, a high-speed aural
warning device is fitted that will sound 10 kt above Vmo or 0.01M above Mmo to prevent any further unintentional excursion.
The maximum cruise altitude is limited by the minimum load factor. If this altitude is exceeded when there is
turbulence present the aircraft could experience a high-speed buffet.​
High speed buffet (shock stall) can seriously damage the aircraft structure, so an artificial warning device is installed that
will alert the pilot if the aircraft exceeds its maximum operational speed limit (VMO /MMO)* by even a small margin. The
high speed warning is aural (“clacker”, horn or siren) and is easily distinguishable from the “low speed” high angle of attack
“stick shaker” warning.

Aerodynamic buffet is a valuable stall warning, but it can damage the aircraft structure. Because of the higher dynamic pressure
when an aircraft is operating in the transonic speed region, any shock induced buffet will have a greater potential for severe
airframe damage. High speed buffet must be completely avoided.

The aircraft must therefore be operated in such a manner that a (safety) margin exists before aerodynamic buffet will occur.
Stall boundaries set a lower limit to the operating speed, according to the load factor. In the case of a high-speed aircraft, there
is also an upper limit which is due to the approach of shock stall and the associated buffet which occurs if the aircraft enters the
transonic speed range. The limits associated with these effects give the buffet boundaries.
As the EAS associated with a given Mach number falls with increased altitude, so the required CL, and hence angle of
attack, increases. This results in a reduction in the Mach number at which buffeting occurs, which results in a further reduction
in the permissible airspeed. This effect is made worse as the high angle of attack stall is approached, and by the time the
buffet boundary intersects the stall boundary the limiting Mach number may be well below its value at a lower angle of attack.
For a given aircraft there is a Mach number which, even at low angle of attack, cannot be exceeded because of the onset of
shock stall. The EAS corresponding to this Mach number falls as altitude increases, so the range of operating speeds is reduced
at both ends.

As the EAS associated with a given Mach number falls with increased altitude, so the required CL, and hence angle of attack,
increases. This results in a reduction in the Mach number at which buffeting occurs, which results in a further reduction in the
permissible airspeed. This effect is made worse as the high angle of attack stall is approached, and by the time the buffet
boundary intersects the stall boundary the limiting Mach number may be well below its value at a lower angle of attack.

Also, an increase in load factor (bank angle) requires an increase in lift at a given EAS, hence an increase in angle of attack and
a further reduction in limiting Mach number. Thus the greater the load factor (bank angle or gust), the more severe the limitation
due to buffeting.

At sea level there is a stall speed below which the aircraft cannot fly. As load factor increases, so does the stall speed
(proportional to the square root of the load factor). The curve of ‘g’ against EAS modifies the low speed stall boundary. It will
continue to rise until the ‘limit load factor’ is reached. The ‘limit load factor’ must never be exceeded. At the high speed end,
when g = 1, there is a limiting speed which must not be exceeded because of shock induced buffet. As the load factor increases,
so does the CL at given speed, and the limiting Mach number falls, slowly at first and then more rapidly.
This defines a buffet boundary, which eventually intersects the boundary of maximum permissible ‘g’ to constitute an overall
envelope like the outer curve depicted in Figure below:

Above a certain altitude the buffet boundary may intersect the stall boundary at a value of ‘g’ lower than the structural limit, as
shown in Figure above. This ‘point’ is another representation of “coffin corner”.

An increase in weight results in an increase in stall speed, and the stall boundary is moved to the right. It also results in an
increase in angle of attack at any given speed, so that the Mach number at which buffeting occurs is reduced, and the buffet
boundary is moved to the left. Finally, increase in weight implies a reduction in the maximum permissible ‘g’. Thus all the
boundaries are made more restrictive by an increase in weight.
Buffet behavior can be improved by devices other than section design. One way of doing this on the three-dimensional wing
is to introduce a series of bodies starting near the point of maximum thickness and extending beyond the trailing edge. These
are colloquially known as Küchemann carrots or Whitcomb bumps after the two people who first, independently, suggested
their use. The local flow fields produced by these bodies break up the shock wave when it moves towards the trailing edge,
thus improving the buffet behavior.​
WING TIP
STALLING
The Effect of Flap - Flap extension increases profile drag but has no significant effect on induced drag. At high angles of attack a
swept-wing aeroplane is more likely to experience tip stalling than a straight-winged aeroplane. When flap is lowered the downwash
over the flaps produces a balancing upwash over the outer portion of the wing that can be sufficient to increase the effective angle of
attack to the stalling angle at the wing tip, thus making it more likely to stall, which is an undesirable feature.

However, the lowered flap more than compensates for this effect in two ways:

a. It produces increased suction at the wing roots, thus restricting the spanwise outward flow of the boundary layer of the wing. This is
a beneficial effect because it weakens the initial strength of the wing-tip vortex.

b. It generates a vortex at the outboard end of the lowered flap that rotates in the same direction as the wing-tip vortex but the
interaction between the vortices decreases the magnitude of the wing-tip vortex. Thus, the already debilitated wing-tip vortices
decrease in size and are further weakened. However, the total amount of induced drag is unaffected because there are now two vortices
instead of one on each wing
The Prevention Of Wing - Tip Stalling Wing- Tip stalling is an undesirable feature because it can lead to control difficulties. It can be prevented
or its likelihood reduced by the inclusion of any one or more of the following design features in the construction of the wing:

a. Washout- The wing is constructed so that the angle of incidence decreases from root to tip; in this manner the wing is slightly twisted. This
ensures that the wing root reaches the critical stalling angle of attack before the wing tip for unswept wings.

b. Root Spoiler- The leading edge of the wing root is constructed so that it is much sharper than the rest of the wing leading edge.
Consequently, it is more difficult for the airflow to follow the leading edge and separates before the rest of the wing. A stall inducer, stall
strip or root spoiler can be fitted to the inboard section of the leading edge of the wing so that at high angles of attack the airflow over the
wing is spoilt and this induces the wing root to stall first.
c. Changing Camber- The camber of the wing is constructed in such a manner that it gradually increases from the root to the
tip. Thus, the tip produces proportionately more lift than does the root, which delays the stall of the tip behind that of the
root.

d. Slats and Slots. The inclusion of a slat or a slot in the design of the outer portion of the wings effectively increases the
stalling angle of the wing tips to greater than that of the wing root. The use of slats significantly increases the stalling
angle and CL MAX of the whole wing.
e. Aspect Ratio. High aspect ratio wings reduce the strength and size of the wing-tip vortices and cause an increased CL
MAX It also causes the stalling speed to increase and the stalling angle to decrease to be less than that of a low aspect ratio
wing. Induced drag is inversely proportional to the square of the aspect ratio. If the aspect ratio is doubled then the induced
drag is halved.
AIRCRAFT STALL
CHARACTERISTICS
At a constant mass and air density, the coefficient of lift (CL), and consequently the total amount of lift, is dependent on the
angle of attack. Graphically, lift increases almost linearly from an angle of attack of 0◦ to 4◦, and then at an increasing rate
to 15◦. Lift cannot be obtained without incurring the penalty of drag. At a specific angle of attack, depending on
circumstances, the lift generated is insufficient to sustain the aircraft in level flight. The angle of attack at which this occurs
is the stalling angle or critical angle and is the point at which CL MAX is attained. An aeroplane will not stall unless the
critical angle is exceeded. The magnitude of the critical angle is independent of the mass of the aeroplane, it is therefore the
same for all aeroplane masses; mass only affects the value of the airspeed at which the stall will occur.
The critical angle can be anywhere between 8◦and 20◦ to the relative airflow; its exact value is dependent on the type of stall
entry, the wing profile, the planform and the aspect ratio. Except at high Reynolds numbers, an aeroplane, in the same
configuration, in subsonic flight will always stall at the same critical angle of attack unless shock-induced separation occurs.
The commencement and spread of the stall is dependent on the wing design.

At angles of attack greater than the critical angle, the total drag and CD continue to increase but the total lift decreases
dramatically, as shown in Figure below:
A further consequence of increasing the angle of attack beyond the critical angle is that the stagnation point
will move aft along the lower surface of the wing. The wing will continue to produce some lift, albeit very
little, up to an angle of attack of 90◦.

The low-speed stall occurs at a particular angle of attack of the wing to the relative airflow- not at a specific
airspeed. As the angle of attack and CL increase, the IAS must be reduced to maintain the lift formula in
balance. The speed attained at the stalling angle is the stalling speed, which is directly proportional to the
aeroplane mass.
Factors Affecting the Low-Speed Stalling Angle
1) S l a t / Flap Setting: The use of leading-edge slats, be they automatic or manual, cause negligible drag but do delay
the stall to a higher angle of attack than would be possible without their use.They re-energise the boundary layer,
enlarge the low-pressure area over the upper surface of the wing, thus producing a larger CL MAX, and cause the
separation point to move further back from the leading edge of the wing. Leading-edge flaps have a similar effect and
can increase the maximum lift generated by 50%. Trailing-edge flaps when deployed will decrease the critical angle of
attack to between 8.5◦ and 14.0◦ and increase CL MAXby between 20% and 80%, depending on the flap type. A large
extension of trailing-edge flaps usually causes a considerable increase of drag and produces a low stalling angle but
contrary to this, extension of the triple slotted trailing-edgeflap, such as the Fowlerflap, increases the critical angle to
22.0◦ and significantly increases the CL MAX by approximately 110%. The greater the number of slots the higher is
the value of CL MAX .
2) Ice Accretion : The formation of ice on the surface of an aeroplane has a dramatically adverse effect on its
performance; frost has a similar effect. The most dangerous type of ice accretion is that which occurs when flying
through cumulonimbus clouds or through supercooled water droplets ahead of a warm front because of its rapid
accumulation. The effect that ice accretion has on an aeroplane’s performance includes:

a. increased mass; b. decreased total lift; c. decreased CL MAX - that is the most serious effect; d. increased total
drag; e. up to 25% increased stalling speed; f. reduced stalling angle; g. changed aerofoil shape; h. abnormal stalling
characteristics
 The Effect of Wing Design on the Low-Speed
Stall-
As the angle of attack increases, because of the
movement of the CP the pitching moment of
the wing changes and affects the angle of the
downwash impinging on the tailplane thereby
changing its pitching moment. Because the
greatest amount of lift is generated at the wing
Most aircraft are designed to have a nose- down roots, on entering the stall the CP moves aft on
pitching moment at the stalling angle. This occurs
because the CP moves rapidly aft at the stall,
a straight-winged aeroplane and, because the
increasing the wing restoring moment and reducing wingtips stall first, forward on a swept-wing
the angle of attack. This induces the wing to produce aircraft.
lift once more and is therefore a self-correcting
characteristic. The shape of the wing determines the
point of stall commencement and also the spread of
the stall across the wing surface.
Swept Wings: Of all wing
shapes, swept wings have the
greatest tendency to tip stall first
because of the spanwise flow of
the boundary layer. The three
elements that combine to form the
wing-tip vortex on swept-wing
aeroplanes are leading-edge
separation, flow around the wing
tips and spanwise boundary layer
flow. The greater the sweepback
the greater is the boundary-layer
spanwise flow and the magnitude
of the vortex drag. Increased
angle of attack also increases the
spanwise flow of the boundary
layer.
Swept wings produce a nose-up pitch tendency due to the separation of the thickened boundary layer from the upper surface of the wing tip
causing it to stall first, which induces the stall to spread across the wing from the tip to the root on the upper surface; consequently the CP moves
forward and in towards the wing root. This results in a decreased wing-restoring moment and the maximum downwash being concentrated
inboard, which increases its effect on the tailplane.
Although the effectiveness of the elevators is diminished by the turbulent airflow over the tailplane, the increased downwash on the tailplane
causes the tail moment to exceed the wing moment and causes the nose to pitch-up. Swept wings produce a nose-up pitch tendency due to the
separation of the thickened boundary layer from the upper surface of the wing tip causing it to stall first, which induces the stall to spread across
the wing from the tip to the root on the upper surface; consequently the CP moves forward and in towards the wing root. This results in a
decreased wing-restoring moment and the maximum downwash being concentrated inboard, which increases its effect on the tailplane. Although
the effectiveness of the elevators is diminished by the turbulent airflow over the tailplane, the increased downwash on the tailplane causes the tail
moment to exceed the wing moment and causes the nose to pitch-up.The CL for a swept wing is diminished in direct proportion to the cosine of
the sweep angle. This is because the effective fineness ratio of the wing to the airflow is increased, which decreases the acceleration of the airflow
over the upper surface of the wing.
Elliptical Wings
The commencement of the stall of
an elliptical wing is evenly spread
along the trailing edge and
progresses forward uniformly
towards the leading edge. The
reason for this is that the wing has
a constant lift coefficient from
root to tip and all sections of the
wing reach the stalling angle at
the same time. It is the most
efficient wing design but is
difficult to manufacture.
 The separation of the boundary layer from the upper surface of the
Rectangular Wings- wing for a rectangular, low aspect ratio, wing usually commences at
The stall of an unswept rectangular wing
the wing root at a point close to the trailing edge of the wing when
does not occur over the whole wing the angle of attack is approximately 8◦. It then gradually spreads
simultaneously, it commences at one outward and moves forward with increasing angle of attack until at
particular point usually at the wing root approximately 15◦ angle of attack it is located at between 15% and
near the trailing edge and spreads outward 20% of the length of the mean aerodynamic chord from the leading
and forward to the rest of the wing. This edge of the wing.
pattern of progression is caused by the lift
coefficient being much greater at the wing
root than at the wing tip.

An untapered wing has less downwash

moving inboard from tip to root and
therefore stalls at the root first, which is a
desirable feature. At or near the stall the
wing-tip vortices are large enough to affect
the airflow over the tailplane decreasing its
effective angle of attack.This causes a
tendency for the aircraft to pitch nose-up.
WING TIP
STALLING
The Effect of Flap - Flap extension increases profile drag but has no significant effect on induced drag. At high angles of attack a
swept-wing aeroplane is more likely to experience tip stalling than a straight-winged aeroplane. When flap is lowered the downwash
over the flaps produces a balancing upwash over the outer portion of the wing that can be sufficient to increase the effective angle of
attack to the stalling angle at the wing tip, thus making it more likely to stall, which is an undesirable feature.

However, the lowered flap more than compensates for this effect in two ways:

a. It produces increased suction at the wing roots, thus restricting the spanwise outward flow of the boundary layer of the wing. This is
a beneficial effect because it weakens the initial strength of the wing-tip vortex.

b. It generates a vortex at the outboard end of the lowered flap that rotates in the same direction as the wing-tip vortex but the
interaction between the vortices decreases the magnitude of the wing-tip vortex. Thus, the already debilitated wing-tip vortices
decrease in size and are further weakened. However, the total amount of induced drag is unaffected because there are now two vortices
instead of one on each wing
The Prevention Of Wing - Tip Stalling Wing- Tip stalling is an undesirable feature because it can lead to control difficulties. It can be prevented
or its likelihood reduced by the inclusion of any one or more of the following design features in the construction of the wing:

a. Washout- The wing is constructed so that the angle of incidence decreases from root to tip; in this manner the wing is slightly twisted. This
ensures that the wing root reaches the critical stalling angle of attack before the wing tip for unswept wings.

b. Root Spoiler- The leading edge of the wing root is constructed so that it is much sharper than the rest of the wing leading edge.
Consequently, it is more difficult for the airflow to follow the leading edge and separates before the rest of the wing. A stall inducer, stall
strip or root spoiler can be fitted to the inboard section of the leading edge of the wing so that at high angles of attack the airflow over the
wing is spoilt and this induces the wing root to stall first.
c. Changing Camber- The camber of the wing is constructed in such a manner that it gradually increases from the root to the
tip. Thus, the tip produces proportionately more lift than does the root, which delays the stall of the tip behind that of the
root.

d. Slats and Slots. The inclusion of a slat or a slot in the design of the outer portion of the wings effectively increases the
stalling angle of the wing tips to greater than that of the wing root. The use of slats significantly increases the stalling
angle and CL MAX of the whole wing.
e. Aspect Ratio. High aspect ratio wings reduce the strength and size of the wing-tip vortices and cause an increased CL
MAX It also causes the stalling speed to increase and the stalling angle to decrease to be less than that of a low aspect ratio
wing. Induced drag is inversely proportional to the square of the aspect ratio. If the aspect ratio is doubled then the induced
drag is halved.
Sweepback

& Stalling
Stalling is a potentially hazardous manoeuvre involving loss of height and loss of control. A pilot must be able to
clearly and unmistakably identify an impending stall so that it can be prevented. Different types of aircraft exhibit
various stall characteristics, some less desirable than others.

An effect of the planform area distribution is on the stall pattern of the wing. The desirable stall pattern of any wing is
a stall which begins on the root sections first.

Advantages of designing wing in such a way that wing roots stall first are as below:

a. Ailerons remain effective at high angles of attack

b. A favorable stall warning is available from the buffet on the empennage and aft portion of the fuselage, and
c. The loss of downwash behind the root usually provides a stable nose down moment to the aircraft.
Sweepback applied to a wing planform alters the lift distribution similar to decreasing taper ratio. Also, a predominating
influence of the swept planform is the tendency for a strong crossflow of the boundary layer at high lift coefficients.
The tendency of a swept-back wing to tip stall is due to the induced spanwise flow of the boundary layer from root to tip.

Since the outboard sections of the wing trail the inboard sections, the out- board suction pressures tend to draw the boundary
layer toward the tip.

The result is a thickened low energy boundary layer at the tips which is easily separated. This results in development of the
spanwise flow in the boundary layer. Slots, slats, sawtooth, vortilons and flow fences help to reduce the strong tendency for
spanwise flow.
If tip stall is allowed to occur on the swept wing, an additional complication results: the forward shift in the
wing center of pressure that creates an unstable nose up pitching moment.
An additional effect on sweepback is the reduction in the slope of the lift curve and size of the maximum lift coefficient.
When the sweepback is large and combined with a low aspect ratio the lift curve is very shallow and maximum lift
coefficient can be achieved at very high angles of attack.

Such drastic angles of attack are impractical in many respects.

If aircraft is operated at such high angles of attack

a. an extreme landing gear configuration is required

b. induced drag is extremely high, and
c. the stability of the airplane may seriously deteriorate.

When a wing of a given planform has various high lift devices added, the lift distribution and stall pattern can be affected.
Deflection of trailing edge flaps increases the local lift coefficients in the flapped areas and since the stall angle of the flapped
section is decreased, initial stall usually begins in the flapped area. The extension of slats allows the slatted areas to achieve
higher lift coefficients and angles of attack and generally delays stall in that vicinity. Also, power effects may adversely affect
the stall pattern of the propeller powered aircraft.

When the propeller powered airplane is at high power and low speed, the flow induced at the wing root by the slipstream may
cause considerable delay in the stall of the root sections. Hence, the propeller powered airplane may have its most undesirable
stall characteristics during the power-on stall rather than the power- off stall.
A situation can occur when an aircraft is flying at high AOA, for example, on the approach to landing, where due to losses
incurred by strong wingtip vortices in this situation, one wingtip may stall while the remainder of the main plane is still
lifting. This will result in more lift being produced by one wing, than the other, resulting in a roll motion towards the stalled
wingtip. Obviously If This Happens At Low Altitude, the aircraft might sideslip into the ground. Thus wingtip stall is most
undesirable under any conditions and methods have been adopted to reduce losses at the wingtip.

Three of the most common methods for reducing induced drag and so, wingtip stall, are
a. to use washout,
b. introduce fixed leading edge spoilers or
c. use long narrow tapered wings.
If the AOI of the wing is decreased towards the wingtip, there will be less tendency for wingtip vortices to form at high
AOA, due to the fact that the wingtip is at a lower AOA than the remaining part of the wing.This Design method is known
as washout and the opposite i.e., an increase in the AOI towards the wingtip is known as wash-in. Some aircraft are fitted
with fixed spoilers on their inboard leading edge. These have the effect of disturbing the airflow and inducing the stall over
the inboard section of the wing, before it occurs at the wingtip, thus removing the possibility of sudden wingtip stall.
A leading-edge extension (LEX) is a small extension to an aircraft wing surface, forward of the leading edge. The
primary reason for adding an extension is to improve the airflow at high AOA and low airspeeds, to improve
handling and delay the stall. A dog tooth can also improve airflow and reduce drag at higher speeds.
Another method of reducing induced drag is to have long narrow tapered wings, i.e. wings with a high aspect ratio.
Unfortunately from a structural point of view a long narrow tapered wing is quite difficult to build, and this is often the
limiting factor in developing high aspect ratio wings. The result of this type of design is to create smaller vortices that are a
long way apart and therefore will not readily interact.
If the tips of the wing stall before the inboard section, however, one tip will invariably start to drop before the other, and as it
drops, its effective angle of attack will be increased, as illustrated in Fig.

The stall deepens on that tip, and it continues to fall. The aircraft thus starts to roll, and the opposite wing tip rises. On the
rising tip, the relative flow direction reduces the stalling tendency, and the tip still generates lift. The rolling moment is
thus sustained. The stalled tip produces more drag than the un- stalled one, and therefore, the aircraft also starts to turn or
yaw. This combination of rolling and yawing can lead to the classic dangerous spin condition.
The shape of the wing tip also influences its stalling characteristics. The use of rounded or chamfered tips, as seen in Fig.
below, produces stable separated conical vortex flow at high angles of attack, inhibiting tip stall.
The upwash or reduction in downwash at the tips produces problems, since, when the wing approaches the stalling angle, the
tips tend to stall first, giving the undesirable effects described earlier. On a swept-wing aircraft, the effect of tip stall is
particularly serious. As the tips lose lift, the centre of lift will move forwards, causing the aircraft to pitch nose-up, thereby
increasing the stall in a runaway manner. The problem of tip stall was encountered on many early swept-wing aircraft. One
solution is to sweep the wing forward.
Highly swept wings tend to produce the stable separated conical vortex type flow at relatively low angles of attack. Aircraft
designed to fly at twice the speed of sound or more, it becomes possible to use this type of flow for all flight conditions. On
the slender-delta-winged Concorde, the leading edge was made very sharp to provoke separation even at the low angles of
attack required at cruising speed. It was also warped along its length in such a way as to ensure that the vortices grew evenly
along the leading edge.

The separated vortex flow represents an alternative method of lift generation. The airspeed in the vortex is high, and so
the pressure is low. Thus, lift is still produced by exposing the upper surface to a low pressure than the lower surface;
this low pressure is produced due to the vortex motion above it.At low angle of attack the generation of lift is the same
as in the convention wing the effect of vortex lift comes into play only in high angles of attack.
With aircraft that have straight and unswept wings, the flow separation results in a poor ratio of lift to drag, and vibration due to
instability of flow. However in aircraft with swept wings, such as the Concorde delta wing design. The separated flow will roll up
into a pair of stable cone-shaped vortices. Unlike the bound vortex of a conventional wing, which merely represents the
circulatory tendency, these are real vortices of swirling mass of air like in a whirlwind.

The conical leading edge vortices extend downstream, and the usual trailing vortices are formed, as illustrated in Fig. One
advantage of this type of flow is that tip stalling does not occur, since the flow is already separated and stable.
Stick Shaker / Stick Pusher
Stall Warning System
Aerodynamic Stall Warning- To ensure the pilot is able to maintain positive control of the aeroplane at all times, it is essential that the speed at which this is
no longer possible, be known for each configuration of the aircraft. This speed is the stalling speed. The aeroplane may be considered stalled when the
behaviour of the aeroplane gives a clear distinctive indication of an unacceptable nature to the pilot that the aeroplane is stalled. Acceptable indications of a
stall, occurring either individually or in combination are:

a. A nose-down pitch that cannot be readily arrested.

b. Buffeting, of a magnitude and severity that is a strong and effective deterrent to further speed reduction. or
c. The pitch control reaches the aft stop and no further increase in pitch attitude occurs when the control is held full aft for a short time before recovery is
initiated.

The effectiveness of the controls, in particular the ailerons, will decrease as separation occurs. The most reliable aerodynamic indication of the approaching
stall is the vibration felt on the control column and/or the rudder pedals caused by the elevators and/or the rudder being buffeted by the separated turbulent
airflow over those control surfaces. Within a few degrees of the stalling angle the buffeting will become noticeable and will give adequate warning of the onset
of the stall. The severity of the pre-stall buffet is dependent on the position of the tail surfaces with respect to the turbulent wake. If a trailing-edge flap is used
it may decrease the severity of the buffet and therefore diminish the amount of warning.
Mechanical Stall Warning- To provide automatic stall warning to the pilot, the device installed has to be activated when the angle of attack attained is just
less than the stalling angle; this occurs when the stagnation point moves rearward along the lower surface of the wing. Either of two systems may be employed
to produce such a warning, they are - the flapper switch and -the angle of attack sensor. They must activate for each normal configuration at a speed of Vsw
(velocity of stall warning) + 5 kt or Vsw + 5%, whichever is the greater or when the speed is decreasing at a rate of less than 1 kt/s Vsw + 3 kt or Vsw + 3%
whichever is the greater. In icing conditions the system fitted to the aeroplane is likely to be frozen and may not operate.

The automatic procedure adopted for recovery action from the stall warning is:

a. Reduce the angle of attack below the warning-activation value by pushing the nose-down and preventing the stall developing.
b. Simultaneously, apply maximum thrust/power to minimize height loss
Many GA aircraft are installed with a reed sensor which does not require any electrical power. Airflow is directed from a
scoop in the wing leading edge and into a reed and horn assembly. In the pre-stall condition, the air pressure on the leading
edge reduces (relative to cabin pressure) because the stagnation point has moved. This draws air through the reed, causing it
to vibrate at an audible frequency (much like a musical instrument); this is amplified in an acoustic horn and the crew receive
a tone. An adjustable plate is used to alter the airflow intake such that the intake is aligned with stagnation point.
The Flapper Switch- The flapper switch is a vane fitted to the leading edge of the wing and positioned just below the airflow stagnation point in level flight.
The vane is fitted with an electrical contact, which when made activates the stall warning in the cockpit. For angles of attack up to a preset angle of attack,
which is just less than the stalling angle, the vane is closed and remains flush with the surface of the wing leading edge. The switch remains open and the
electrical circuit incomplete. As the angle of attack increases the stagnation point moves aft along the lower surface of the wing downward from the leading
edge of the wing. The vane is operated by the direction of the airflow over it, which is downward until the stagnation point on the leading edge of the wing is
below the flapper vane. When this occurs the airflow reverses its direction and flows upward, which opens the vane and closes the electrical switch that
completes the electrical circuit to the stall-warning device in the cockpit.
Pressure Sensing Sensor: Another angle of attack sensor technology is based on measuring the pressure at two points on
the sensor housing, seen in Fig. The conical housing rotates on its axis; slots A and B are connected to a pressure chamber
that contains a pivoted vane. The sensor housing aligns with the angle of attack because slots A and B maintain equal
pressures on the vane, and hence the conical housing.

If the angle of attack increases, slot B has increased pressure compared with slot A. The vane moves to re-align the housing
with the airflow to equalize the pressures in both slots. Rotation of the housing is detected by a potentiometer; the centre
contact picks off a signal voltage tapped from the resistance windings and this is used to measure the angle of attack.
The Angle of Attack Sensor- If the system requires a stick shaker and/or a stick pusher to be activated as well as the stall-warning device then it is necessary
to employ a more sophisticated accurate sensing device than the flapper switch. The angle of attack sensor is used for this purpose, which consists of a synchro
attached to an aerodynamic freely rotating vane protruding from the side of the fuselage near the nose of the aeroplane. When the sensor is initially installed
the vane and the synchro are aligned against the datum marked on the fuselage, at the most efficient angle of attack for the aeroplane in the clean
configuration. The synchro is electrically connected to the stall-warning system and the stick shaker and/or the stick pusher are activated when the
aerodynamic vane attains a preset angle of attack just before the stalling angle is reached. The electrical activation circuit includes a compensation device to
allow for the changed attitude of the aeroplane when flap is deployed. There is also a weight-on-wheels microswitch that prevents the system from operating
when the aeroplane is on the ground.

A viscous damper connected to the AoA vane stabilizes vane movements and reduces the effects of turbulence. The AoA sensor contains a heater that provides
continuous de-icing/anti-icing, prevents condensation and reduces changes in damper fluid viscosity.
Stick Pusher
Some systems include a stick pusher that initiates the stall recovery automatically if the pilot fails to respond to the stall warning. The system is
activated at a predetermined angle of attack, which is greater than that which activates the stick shaker and pushes the stick forward. Aircraft prone
to succumbing to a deep stall or superstall condition or excessive wing drop, such as those with swept wings, a high-speed wing section or a ‘T’ tail
configuration, have such a device always included in the design. This is because on those aeroplanes the airflow over the tailplane, which would
assist the stall recovery for a normal aeroplane, is absent; turbulent airflow virtually covers the whole tailplane, making it ineffective. The system
prevents the pilot from increasing the angle of attack any further.
On some aircraft, where the buffet preceding a stall is absent or could be confused with turbulence, in particular heavy aircraft with powered controls, a stick
shaker is incorporated to simulate the pre-stall buffet effect of turbulent airflow over the elevators.

On larger aircraft the stall warning system comprises an angle of attack vane and stick shaker. A motor is attached to one or both control columns; an
out-of-balance weight is attached to the motor shaft so that it vibrates when the motor is running. The motor design is matched to the control column to provide
a distinctive frequency of approximately 10–30 Hz together with physical movement of the controls. A sensor, on the angle of attack vane, that detects the
angle of attack and the rate of change of the angle of attack, feeds a signal to the stick-shaker motor when either parameter indicates an approach to the stall and
makes the control column vibrate at a similar frequency to that of the aerodynamic buffet. It operates when the IAS for a given configuration is at 1.05Vs. The
vane is a small aerodynamic wing protruding from the side of the fuselage that indicates the angle of attack visually on an appropriately etched scale.

If the pilots become distracted enough that they fail to notice an increasing angle of attack, to a point where the wing is about to cease producing sufficient lift,
an airplane equipped with a shaker/pusher system will get activated to save the day by reducing the angle of attack. More precisely, the stick shaker acts as a
stall-warning device, while the stick pusher’s job is one of stall avoidance.
The stick shaker is simply a motor with an eccentric (off-centre) weight that when energised causes a vibration on the control column. The system
is armed in flight at all times. The shaker portion of an AOA indicator is nothing more than a specially created electric motor with a flywheel
attached to a portion of the control wheel. When the AOA information gathered from the angle of attack vanes on the outside of the fuselage
increases beyond a set value, a signal is sent to the electronic flight controller that serves as the brains of the system. This computer compares the
current signal against a default value that indicates safe flight. If the AOA exceeds that value, an electric motor attached to the control wheel spins
a special flywheel that vibrates rapidly enough in fact to make the pilot’s hands shake and is impossible to ignore. The vibrations are a wake-up
call to the pilot to reduce angle of attack, an action that changes the electrical signal to the flight controller, halting the shaker.
Stall Warning System Function: The purpose of the stall warning system is to warn the pilot of an impending stall. It does so
when the aircraft approaches the stalling angle of attack for the current speed and configuration of the aircraft.

The regulatory margin between the stall and the stall warning is 5 knots or 5% of the CAS
whichever is the greater. The warning provided can be in the form of tactile, aural or visual or a combination of these
signals. Most aircraft have warning provided by stick-shakers which vibrate the control column
as well as produce a rattling noise. In fly-by-wire systems the warning consists of a cricket (insect)
sound, a synthetic voice STALL message and the red master WARNING light illumination.

The stall warning continues until the angle of attack is reduced to approximately that at which the stall warning was
initiated.

The stall warning module processes the signals from the various inputs to produce appropriate
stall warning output signals. The system has the following inputs:
• angle of attack
• flap and slat positions
• landing gear weight-on position
• airspeed
The output signals from the system can be applied to:
• a stick-shaker motor
• an angle of attack indicator aural warning
• synthetic voice warning
• red master WARNING light

A stall protection system may be fitted to large commercial aircraft, to prevent them from
entering the stall. In fly-by-wire systems, the flight computer will not allow the aircraft to
approach the stall. In other aircraft an output from the AFCS advances the throttles to full
power if there is a deceleration to below 1.2VS. On aircraft which have a T-tail a stick-pusher
may be fitted, to push the control column forward in the event that the aircraft slows to 2 kt
above the stall speed. This will prevent the aircraft entering a deep stall, from which there is
little or no chance of recovery.
A Block Diagram of the
component parts of a stall warning
system and an angle of attack
sensor
The Requirements of a Starting System
In order to start a gas turbine engine there are three basic requirements:
a) The compressor/turbine assembly must be rotated to get air into the combustion chambers.
b) Fuel must be provided in the combustion chambers.
c) Ignition must also be provided in the combustion chambers to start the air/fuel mixture burning.
Along with these basic requirements are two others:
a) The necessity to motor over the engine with no igniters operating. This is sometimes called a’ blow out’
or ‘motoring over cycle’. The necessity to motor over the engine will usually only occur when there has
been a failure to start, sometimes called a “wet start” where the engine is dried out by motoring it over, or
after a “hot-start” where the engine is cooled down by motoring it over.
b) The need for the igniters to be operated independent of the start cycle.
Starter Motor
There are several methods of obtaining engine rotation upon engine start. The most common methods of
rotating the HP compressor on modern civil aircraft are:
a) The Air Starter Motor.
b) The Electric Starter Motor.
Any starter system will have a ‘duty cycle’ the time limit that the starter is allowed to be ‘energized’ and
may have to be followed by a cooling down period before re-energizing.
The Air Starter Motor
The air starter motor is the most popular starting system presently in use. It is light, simple to use and very
economical utilizing low pressure air. The air starter motor is fastened to the accessory gearbox of the
engine.

The sources of air available for engine start, in order of preference they are:
a) The Aircraft APU.
b) The Ground Power Unit.
c) A Cross-bleed Start, where air from an already started engine is used.
The Electric Starter Motor: The electric starter motor was the original means of starting a gas turbine
engine and is still used in smaller executive jets and helicopters, however it has fallen out of favour in
modern larger engines because of its weight. Rapidly becoming more popular on smaller engines is the
starter/generator combination which because of its dual purpose has a greater usefulness / weight ratio.
As with the majority of the other starting systems, the starter motor is attached to the engine accessory
gearbox and drives the compressor when it rotates. Most electric starter motors incorporate an automatic
release clutch device to disengage the starter drive from the engine drive.
The mechanism performs three functions,

- it prevents excessive starting torque being applied to the engine,

- it acts as an overrunning clutch when the engine accelerates up to idle speed, and -
- it performs the task of disengaging the starter from the engine.

The starter/generator connection to the accessory gearbox is different from that of the straightforward starter
motor. It remains permanently engaged to the gearbox. Also, its control circuitry is much more complicated.
Operation of the Blowout Cycle: A blowout or motoring over cycle may be required if fuel had been put
into an engine during an unsuccessful attempt to start. To prevent “torching”, the fuel has to be allowed to
drain away or evaporate (blown out) before another attempt can be made to start the engine.
To do this, the starting circuit has the facility whereby the starter motor can be activated without the use of
fuel or ignition.

In most modern turbofan engines the air turbine starter motor will have a ‘duty cycle’ of 3-5 minutes! If the
engine fails to light up within the specified time limit then the fuel and ignition switch may be selected off
but the starter motor will continue to turn the compressor and ‘blow out’ the unburnt fuel until a second
attempt to start is carried out. This of course must be within the ‘duty cycle’ of the starter.
The Hot Start
It is really only possible to determine that a hot start is happening by comparing its indications to those
of a normal start. The EGT can initially rise as normal, the rapid acceleration towards the EGT limit
only becoming apparent a few seconds into the start.

In many cases the only chance of stopping the temperature limit being exceeded lies in having the
ability to switch off that engine’s fuel and ignition switch as quickly as possible. Waiting for instructions
or discussing the indications will almost certainly cost a new engine (hence keeping your finger on the
fuel and ignition switch). If the EGT does exceed the limit by only one degree the engine is to be
considered unserviceable.

The reasons for a hot start lie almost entirely in having too much fuel and not enough air to cool the
gases through the turbine.

This can be caused by a variety of reasons, such as the throttles either not being set to idle during the
preflight check or being knocked away from the idle position, or alternatively the engine not rotating
fast enough or partial seizure because of ice. This is a very common fault and is most likely to be caused
by a tailwind during the second start of the day. The residual heat in the engine adding to the problem.

https://youtu.be/im_WKy0bdOk
The Wet Start: The failure to start, more commonly known as the wet start, is indicated by the EGT not
rising and the engine rpm stabilizing at the maximum that the starter motor can achieve. It may be some
time before it is realized that the problem is a wet start, starting malfunctions on gas turbine engines are rare
and always come as a surprise, except in the simulator, where they will become the norm. This long period,
during which fuel is being pumped into the engine, means that the engine is becoming saturated with it.
This is confirmed by the fuel flow meter indication. The danger exists that this fuel, if ignited, will cause a
very large jet of flame to issue from the exhaust system, the phenomenon called ‘torching’.

To prevent this happening, before attempting a second

start a “motoring over” or “blow out” cycle must be
carried out. In preparation for the “blow out”cycle, do
not terminate the start cycle when the ‘wet start’ is
diagnosed, just close the HP fuel and ignition switch
and allow the starter to continue to turn the compressor
for a specified time before attempting a restart.
The Hung Start: The indications of a ‘hung start’ are the EGT being higher than would be expected for the
rpm at which the engine has stabilized, which is lower than self-sustaining speed.

This high EGT is not greater than the limit, however, maintaining the engine in this state will do it no good
at all, and could do it a great deal of damage.

A hung start occurs when the engine lights off normally but doesn't accelerate to idle RPM. This is usually
the result of insufficient power to the engine from the starter.

The HP cock must be closed and the problem investigated, the usual answer being the fact that there is not
sufficient airflow through the engine to support efficient combustion (e.g. contaminated compressor).
This of course means that the gases from the combustion chambers will not have sufficient power to assist
the starter motor in accelerating the engine beyond self-sustaining speed, once the starter motor cycle has
finished, the engine rpm remains stable below the figure that will enable it to accelerate away to idle speed.

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All gas turbine engines have a dual ignition system fitted and they all use high energy (HE) igniter units for
engine starting. HE ignition systems have an output of approximately twelve joules (one watt equals one
joule per second).

Turbine engine ignition systems are operated mostly for a brief period during the engine-starting cycle, they
more trouble-free than the typical reciprocating engine ignition system. The turbine engine ignition system
does not need to be timed to spark during an exact point in the operational cycle. It is used to ignite the fuel
in the combustor and then it is switched off. Other modes of turbine ignition system operation, such as
continuous ignition that is used at a lower voltage and energy level, are used for certain flight conditions.

The fuel in turbine engines can be ignited readily in ideal atmospheric conditions, but since they often
operate in the low temperatures or high altitudes, it becomes necessary that the system be capable of
supplying a high heat intensity flow of sparks. Thus, a high-voltage is supplied to arc across a wide igniter
spark gap, providing the ignition system with a high degree of reliability under widely varying conditions of
altitude, atmospheric pressure, temperature, fuel vaporization, and input voltage.
A typical ignition system includes two exciter units, two transformers, two intermediate ignition leads, and
two high-tension leads. Thus, as a safety factor, the ignition system is actually a dual system designed to fire
two igniter plugs.
Continuous ignition is used in cases where possibility of engine flame out exists. This ignition could relight
the fuel and keep the engine from stopping. Examples of critical flight modes that use continuous ignition
are takeoff, landing, and some abnormal or adverse weather conditions and emergency situations.

The use of the high energy ignition system on these occasions would cause the igniter plug to be eroded so
quickly that it would shorten its working life dramatically. To minimize this, some aircraft engines are fitted
with a combination ignition system which includes a low energy (three to six joules) continuous selection as
well as the high energy (six to twelve joules) starting selection.

Using the ignition system in order to relight only requires a low Joule output value from the igniter system.
Besides this, lower Joule output results in a longer life of the igniter system and igniter plug. Thus, to suit
all engine operation conditions the igniter system is designed to be capable of delivering both high and low
Joule outputs.
Ignition within an engine gas turbine is established by using a high-energy (HE) unit. Attached to the
HE unit is an igniter plug that will arc to ignite the fuel/air mixture in the combustion chamber.

The high energy or exciter unit, is powered by the aircraft electrical system, either AC or DC. The electrical
energy received is stored until it is dissipated as a high voltage, high amperage discharge at a predetermined
value through the igniter plug. An ignition unit carries a joule rating. Joules are defined as power (Watt)
multiplied by time (Seconds). This means one Joule equals one watt. The amount of Joules output greatly
depends on engine requirements and may vary between different types of engines. A high Joule rating may be
necessary for engine start-up or relighting at high altitudes after a flameout occurred. Joule output can be
mathematically found as well as why the ignition charge is lethal by the following equation. For example, a
turbine engine ignition system is able to store 2.500 VDC with an ionizing voltage of 700 VDC at the igniter
plug. The current in the system is 220 amps and the plug arcs in 40 millionths of a second.
The High Energy Ignition Unit: The high
energy ignition unit works on the principle of
charging up a very large capacitor and then
discharging it across the face of an igniter
plug. The actual size of the capacitor makes
it potentially a lethal device, and several
safety factors have to be built into the high
energy ignition unit (HEIU) to make it
conform to safety regulations. With the
supply connected, the primary coil and the
trembler mechanism are fed with 28 volts
DC. The trembler mechanism works in a
manner similar to an electric bell, and by
doing so causes the primary coil input to
become a sawtooth waveform. This is a very
crude form of AC and by transformer action
the voltage is passed to the secondary coil
where its voltage is boosted to 25 000 volts.
A functional schematic diagram of a typical capacitor-type turbine ignition system. A 24-volt DC input
voltage is supplied to the input receptacle of the exciter unit. The system provides a voltage that causes a
pulse of current to flow into the storage capacitor through the rectifier, which limits the flow to a single
direction. With repeated pulses, the storage capacitor assumes a charge, up to a maximum of
approximately 4 joules. (Note: 1 joule per second equals 1 watt.) The storage capacitor is connected to the
spark igniter through the triggering transformer. When the spark igniter is active, the storage capacitor
discharges the remainder of its accumulated energy along with the charge from the capacitor in series with
the primary of the triggering transformer. The spark rate at the spark igniter varies in proportion to the
voltage of the DC power supply that affects the rpm of the motor.
Capacitor Discharge Exciter Unit: This capacitor- type system provides ignition for turbine engines. Like other
turbine ignition systems, it is required only for starting the engine; once combustion has begun, the flame is
continuous. The energy is stored in capacitors. Each discharge circuit incorporates two storage capacitors; both are
located in the exciter unit. The voltage across these capacitors is stepped up by transformer units. At the instant of
igniter plug firing, the resistance of the gap is lowered sufficiently to permit the larger capacitor to discharge across
the gap. The discharge of the second capacitor is of low-voltage, but of very high energy. The result is a spark of
great heat intensity, capable of not only igniting abnormal fuel mixtures but also burning away any foreign deposits
on the plug electrodes.
Igniter Plugs: The igniter plug of a turbine engine ignition system differs from the spark plug of a
reciprocating engine ignition system. Its electrode is able to withstand a current of much higher energy than
the electrode of a conventional spark plug. This high energy current can quickly cause electrode erosion, but
the short periods of operation minimize this aspect of igniter maintenance. The electrode gap of the typical
igniter plug is designed much larger than that of a spark plug since the operating pressures are much lower
and the spark can arc more easily than in a spark plug. Finally, electrode fouling, common to the spark plug,
is minimized by the heat of the high-intensity spark.
Summary:

There are three components of a turbine engine ignition system: the exciter, the ignition lead, and the igniter.
The exciter takes input current from the aircraft electrical system, steps up the voltage, and delivers a high
voltage output signal through the ignition lead to the igniter. The igniter sparks once its gap is ionized and
the field between the center electrode and igniter shell breaks down- and a flow of high energy sparks is
obtained for fuel-air mixture light-up.

The normal rate of sparking of the HEIU is between 60 - 100 sparks per minute, this is completely
random, and anyone listening at the jet pipe before engine start, if relight is selected, should
hear an unsynchronized beat when both units on the engine are working correctly.

The ignition system is activated when the engine start sequence is initiated either automatically or by the
operation of the HP cock, start lever or fuel and ignition switch. The igniters are automatically deactivated at
some point after self-sustaining speed typically by a speed switch in the HP rpm indicator (N2).

Boeing B737 Engine Start Sequence: https://youtu.be/GalRE1lP7pM

Full Authority Digital Engine Control
(FADEC)
FAA and other Regulatory Authorities across the world identify electronic engine control (EEC),
which ranges from electronic ignition through full authority digital engine control (FADEC), as a
safety enhancement to GA aircraft. These systems can decrease pilot workload and provide
engine monitoring capability that can alert operators of certain mechanical problems.

As with automobiles, fewer mechanical parts on aircraft equals increased reliability which, in
turn, increases maintenance intervals and reduces maintenance expense. You may also see an
increase in fuel efficiency. But, to get all the benefits from digital technology, you’ll have to cede
at least some engine control to computers. There are a couple of ways to do that.The first way is
through EEC. With EEC, we get electronic ignition and some computer control such as ignition
timing and air/fuel mixture. EEC is also more reliable than magnetos.
Digital Electronic Control System: Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) means just
that. There is no direct pilot control over the engine or manual control mode. If the FADEC fails,
the engine fails. However, system redundancy makes it much less likely for a FADEC system to
fail than a traditional magneto system. In fact, a double magneto failure is statistically more
likely than a FADEC failure.

FADEC systems are:

- autonomous,
- self-monitoring,
- self-operating, and
- redundant.

Primary functions of the electronic engine control:

- maintain stable thrust
- smooth repeatable performance during transient
- stable airflow, pressure, temperature and rotor speed
- avoid stall/surge and significant T, p or speed variations
Secondary Functions of EEC/ FADEC:
- Engine startup and shutdown
- bleed and power extraction
- inlet anti-icing
- hot-gas protection
- tip clearance control (active clearance control)

The FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control) is a total system for the control of an
engine. It controls all aspects of aircraft engine performance. In simpler words, FADEC is a
computer that controls the engine of the aircraft, just like Fly-by-wire but in an engine’s aspect.

FADEC’s main purpose is to provide optimum engine efficiency for a given flight condition.
FADEC controls the aircraft’s engine and propeller in order to perform at a maximum efficiency.
It does this by controlling the power of the reciprocating engine and by adjusting the amount of
fuel injection during the combustion process.
FADEC controls and regulates the fuel pump, providing to the engine the necessary amount of
fuel for safe and controlled operation. The FADEC system also continuously monitors and
controls ignition timing, fuel injection timing, and fuel -to-air ratio mixture.

Certain input variables necessary for the flight such as air density, engine temperature and
engine pressure are fed into the system. Since FADEC is more or less a computer that has no
manual override, it operates with certain limits provided by the manufacturer of each engine
aircraft. During piston aircraft starting, the FADEC primes the cylinders, adjusts the fuel to air
mixture, and positions the throttle based on engine temperature and ambient pressure. During
cruise flight, the FADEC constantly monitors the engine and adjusts fuel flow, and ignition
timing individually in each cylinder.

The FADEC also allows the manufacturer to program engine limitations and receive engine
health and maintenance reports. For safety, FADEC is housed with a separate generator with two
channels (A and B) to prevent a total failure. The two channels are housed in one assembly but
physically separated. If one channel fails completely, the other channel will take over and it is
unlikely that both channels would fail. Aircraft input power of 12V (or 24V) DC is necessary for
back-up power.
The FADEC also allows the manufacturer to program engine limitations and receive engine health and
maintenance reports. For safety, FADEC has its own power supply with two channels (A and B) to prevent a
total failure. The two channels are housed in one assembly but physically separated. If one channel fails
completely, the other channel will take over and it is unlikely that both channels would fail. Aircraft input
power of 12V (or 24V) DC is necessary for back-up power.

The FADEC system is a redundant system which includes the following components that will be installed on
the engine or the airframe:
- Two Master Power Control Units("MPC-1" And "MPC-2")
- Sensors For Manifold Temperature And Pressure
- Cylinder Head Temperature (CHT) Sensor
- Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) Sensor
- Speed Sensors
- Speed Sensor Assembly
- Fuel Pressure Sensors
- Low Voltage Harness
- High Voltage Harness
- Throttle Body Assembly
- Health Status Annunciator(HSA)
- Fuel Injection System
FADEC SYSTEM DESCRIPTION: Each MPC unit has a lower portion and an upper portion.
The lower portion contains an electronic circuit board; the upper portion houses the ignition
coils. The Electronic circuit board contains two, independent microprocessor based controllers
called "control channels".

Each control channel monitors the current operating conditions and manages its cylinder in a
manner that will yield maximum operating performance and efficiency within specified
operating parameters. If operating conditions change, the control channel adjusts both the fuel
mixture and ignition parameters to return the engine function to normal operating parameters.
The control channels also receive input from the pilot via the throttle control thereby
eliminating manual mixture control.

The FADEC system continuously monitors fuel and ignition conditions. The MPC units receive
information from sensors via the harness which interfaces with the MPC units.
Sensor input to each control channel includes engine speed, crank position, fuel pressure, intake
manifold air pressure, inlet air temperature and throttle position. In addition, each control channel
also receives signals for measuring its turbine inlet and exhaust gas temperatures.

The control channels in the MPC units use the signals from sensors to determine the required fuel
mixture and ignition timing for its fuel-air combustion event.

The FADEC system is electrically powered and not self-excited. As such, the system requires
two, independent power supply sources. Typically one source will be the aircraft's primary
electrical bus, referred to as Primary Power. The second source, referred to as Secondary Power,
may be a second aircraft bus, an engine driven generating device, or a battery. Electrical power to
the FADEC system is controlled from the cockpit by two switches used to interrupt the Primary
Power and Secondary Power.

In modern aircraft, FADEC has magnetic alternator for its own internal power supply. FADEC
includes engine sensors, control logics & laws, the fuel metering device & interfaces with the
aircraft computers.
The FADEC installed on turbojet/ turboprop aircraft monitors inputs such as:

● Shaft speeds
● Engine temperatures
● Oil pressures
● Actuator positions
● Power setting

and then sets fuel flow, variable stator vanes, and air bleed valves.

EEC or ECU is the main component of FADEC. It controls the engine actuation system
depending upon the situation and the commands received from cockpit. It receives data from all
the sensors, commands from cockpit. It processes the data and figures out what control
commands need to be given to the actuation system and then execute them.
The efficiency of aircraft gas turbine engines is sensitive to the distance between the tips of its
turbine blades and its shroud, which serves as its enclosing structure. Maintaining tighter
clearance between these components has been shown to increase turbine efficiency, increase fuel
efficiency, and reduce the turbine inlet temperature, and this correlates to a longer time-on-wing
for the engine. Therefore, there is a desire to maintain a tight clearance in the turbine, which
requires fast response active clearance control.

Active clearance control (ACC) of the high pressure turbine (HPT) is one of the techniques that
designers use to increase performance of aircraft engines. In most of the new large commercial
engines, the clearance of turbine case is controlled through cooling using compressor bleed air by
a control system. FADEC system controls clearance between tip of the blade and the casing by
controlling size of annulus for cooling airflow. In addition, the ACC system utilizes mechanically
actuated seal carrier segments and clearance measurement feedback to provide fast and precise
active clearance control throughout engine operation. The purpose of this active clearance control
system is to improve upon current case cooling methods.
Flaps Flaps are the most common high-lift devices used on aircraft. These surfaces, which are attached to the trailing edge
of the wing, increase both lift and induced drag for any given AOA. Flaps allow a compromise between high cruising speed
and low landing speed because they may be extended when needed and retracted into the wing’s structure when not needed.
There are four common types of flaps: plain, split, slotted, and Fowler flaps.

Some flaps are located on the trailing edge of the wing, usually inboard close to the fuselage, and are referred to as trailing
edge flaps. These surfaces contribute to the camber of the wing airfoil in most cases, as well as to the area of the wing in
other cases. By increasing the angle of attack of the wing, and in some cases the area of the wing, they allow the aircraft to
fly at lower speeds, which may be needed for takeoff and landing or for times of increased maneuverability.
We will look at four types of flaps: plain, split, slotted, and fowler; and as you can see there
are designs where the benefit of one design is combined with another.

The plain flap is the simplest design and usually used to describe the advantages and
purpose of flaps. As the flaps are deployed, the camber of the wing increases and the CL
increases accordingly with the angle of attack.

The farther the flaps are deployed, the greater the lift and the resulting drag. A split flap is
deployed from underneath the wing, and results in more drag initially than the plain flap due
to the disruption of the flow of air around the bottom and top of the wing.

When the flaps are slotted, at high angles of attack high energy air is allowed to move
through the slot and energize the air on top of the deployed flap. This allows for an increase
in CL at lower speeds, allowing an aircraft to operate out of shorter landing strips or with
obstacles surrounding the airport. The highly energized air also delays boundary layer
separation, which lowers the stalling speed, improving performance at slow speeds.

Fowler flaps are commonly found on larger transport category aircraft, as they are heavier
than the other flap designs and incorporate more complex systems to operate. Fowler flaps
slide out and back from the wing, which offers the benefit of not only increasing the camber
of the wing but also of the wing area. Fowler flaps also double as slotted flaps in that they
allow higher- energy air from beneath the wing to flow over the deployed flap area.
Figure shows the effects of pure
camber changers on the coefficient of
lift curves; as you can see, the
maximum CL has increased with the
addition of trailing edge flaps, and the
CL curve has shifted to the left.

Thus
- More amount of CL is available
on deployment of flaps and
- The maximum amount of CL
after deployment is achieved at a
lower value of AOA compared to
wing with no deployment of The plain flap shown in figure is a simple hinged portion of the trailing
flaps. edge. The effect of the camber added well aft on the chord causes a
significant increase in CLMAX. In addition, the zero lift angle changes to
The high lift device applied to the a more negative value and the drag increases greatly.
trailing edge of a section consist of a
flap which is usually 15 % to 25 % of
the chord. The deflection of a flap
produces the effect of a large amount
of camber added well aft on the chord.
The effectiveness of flaps on a wing configuration depend on many
different factors. One important factor is the amount of the wing area
affected by the flaps. Since a certain amount of the span is reserved
for ailerons, the actual wing maximum lift properties will be less than
that of the flapped two-dimensional section. If the basic wing has a
low thickness, any type of flap will be less effective than on a wing of
greater thickness. Sweepback of the wing can cause an additional
significant reduction in the effectiveness of flaps.
The split flap shown in fig. consist of plate deflected from the lower surface of the section and produces a slightly greater
change in CLMAX than the plain flap. However, a much larger change in drag results from the great turbulent wake produced
by this type flap. The greater drag’ may not be such a disadvan- rage when ir is realized that it may be advantageous to
accomplish steeper landing approaches over obstacles or require higher power from the engine during approach

The slotted flap is similar to the plain flap but the gap between the main section and flap leading edge is given specific
contours. High energy air from the lower surface is ducted to the flap upper surface. The high energy air from the slot
accelerates the upper surface boundary layer and delays airflow separation to some higher lift coefficient. The slotted flap can
cause much greater increases in CLMAX, than the plain or split flap and section drags are much lower.
The Fowler flap arrangement is similar to the slotted flap. The difference is that the deflected flap segment is moved aft along
a set of tracks which increases the chord and effects an increase in wing area. The Fowler flap is characterized by large
increases in CLMAX with minimum changes in drag.

One additional factor requiring consideration in a comparison of flap types is the aerodynamic twisting moments caused by
the flap. Positive camber produces a nose down twisting moment-especially great when large camber is used well aft on the
chord. The deflection of a flap causes large nose down moments which create important twisting loads on the structure and
pitching moments that must be controlled with the horizontal tail. Unfortunately, the flap types producing the greatest
increases in CLMAX, usually cause the greatest twisting moments. The Fowler flap causes the greatest change in twisting
moment while the split flap causes the least. This factor- along with mechanical complexity of the installation- is the deciding
factor during the choice of a flap configuration.
Fig. shows an example of the several common types of flaps
and leading edge devices and their effect on CL.
To control an aircraft it is necessary to overcome its stability. The farther forward the CG of the airplane is, the more static
pitch stability the airplane has. However, since stability and control oppose each other, the forward CG results in lower
controllability. This may work for commercial aircraft types, but not for a military jet where control and maneuverability
are vital for mission effectiveness.

Takeoff and landing maneuvers are critical as far as control forces are concerned; sufficient elevator forces are required to
overcome the stability of forward CG location. During takeoff, an aircraft must be able to rotate to takeoff attitude. Unlike
the airborne case, the aircraft rotates about its main wheels, rather than its CG, during takeoff. The forces on the aircraft are
shown in Fig. An aircraft attempting at a keoff with a CG forward of safe operating limitations may require increased
tail-down force to raise the nose, and experience increased stall speed, and need a longer takeoff distance.
In many aircraft little or no lift is developed until the aircraft is rotated to takeoff attitude. The angle of incidence of the wing
is selected to produce minimum drag, instead of producing lift, as the aircraft accelerates during the takeoff run. The nose-
down moments that the elevator must overcome to rotate the aircraft are
- 1) the moment caused by the thrust line being above the main wheels,
- 2) the moment caused by the CG being ahead of the main wheels (increased moment = increased elevator) and
- 3) the nose- down moment of either a cambered wing or takeoff flaps

The nose- down pitching moment is caused by ground effect, which reduces the downwash over the horizontal tail of a
low-tailed airplane. The elevator must be able to produce a nose-up pitching moment that will overcome all the nose-down
pitching moments mentioned above as an aircraft exits ground effect.
Some aircraft use a small amount of flap deflection setting for take off- if it provides advantage in terms of lift as
compared to penalties of drag. An aircraft has a specified configuration for normal take off. Setting flaps for
takeoff shortens the takeoff run.

Extending the flaps will increase the lift generated by the wings, enabling the aircraft to takeoff at a lower airspeed
and with a shorter ground run. It is useful on a shot runway, where it is important to lift off at lowest possible
speed.
Deploying flaps will result in increased drag. Thus power for takeoff and the rate of climb are reduced.

For short field takeoff requiring minimum ground run and steep climbing profile, flaps are deployed for the
following reasons:

- It allows required lift to be generated at lower airspeed

- It reduces stalling speed, thus allowing sage takeoff at a lower airspeed
- It gives best angle of climb airspeed, in turn giving greater excess power
- It is possible to enable a steeper angle of climb to be achieved because of low airspeed and increased
thrust.
 SPOILERS
DELIBERATE INCREASE OF DRAG
It is sometimes necessary to deliberately increase the total drag to decrease VIMD during certain manoeuvres.
Using one or more of the following high-drag devices achieve this aim by increasing the parasite drag:

a. Air- brakes;
b. spoilers;
c. barn-door flaps

Spoilers- A spoiler is a device on the upper surface of an airfoil that, when extended into the air flow, causes the
flow to separate, resulting in a loss of lift. Spoilers were originally used as a means of producing drag to slow an
aircraft down. The method most commonly used on large passenger- carrying aircraft to destroy the lift and
increase the drag, at the same angle of attack, is the aerodynamic spoiler sometimes referred to as a lift dumper.
Spoilers are flat metal plates or composite structure plates mounted on the upper surface of the wing that can be
extended upward into the airflow to diminish the lift generated, i.e. C L is decreased, and to increase the drag, i.e. CD
is increased. They are extended symmetrically to decrease the speed and/or increase the rate of descent. There are
three types of spoiler in current use:

a. flight spoilers;
b. ground spoilers; and
c. roll spoilers.
In the past, spoilers were not used as the sole primary source of roll control- because of their nonlinear characteristics.
At high angles of attack their effectiveness can be reduced or even reversed.

This nonlinear behavior is also reflected in the control forces that result from nonlinear hinge moments.
In addition, a lag can occur in reestablishing the attached flow pattern when the spoiler is retracted.​

The rolling moment is produced by the loss of lift on one side of the wing.
This results in an accompanying loss in altitude.​

Spoilers are fitted to most large aircraft, being used differentially (deployed on one wing and retracted on the other) to provide
roll control, or collectively (deployed simultaneously on both wings) to provide a means of increasing drag and reducing lift.​

The pilots manually control roll with the control wheels. When the autopilot is in autoland, the autopilot commands the flight
spoilers.
F l i g h t S p o i l e r s: In flight the spoilers are raised symmetrically to slow the aircraft in level flight or to increase the rate
of descent without increasing the airspeed. However, their use for this purpose on airliners is often limited because the noise
and vibration may give the passengers cause for concern. The spoilers can be deployed to enable an aircraft to descend in a
controlled manner at a speed above the maximum speed for flap operation (Vfo). When extended the spoilers destroy some of
the total lift generated and create a moderate increase to the total drag, which together diminish the lift/drag ratio. If the speed
and the load factor remain constant after the extension of the flight spoilers then CD increases but CL is not affected. The flight
spoilers help control the roll of the airplane. The flight spoilers operate in the air and on the ground. They use inputs from the
control wheel and the speedbrake lever.
Typical Flight Spoiler System: Two flight spoilers are located on the upper surfaces of each wing. The outboard
spoilers are powered by one hydraulic system, whilst the inboard spoilers are powered by a second system.
Hydraulic pressure shut-off valves are controlled by the two flight spoiler switches. The flight spoilers are
hydraulically actuated in response to movement of the aileron controls.
A spoiler mixer, connected to the aileron control system, controls the hydraulic PCUs on each spoiler panel to provide spoiler
movement proportional to aileron movement. Flight spoilers rise on the wing with the ‘up-going’ aileron and remain retracted
on the wing with the ‘down- going’ aileron. When the control wheels move, the cables move and control the aileron
PCUs. The PCU moves the mechanical linkages that move the left and right aileron wing cables. They provide inputs to the
spoiler ratio changer and mixer. The spoiler ratio changer moves the spoiler wing cables thus operating the control surfaces.

When engaged, the autopilot system gives mechanical input to the aileron system. The aileron PCUs supply inputs to the flight
spoiler actuators. The actuators move the flight spoilers if the flight control computers (FCCs) command is received.
The flight crew uses the control wheels and speed- brake lever to manually move the flight spoilers.
The autopilot controls them during Autoland. The flight crew uses the spoiler shutoff switches to close the spoiler shutoff valves.
This stops the hydraulic power to the flight spoiler actuators and the flight spoilers move down.
Ailerons are normally situated at the wing tips to give the greatest rolling moment for the force produced. However, this
means they are also able to generate the maximum twisting loads on the wing. For instance, a down-going aileron will twist
the wing tip and decrease wing tip incidence. The wing is not a rigid structure and any twist will cause a decrease of aileron
effectiveness. As IAS increases, a down-going aileron will give more wing twist (decreased wing tip incidence). Eventually,
an IAS will be reached at which the decrease in tip incidence will give a larger downforce than the up- force produced by the
aileron. This is called high speed “aileron reversal”; the wing will go down, rather than up as the pilot intended. To reduce
this effect, the ailerons could be mounted further inboard. Unfortunately, this would reduce aileron effectiveness at low speed.
Roll Control Spoilers: In low speed flight, where the wing may be close to the stall angle, the downward deflection of an
aileron will produce an increase in drag associated with the increased camber and onset of stalling, while the upgoing aileron
will produce a reduction. This causes the aircraft to turn towards the lowered aileron, which is the reverse of the normal
response.

Spoilers present a preferable solution. The operation of a spoiler causes a loss of lift, and the required rise in drag on the down
going wing. Spoilers are also used for control in high subsonic and supersonic flight, where conventional ailerons may either
lose their effectiveness, or become too effective.

If roll spoilers are used to augment the roll rate obtained from the ailerons, they will reduce the adverse yaw, as the down-going
wing will have an increase in drag due to the raised spoiler.
Spoilers may be used to give lateral control, in addition to, or instead of ailerons. Spoilers are the movable panels on the upper
wing surface, hinged at their forward edge, which are raised hydraulically, as illustrated in Figure. A raised spoiler will disturb
the airflow over the wing and reduce lift.

To function as a lateral control, the spoilers rise on the wing with the up-going aileron (down going wing), proportional to
aileron input. On the wing with the down-going aileron, they remain flush. Unlike ailerons, spoilers cannot give an increase of
lift, so a roll manoeuvre controlled by spoilers will always give a net loss of lift.

However, the spoiler has several advantages compared to the aileron:

• There is no adverse yaw: The raised spoiler increases drag on that wing, so the yaw is in
the same direction as the roll.
• Wing twisting is reduced: The aerodynamic force on the spoilers acts further forward than
is the case with ailerons, reducing the moment which tends to twist the wing.
• At transonic speed its effectiveness is not reduced by shock induced separation.
• It cannot develop flutter.
• Spoilers do not occupy the trailing edge, which can then be utilized for flaps.
G r o u n d S p o i l e r s: During the landing ground run after touchdown the aircraft is still travelling at a
relatively high speed that could cause the aircraft to become airborne again should there be a sudden gust of wind.
To prevent such an occurrence ground spoilers may be used after touchdown that totally destroy the remaining lift.
They also cause the support of the mass to be transferred from the wings to the undercarriage. This increases the
effectiveness of the brakes and decreases the likelihood of the aircraft skidding when the brakes are applied. These
spoilers can only be deployed if the weight-on ground sensing switch on the undercarriage oleo is closed first.
Together with reverse thrust, the form drag, caused by the spoilers, directly assists in halting the aircraft.
Ground Spoilers ( Lift Dumpers): During the landing run, the decelerating force is given by aerodynamic drag, reverse
thrust and the wheel brakes. Wheel brake efficiency depends on the weight on the wheels, but this will be reduced by any lift
that the wing is producing. Lift can be reduced by operating the speed brake lever to the lift dump position, shown in the
Figure. Both the wheel brake drag and the aerodynamic drag are increased, and the landing run is reduced. On many aircraft
types, additional spoiler surfaces are activated in the lift dumping selection than when airborne. These ground spoilers are
made inoperative in flight by a weight – on- wheels (WOW) switch on the undercarriage leg which is operated by the
extension of the leg after take-off. During speedbrake control, the spoilers on both wings move symmetrically. The pilots
manually command speedbrake control with a speedbrake lever. The autopilot does not control the speedbrake function.
The auto speedbrake function supplies automatic extension or retraction of all the spoilers during landing and rejected
takeoff.
INCIDENCE 1: Two major contradictory findings during the inspection of the Air India Express aircraft, which crashed in
Kozhikode, have left experts perplexed. While the Air India Express plane's cockpit throttle was found to be in the forward
position, the spoilers on the wings were partially open. The throttle's forward position indicates the aircraft could have been
trying to take off while the position of the spoilers indicates the aircraft was in a braking mode when the accident happened.

Thus, required amount of lift would not have been available to the aircraft due to deployed spoilers.

INCIDENCE 2: In October 2006, a BAe 146 airliner ran off a Norwegian airport runway and burst into flames, killing four,
because wing spoilers crucial to braking did not deploy, crash investigators said. Twelve of the 16 people aboard escaped
without serious injury. BAe 146 aircraft does not have thrust reversers on its engines for braking, but is completely dependent
on air braking, or spoilers. Lift from the wings combined with a damp runway caused water to vaporize under the main
wheels, and the braking power needed was gone. The crew did not abort the landing, and in a last attempt to stop, they steered
the aircraft down an incline,
HELICOPTERS
The main features considered for a helicopter are main rotor, a tail rotor, an engine, fuselage, and horizontal and vertical
stabilisers. The main rotor is unique in that as a single system it performs all the basic functions required for any air vehicle:
namely, propulsion, support and controllability.

The rotor system as an example is three bladed, with hinges to permit each of the blades to flap up and down with respect to
the vertical axis, lead and lag with respect to the azimuth position and to change blade pitch. This is known as a
fully-articulated rotor. The rotor blades are high aspect ratio rotating wings of non-symmetrical aerofoil section. The engine
(or engines) drive the main rotor through a gearbox or transmission, and the tail rotor is directly coupled to the main rotor,
normally by a drive shaft.
In a helicopter the loss of power from one engine does not introduce any asymmetric effect, as on a fixed-wing aircraft. In
the event of a total loss of engine power, the transmission incorporates a free wheel system which during the ensuing descent,
permits the rotors (main and tail) to rotate and also ensures continued operation of ancillary systems such as hydraulics and
electrics. This descent without power is known as autorotation.

In order to carry out the particular flight manoeuvres associated with a helicopter, a flight control system that can produce
both control and stability is employed. In a fixed-wing aircraft a pilot changes thrust by means of the power control (or
throttle), and changes the direction of flight by means of separate pitch-and-roll control surfaces. In a helicopter the control of
pitch and roll is combined with control of the magnitude of lift (or thrust). The flight control system must be capable of
changing both the magnitude and size of the thrust vector. In both types of aircraft yaw control is accomplished by
rear-mounted control surfaces; or devices, i.e. in a fixed-wing aircraft, the rudder; and in a helicopter, the tail rotor.
The main rotor controls in a helicopter are called the collective and the cyclic and their functions are as follows:
• Collective control changes the pitch of all the main rotor blades by the same amount (or collectively) with respect to the main rotor
shaft. In a general sense this controls the magnitude of the thrust vector.

• Cyclic control changes the pitch of the rotor blades individually with respect to azimuth as they move around the rotor disk. During
each cycle the blades will experience a variation in pitch in a cyclical manner. In a general sense this controls the direction of the thrust
vector.

An important control to counteract the reaction of the main rotor is the tail rotor. Typically, the tail rotor changes thrust only, and is
controlled by· the pedals. It must be able to provide thrust both to the left and the right, to cater for the great variety of wind and power
conditions that the helicopter will encounter.
A helicopter is able to descend or ascend vertically, to fly with
no airspeed and (within limits) to maintain a ground position
with winds from any direction. In forward flight it is able to
perform nearly all of the manoeuvres of a fixed-wing aircraft.
Rotor system : A rotor blade on a helicopter is subject to a tremendous variety of airspeeds and stresses. In order to remove
the stresses and prevent a large dissimilarity of lift from one side to another (discussed later) a variety of methods of hinging
the blades has been developed. There are several types of rotor system in common use, namely:
• Semi-rigid or teetering, • Articulated, • Hingeless.

The semi-rigid or teetering type of rotor system is found only on the

two- bladed helicopter. It has an underslung hinge and rigidly
connects the two blades. Differences in lift are compensated by
letting the two blades find their own equilibrium,
and differences in drag force between the two blades are absorbed in
the head. This type of rotor head has the advantage of being simple
and easy to maintain; it takes up very little room in a hangar and has
good hover efficiency. It can be prone to vibration,
produces a pronounced two-bladed noise and does not tolerate low
'g' flight conditions
unless specifically designed for these manoeuvres.
The articulated rotor system incorporates three hinges close to the
hub. The reasons for these hinges is beyond the scope of this book,
as they involve very complex aerodynamic and physical
descriptions. The hinges are known as:
• Flapping hinges that permit the blades to flap up and down with
respect to the main rotor hub to achieve equality of lift across the
rotor disk.
• Dragging hinges that permit the blades to lead and lag in azimuth
from a nominal position (i.e. in a three-bladed rotor the blades will
not always be separated by 120°). This is due to what is termed
Coriolis effect, whereby as a blade flaps up and down, its centre of
gravity moves closer to and farther away from the hub. To conserve
angular momentum, it is necessary for the blade to speed up or slow
down, inducing stresses on the blade root, unless it has been
permitted to lead and lag.
• Feathering or pitch change hinges that permit the blades to
change pitch as they rotate to control the helicopter.
The 'hingeless' rotor is not a rigid rotor. Due to the nature of rotor systems in general, there can never be a truly rigid rotor,
and the hingeless rotor has a metal or fibre composite structure that takes the place of the hinge. These structures restrict the
amount of blade movement to within certain limits. Flapping, dragging and feathering can still occur.

Axis systems
A helicopter has the same degrees of freedom of movement
as a fixed-wing aircraft, and uses the same axis convention
There is, however, an additional system of axes that relates
to the rotor system, since the rotor blades can assume
different angles with respect to the rotor mast
The axes are defined as follows:
• Shaft axis -about which the blades rotate ;
• Hub axis -that is, perpendicular to the hub,
which itself is free to tilt with respect to the shaft;
• Rotor axis -that is, perpendicular to the plane of the tips
of the blades as they go around the hub,
as various flight conditions will change
the relationship between the blades and the hub.
The tip path plane, that is, the plane described by the tips of the rotor
blades as they rotate, is assumed to be a flat disc that corresponds to
the angle of the main rotor hub. It is often referred to as the rotor
disc. It will also be assumed that the rotor produces a uniform lift
across the disc when hovering, and that all lift acts perpendicular to
the disc. When the blades are rotating, they are producing lift, which
makes them move upwards and centrifugal force is also attempting
to make them fly outwards. The combination of these two forces
creates what is known as coning angle (shown in fig.). This will
vary with rotor speed, amount of lift produced, and several other
minor factors.
Lift :- In the zero airspeed hover, the main rotor blades produce equal amounts of lift regardless of the azimuth. As the
helicopter moves forward and airspeed increases, the blades will produce different amounts of lift. The reason for this is that
the blade which is advancing into the airstream experiences a total speed equal to speed due to blade rotation plus the forward
speed. For the blade that is retreating the total speed experienced is equal to the speed due to blade rotation minus the forward
speed. At any airspeed above approximately 20 knots, this difference in the lift created on the two sides of the disk can
become significant. Fig. shows this effect. To maintain equal lift on both sides of the disk, the pitch of the blades is changed
by the cyclic, and the blades are also free to flap up and down.
The helicopter hovering regime is that flight regime in which the velocity equals zero.
Hovering can be performed relative to the air and relative to the ground.

If the air is stationary relative to the earth, i.e., the wind velocity equals zero , the helicopter
hovering relative to the air will be at the same time hovering relative to the Earth.

Hovering is the most challenging part of flying a helicopter. This is because a helicopter generates
its own gusty air while in a hover, which acts against the fuselage and flight control surfaces.

The end result is constant control inputs and corrections by the pilot to keep the helicopter where it
is required to be.

During hover, the air is attracted by the rotor from above and from the sides (rotor induced flow)
and it is deflected downwards.

A flow of air is established through the area swept out by the rotor. The parameters of this flow
are characterized by the
- inflow velocity Vi (the speed of the flow in the plane of rotation and the main rotor),
- by the downwash flow of VD - by the increase of pressure in the flow AP, and
- by the change of speed along the axis of rotation.

By deflecting the air downwards with a force T, the rotor receives a force from the air in the
upward direction (action equals reaction). This force will be the thrust force of the rotor.
During hovering flight, a helicopter maintains a constant position over a selected point, usually a few feet above the ground. The
ability of the helicopter to hover comes from the both the lift component, which is the force developed by the main rotors to
overcome gravity and aircraft weight, and the thrust component, which acts horizontally to accelerate or decelerate the helicopter
in the desired direction.

Pilots direct the thrust of the rotor disk by using the cyclic to rotate the rotor disk plane relative to the horizon. They do this in
order to induce travel or compensate for the wind and hold a position. At a hover in a no-wind condition, all opposing forces (lift,
thrust, drag, and weight) are in balance; they are equal and opposite. Therefore, lift and weight are equal, resulting in the helicopter
remaining at a stationary hover. In helicopter hovering, the blade element angle of attack depends on the pitch and the induced flow
velocity.

Cyclic control tilts the Vertical Lift vector in the direction the
pilot wants to counteract the effects of blowing wind, and this
creates a sideways Thrust vector. As the Thrust vector increases,
it overcomes the Drag and the helicopter begins to drift in the
required direction or hover by counteracting effects of blowing
wind.
At a hover in a no-wind condition, all opposing forces (lift, thrust, drag, and weight) are in balance; they are equal and opposite.
Therefore, lift and weight are equal, resulting in the helicopter remaining at a stationary hover.​

While hovering, the amount of main rotor thrust can be adjusted to maintain the desired hovering height. This is done ​
by changing the angle of incidence (by moving the collective) of the rotor blades, and hence their AOA. Changing the AOA ​
changes the drag on the rotor blades, and the power delivered by the engine must change as well to keep the rotor speed ​
constant.

The drag of a hovering helicopter is mainly induced drag incurred while the blades are producing lift. There is, however, some
profile drag on the blades as they rotate through the air and a small amount of parasite drag from the non-lift-producing
surfaces of the helicopter, such as the rotor hub, cowlings, and landing gear.
An important consequence of producing thrust is torque. As Newton’s Third Law states: for every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction. Therefore, as the engine turns the main rotor disk in a counter- clockwise direction, the helicopter fuselage
wants to turn clockwise. The amount of torque is directly related to the amount of engine power being used to turn the main rotor
disk. As power changes, torque changes.

To counteract this torque-induced turning tendency, an anti- torque rotor or tail rotor is incorporated into most helicopter designs.
A pilot can vary the amount of thrust produced by the tail rotor in relation to the amount of torque produced by the engine. As the
engine supplies more power to the main rotor, the tail rotor must produce more thrust to overcome the increased torque effect. This
control change is accomplished through the use of antitorque pedals.

When the pilot sitting in a helicopter which has a main rotor that turns Anti-
Clockwise wishes to turn the helicopter to the left, they push on the left pedal
and this increases the Pitch Angle on the Tail Rotor Blades which creates
more Thrust (Thrust is similar to Lift but in a horizontal direction). When
Thrust is greater than the Torque, the helicopter will slowly begin to turn to
the left using the Main Rotor Mast as the pivot point.

When the pilot wishes to turn the helicopter to the right, they push on the
right pedal and this decreases the Pitch Angle on the Tail Rotor Blades which
creates less Thrust. When Thrust is lower than the Torque, the helicopter will
slowly begin to turn to the right. Just like the Collective and the Cyclic, to
stop the movement the pilot will need to apply the opposite pedal to slow and
stop the rotation, then center the pedals to neutral to maintain the helicopter
pointing in the desired direction.
Translating Tendency (Drift)- During hovering flight, a single main rotor helicopter tends to move in the direction of tail rotor
thrust. This lateral (or sideward) movement is called translating tendency. To counteract this tendency, one or more of the
following features may be used. All examples are assuming a counter- clockwise rotating main rotor disk.

• The main transmission is mounted at a slight angle to the left (when viewed from behind) so that the rotor mast has a built-in tilt
to oppose the tail rotor thrust. The main rotor reactive moment during hovering is balanced by the tail rotor thrust moment. This is
necessary to prevent the helicopter from turning about the vertical axis. But in this case the unbalanced force from the tail rotor
acts on the helicopter and the helicopter displaces to the side. To prevent lateral displacement it is necessary to balance the tail
rotor thrust by a force directed oppositely. To achieve this the main rotor thrust vector is deflected to the side opposite the direction
of the tail rotor thrust. For helicopters with right hand rotation of the main rotor (as seen from above) the tail rotor thrust is directed
to the left (Figure b). As a result of tilting of the cone axis to the right through an angle, the main rotor side thrust develops which
balances the tail rotor thrust. The vertical component of the main rotor thrust will be balanced by the helicopter weight.
• Flight controls can be rigged so that the rotor disk is tilted to the left ( looking from aft) slightly when the cyclic is centered.
Whichever method is used, the tip-path plane is tilted slightly to the left in the hover.
The transmission is mounted so the rotor shaft is vertical with respect to the fuselage, the helicopter “hangs” left skid low in the
hover. (The opposite is true for rotor disks turning clockwise when viewed from above.)
• The helicopter fuselage will also be tilted when the tail rotor is below the main rotor disk and supplying antitorque thrust. The
fuselage tilt is caused by the imperfect balance of the tail rotor thrust against the main rotor torque in the same plane. The
helicopter tilts due to two separate forces, the main rotor disk tilt to neutralize the translating tendency and the lower
tail rotor thrust below the plane of the torque action.
In forward flight, the tail rotor continues to push to the right, and the helicopter makes a small angle with the wind when the
rotors are level and the slip ball is in the middle . This is called inherent sideslip. For some larger helicopters, the vertical fin
or stabilizer is often designed with the tail rotor mounted on them to correct this side slip and to eliminate some of the tilting
at a hover. (By mounting the tail rotor on top of the vertical fin or pylon, the antitorque is more in line with or closer to the
horizontal plane of torque, resulting in less airframe (or body) lean from the tail rotor.) Also, having the tail rotor higher off
the ground reduces the risk of objects coming in contact with the blades, but at the cost of increased weight and complexity.
•Static Stability. If an object is disturbed from a given position and following this disturbance it tends to return to this position of
its own accord, it is said to be statically stable. If, following the disturbance, it continues to move further and further away from its
original position, it is said to be statically unstable; if it remains in the disturbed position, it is said to be statically neutrally stable.
•Dynamic Stability. If an object is statically stable it will return to its original position, but in doing so, it may initially overshoot.
If the amplitude of the oscillations decreases and dies out, it is said to be dynamically stable. If the amplitude of the oscillations
increases, then it is said to be dynamically unstable, and if the oscillations continue, but at a constant amplitude, it is said to be
dynamically neutrally stable.
Static stability is the capability of the helicopter to restore disturbed equilibrium by itself after removal of the factors causing this
disturbance. Static stability is attitude stability. The helicopter will be stable if after equilibrium is disrupted stabilizing moments
develop on the helicopter, i.e., moments directed to restore the previous attitude.

Static stability is amplified as a result of damping moments. A damping moment is one which is directed opposite the oscillatory
motion of the helicopter about some axis. The difference between the stabilizing and damping moments is that the former arises as
a result of equilibrium disruption and acts after the termination of this disruption. The damping moment acts only in the process of
equilibrium disruption and is directed opposite the deviation.

If during and after equilibrium disruption, moments appear on the helicopter which deflect it still further from the previous
attitude, such moments are termed destabilizing. The helicopter on which destabilizing moments arise is termed statically
unstable. The helicopter on which no moments arise during and after the equilibrium disruption process has indifferent
equilibrium and is termed statically neutral.
The factors which disturb equilibrium are:
(1) unsettled state of the air ("turbulence);
(2) random deflection of the control levers;
(3) failure of some part of the helicopter;
(4) change of the cg location.

Characteristic of helicopter equilibrium is the result of interconnection of the individual equilibrium modes with one another. For
example, if longitudinal equilibrium is disrupted, i.e., if the helicopter rotates about the transverse axis, the main rotor angle of
attack changes. This involves a change of the thrust force and the reactive moment of the main rotor. The change of the reactive
moment disrupts the directional equilibrium. Disruption of directional equilibrium leads to change of the tail rotor thrust force and
change of the moment of this force relative to the longitudinal axis, which means disruption of the helicopter transverse
equilibrium.

The interconnection among the equilibrium modes requires constant action from the pilot, directed toward restoring the disrupted
equilibrium, i.e., helicopter control becomes more complicated.

To evaluate the helicopter static stability examining the static stability of the main rotor, the static stability of the fuselage, and the
effect of the stabilizer and tail rotor on the static stability become important.
Main rotor static stability with respect to velocity. When the helicopter equilibrium is disrupted, two motion parameters of the
main rotor change: the flight velocity and the angle of attack. Let us assume that the helicopter is performing horizontal flight at
the velocity V (Figure a). For some reason the flight velocity is increased by ΔV. As a result there is an increase of the flapping
motions of the blades, the main rotor cone axis is deflected aft from the previous position, which is shown dashed in the figure, by
the angle E. The tilt of the coning axis leads to the appearance of the force P x, directed opposite the flight direction. Under the
influence of this force the main rotor velocity will decrease.

If the flight velocity is reduced by ΔV (Figure b), the cone axis is deflected forward, the force Px in the direction of flight
develops, and the flight velocity will increase. The conclusion is that the main rotor has static stability with respect to velocity.
Main rotor static stability with respect to Angle Of Attack. The helicopter is flying horizontally and the main rotor angle of
attack is A. Under the influence of a vertical air current, the helicopter drops its nose and the main rotor angle of attack is reduced
by ΔA (Figure a). Prior to disruption of equilibrium, the main rotor thrust force vector passed through the helicopter center of
gravity and the moment of the thrust force was zero.

Upon disruption of the equilibrium, the thrust force vector T is deflected forward and the moment M z = T 1 a develops relative to
the helicopter transverse axis; this moment rotates the helicopter and the main rotor in the direction to reduce the angle of attack.
Consequently, this moment will be destabilizing.

If for some reason the main rotor angle of attack is increased (Figure b), the thrust force vector tilts aft and a nose-up moment
M z = T1 a is created, which causes the angle of attack to increase. A destabilizing thrust moment is created.

The conclusion is that the main rotor is unstable with respect to angle of attack.
Helicopter Fuselage Static Stability- The fuselage has the second largest influence, after the main rotor, on the static stability of
the helicopter. The fuselage of the single-rotor helicopter has static instability about all three axes. A small stabilizer is installed at
the aft end of the fuselage to improve longitudinal static stability in horizontal flight. In the hover regime and in flight at low
velocity the stabilizer has practically no effect on longitudinal static stability. But with increase of the flight velocity and with
reduction of the angle of attack, the longitudinal instability present in a hover decreases, and at negative angles of attack the
fuselage plus stabilizer has longitudinal static stability. At positive angles of attack, the fuselage has indifferent longitudinal
equilibrium.

The helicopter stabilizer is controllable. Stabilizer control is accomplished with the aid of the collective- throttle lever. When this
lever is moved upward, main rotor pitch and stabilizer incidence angle are increased. The controllable stabilizer makes it possible
to tilt the helicopter fuselage to a negative angle at the maximal slight speed. If the stabilizer angle were constant, a large negative
lift force would develop on the stabilizer at a negative angle of attack, and this force would create a large nose-up moment to
prevent tilting of the fuselage. When the rotor pitch is decreased the stabilizer incidence angle becomes negative and a nose-up
moment is developed, which aids in transitioning the main rotor into the autorotative regime. The main rotor angle of attack
becomes positive, and as a result of the increase of the angle of each blade element the rotor rpm increases.
The tail rotor also affects the fuselage static stability. The fuselage acquires directional stability as a result of the tail rotor. Thus,
when directional equilibrium is disrupted, if the helicopter turns to the right for example (with right-hand rotation of the main
rotor), the angles of attack of the tail rotor blade elements increase, and the tail rotor thrust force increases by ΔT. The moment of
the tail rotor thrust also increases and equilibrium is restored.

If the helicopter turns to the right, the blade element angles of attack will decrease and therefore the thrust will decrease. The tail
rotor moment becomes less than the main rotor reactive moment, and this leads to restoration of the equilibrium.

Since the tail rotor is mounted above the helicopter longitudinal axis and creates a transverse thrust moment, this leads to increase
of the transverse static stability. Therefore, the tail rotor gives the fuselage directional and transverse static stability.

The conclusion is that the helicopter has slight static stability in horizontal flight and indifferent equilibrium in hover and in the
other vertical flight regimes.
Effect on helicopter static stability of horizontal hinge offset. If the main rotor hub has offset horizontal hinges, the horizontal
hinge moments have considerable effect on the longitudinal and transverse static stability of the helicopter. The larger the
horizontal hinge offset and the higher the main rotor rpm, the larger the main rotor damping moment and the greater the helicopter
static stability. Thus, increase of the static stability is achieved by increasing the horizontal hinge offset. The appearance of the
damping moment is explained by the gyroscopic properties of the main rotor.

As is well known, the basic property of the gyroscope is its ability to maintain the attitude of its axis of rotation fixed in space.
This property shows up more strongly, the larger the mass and the higher the rpm of the rotating body.
Let us assume that the longitudinal equilibrium of the helicopter has been disturbed and it has started to rotate about the transverse
axis in the nose- down direction (Figure).

In view of its gyroscopic properties the main rotor will lag behind the helicopter rotation, therefore the main rotor hub axis is
deflected from the original cone-of rotation axis.

The horizontal hinge moment Mhh = Nc will be directed opposite the tilt of the helicopter ; therefore it will be a damping
moment. When equilibrium is disrupted helicopter will rotate relative to the stationary cone-of-rotation axis of the main rotor as a
result of the gyroscopic effect.

And this means that the helicopter center of gravity will also displace together with the helicopter relative to the cone-of-rotation
axis. The result is the formation of the thrust moment MT = Ta. The damping moment will be equal to the sum of the two moments
Mdamp = Mhh + MT = Nc + Ta. The damping moment will be larger, the higher the main rotor rpm, the larger the horizontal hinge
offset, and the lower the position of the helicopter center of gravity, i.e., the larger the vertical cg displacement. The arm "a" and
the thrust force moment will increase with increase of the distance Y from the hub rotation plane to the center of gravity.
While static stability defines the attitude stability, dynamic stability defines the pattern of the helicopter motion after disruption
of equilibrium. In equilibrium the helicopter travels in a straight line with constant velocity and without rotation. Such motion is
called undisturbed. If equilibrium is disrupted, the helicopter rotates about its axes and the flight velocity and direction change.
This motion is called disturbed. Disturbed motion may be either aperiodic or oscillatory.

Aperiodic motion is motion in one direction from the equilibrium position. For example, when equilibrium is disturbed the
helicopter center of gravity deviates from normal position. After elimination of the factor causing disruption of the equilibrium,
the nature of the disturbed motion may differ.

If the center of gravity approaches the line of unperturbed motion , the helicopter has aperiodic stability
(dashed line)

If the helicopter center of gravity continues to deviate further from the equilibrium line the helicopter has aperiodic instability.

Oscillatory motion is periodic back-and-forth motion relative to the equilibrium line. If after disruption of equilibrium the
helicopter center of gravity travels along a wave-like curvilinear trajectory and this motion is damped, the helicopter has
oscillatory dynamic stability .

If the amplitude of the disturbed oscillatory motion increases, the helicopter has dynamic instability or oscillatory instability
Most frequently the disturbed motion of the helicopter is oscillatory , and the oscillations will be complex, since the helicopter
oscillates simultaneously about all axes. Also, the short and long periodic oscillations are superposed on one another. The short-
period helicopter oscillations are those about the center of gravity with account for the influence of the main rotor damping
moment; the long-period oscillations are those about a center located at a considerable distance from the helicopter.

Let us assume that the helicopter banks to the angle y in the hovering regime. The force G2 is unbalanced and causes sideslip
of the helicopter.
- It will result in the increase of the sideslip velocity &
- the main rotor cone-of revolution axis will tilt to the side opposite the slip (Figure b).
As force Px is created, which attempts to reduce the sideslip velocity and the bank angle. But the force Px is less than the force
G2; therefore, the sideslip velocity will increase and the velocity will be maximal at the moment the helicopter arrives at the
position shown in Figure c.

The helicopter continues its motion in the same direction (Figure d). Then the force G 2 changes from driving to retarding, and the
sideslip velocity decreases. As a result, the tilt of the cone-of-revolution axis decreases and the moment of the force Px about the
longitudinal axis banks the helicopter in the opposite direction.

When the helicopter reaches its maximal deviation (Figure e) further motion stops. The cone-of-revolution axis coincides with
the hub axis and the force Px = 0.

But the force G2 reaches a maximum value and causes motion in the reverse direction and the whole cycle repeats. This
transverse rocking of the helicopter will increase continuously, and the helicopter will turn over if these oscillations are not
stopped in time.
We have considered in this example only the transverse oscillations, but in
reality the transverse oscillations are supplemented by longitudinal and
directional oscillations ; therefore the pattern of the oscillatory motions
is more complex.
Longitudinal oscillations of helicopter in flight with horizontal velocity-

If the longitudinal equilibrium of a helicopter is disturbed, longitudinal oscillations develop (Figure)

The helicopter will travel along a wave-like trajectory. The longitudinal oscillations have a considerably longer period (total
oscillation time) than the transverse oscillations. The amplitude of the longitudinal oscillations increases in the course of time,
although more slowly than the amplitude of the transverse oscillations.

Helicopter oscillations about the vertical axis also take place ; however, they happen with a period longer than the transverse
oscillations but shorter than the longitudinal oscillations.

The helicopter thus exhibits dynamic instability. Therefore, if the equilibrium of the helicopter is disturbed it will have an
oscillatory motion with increasing amplitude and cannot by itself eliminate these oscillations. This means that in every case of
equilibrium disruption the pilot must take measures to restore the equilibrium, i.e., he must operate controls to stabilize the
helicopter.
By the term "helicopter control" we mean the actions of the pilot directed toward achieving two objectives: restoration of
disturbed equilibrium and disruption of existing equilibrium. We see that these objectives are contradictory, but in combination
they lead to achievement of the flight objectives .

The actions directed toward restoring disrupted equilibrium of the helicopter are necessary because flight takes place most
frequently in rough air, when there is continuous disruption of equilibrium and it must be continuously restored. Otherwise the
helicopter cannot fly in the required direction and with the required velocity. The work done by the pilot to restore equilibrium is
the primary control work. This operation can be performed with the aid of autopilots in many examples of helicopters. Helicopter
equilibrium is restored by the action of the control moments about the principal axes of the helicopter.

The control moments are created by the main and tail rotor thrust forces. This means that the helicopter control mechanisms are
the main rotor and tail rotor. The pilot's actions directed toward disruption of helicopter equilibrium are required when it is
necessary to alter either the direction or velocity, i.e., alter the flight regime. To change the flight regime it is necessary to change
the magnitude and direction of the main rotor thrust force and change the attitude of the helicopter in space, which is achieved by
the action of the control moments created by the main and tail rotor thrust forces. This means that in the final result helicopter
control reduces to control of the main rotor thrust force vector and control of the magnitude of the tail rotor thrust. The magnitude
of the main rotor thrust force vector is changed by changing the collective pitch; the direction of this force vector is changed by
changing the main rotor cyclic pitch.
Simultaneous rotation of all the blades relative to the axial hinges in the same direction and through the same angle is termed
collective pitch change. Increase of the collective pitch leads to increase of the main rotor thrust force. Sequential change of the
blade pitch in azimuth is termed cyclic pitch change. During cyclic pitch changes the pitch of each blade increases over a 180°
azimuth range and decreases in the other half of the circle (Figure a).

When the pitch is changed,

- the blade thrust changes and its moment about the horizontal hinge changes,
- which leads to flapping motions and tilt of the cone-of-revolution axis and deflection of the thrust force vector.

If the thrust force vector needs to be deflected in the direction of the 210° azimuth, the blade pitch must be minimal at this azimuth
and maximal at the opposite azimuth - 30°. Then the pitch decreases from the 30° azimuth to the 210° azimuth and increases from
the 210° azimuth to the 30° azimuth. A similar pitch change is observed for each blade. Change of the collective and cyclic pitch is
accomplished with the aid of a special system -the main rotor tilt control.
The main rotor tilt control is designed to control the collective and cyclic pitch. This system is used to control the main rotor thrust
force in magnitude and direction. Therefore, the tilt control is the most important unit of the helicopter control system. There are
three types of main rotor tilt controls: ring, spider, and crank types. The crank type of tilt control is used only on two-rotor
helicopters with side-by-side positioning of the rotors.

As a result of cyclic pitch change the cone-of-revolution axis is tilted in the direction of minimal pitch. This means that, in order to
tilt the cone axis in any direction, the plane of rotation of the movable tilt control must be tilted in this same direction.

The tilting is accomplished with the aid of two levers on the fixed tilt control ring. The control system levers are connected with
the cyclic pitch stick, located in the cockpit. When the stick is moved forward, the motion is transmitted to the longitudinal control
lever on the fixed ring of the tilt control, and the fixed ring rotates around the transverse axis of the universal so that its leading
edge descends.
This means that the pitch is minimal at the 180° azimuth, and the cone-of revolution axis is tilted forward.
When the cyclic pitch stick is moved aft, the leading edge of the tilt control ring rises and the pitch is minimal at the 0' azimuth
and the cone-of-revolution axis tilts aft. The effect is that when the stick is deflected the cone axis tilts in the same direction.
When the stick is moved to the right or left the motions are transmitted from the stick to the lateral control lever, and the tilt
control ring is rotated about the longitudinal axis of the universal.
In this case when the stick is deflected the main rotor cone-of-revolution axis deflects in the same direction.
Control of the cyclic pitch and direction of the thrust force vector is accomplished from the cockpit with the aid of the cyclic pitch
stick.
A Minimum Equipment List (MEL) is a document used by an operator to allow aircraft operation for specified
number of cycles or specified time period, with inoperative equipment and is approved by the Airworthiness
Regulatory Authorities. The basic premise of the MEL is that, though it would be desirable to maintain the aircraft
at all times with all installed equipment operative, under certain conditions an acceptable level of safety can be
maintained with specified items of equipment inoperative until repairs or replacement can be made.

Controlled conditions may involve the following :

-restrictions on certain flight operations,

-changes to in-flight operational procedures or temporary deactivation of components.

Minimum Equipment List (MEL) is the specific inoperative equipment document for a particular make and model
of aircraft by serial number and registration marks.

The MEL lists procedures that are based on Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL) to be followed by
authorized personnel of the operator, viz. Operations Procedures(O) and Maintenance Procedures (M) in the MMEL
refer to specific maintenance procedures the operator uses to disable or render items of equipment inoperative and
to specific operating conditions and limitations, as appropriate.
An (O) symbol in the MMEL indicates that a specific operations procedure must be accomplished before or during
operation with the listed item of equipment inoperative. The flight crew usually perform these procedures but in
some cases other personnel, such as maintenance personnel, may be qualified and authorized to perform the
procedure.

An (M) symbol in the MMEL indicates that a specific maintenance procedure must be performed before beginning
an operation with the listed item of equipment inoperative. Maintenance personnel usually perform these
procedures but in some cases, other personnel, such as flight crew, may be qualified and authorized to perform
certain functions. Qualified maintenance personnel must perform procedures requiring specialized knowledge,
skills, or the use of tools or test equipment.
MMEL is the list of items/components which may be unserviceable, without compromising safety of the aircraft.
This list is provided by the Manufacturer of the aircraft.

MEL is the restricted list of MMEL ,approved by Aviation Authorities along with Airline.

Even when an engineer releases an aircraft under MEL, Pilot is the final authority to accept or refuse to accept the
aircraft with the specified deficiency. Of course he has to justify for his refusal.

For example thrust reversers of engines may be inoperative, and maintenance personnel can release the aircraft for
flight under the provisions of MEL. It will present no compromise to safety of aircraft and its occupants, under
normal operating conditions.

However, if the aircraft is scheduled to fly to an airfield located at high altitudes or in the mountainous terrain; or if
the aircraft is scheduled to fly to an airfield, where weather conditions are expected to be severe or expected to
deteriorate, the pilot is expected to make the decisions on acceptance of the aircraft for the flight, and his decision
will be final.
(MEL) is a list which provides for the operation of aircraft, subject to specified conditions, with particular equipment inoperative
(which is) prepared by an operator in conformity with, or more restrictive than, the MMEL established for the aircraft type.

The master minimum equipment list (MMEL) is a list established for a particular aircraft type by the organization responsible for
the type design with the approval of the Airworthiness Authorities of the State of Design, which identifies items which
individually may be unserviceable at the commencement of a flight. The MMEL may be associated with special operating
conditions, limitations or procedures.

The operator prepares the MEL based on the MMEL issued by the state of design / manufactures for the use and guidance of
flight and ground operation person.

The MEL is tailored to the individual operator’s routes and procedures within the constraints imposed by the MMEL.

The MMEL is not normally part of the required aircraft documentation and it is necessary for an operator utilizing aircraft
manufactured in another State to procure a copy of the current MMEL and amendments as they occur, in order to develop and
maintain an MEL for approval by the Regulatory Authorities of the Operator.

In developing an MEL, the aim is to authorize continuation of flight with inoperative equipment only when the inoperative
equipment does not render the aircraft unairworthy for the particular flight.

Limitations, procedures and substitutions are listed to provide conditions under which the inoperative equipment will not make
the operation unsafe or the aircraft unairworthy.
The operator must ensure that the aircraft are not dispatched with multiple MEL items inoperative without first
determining that any interface or interrelationship between the inoperative systems or components will not result in a
degradation in the level of safety or an undue increase in crew workload.

The MEL is not intended to provide for continued operation of the aircraft for extended periods with MEL items
unserviceable. In the case of unserviceable MEL items, the operator should generally make repairs at the first station
where repairs or replacement can be made, but in any case repair should be accomplished at the flight termination
station, since additional unserviceability
may require the aircraft to be removed from service.

MEL does not include items like wings, flight controls, complete engines, landing gears etc., the airworthiness and
correct functioning of which is absolutely necessary before any flight.

It also does not include items like galley equipment, entertainment systems, passenger convenience equipment, which
do not affect the airworthiness of an aircraft.

All items which affect the airworthiness of aircraft or safety of those carried on board and are not included in MEL
are automatically required to be operative.
The MEL shall be prepared based on the MMEL. It shall be ensured that the MMEL has all the latest revisions approved by the
regulatory authority of the country of design/ manufacture.

The operator shall customize its MEL and its preamble keeping in view the operational specifications, configuration of the
particular aircraft, modifications status, applicability of regulatory requirements etc.

The MEL may not deviate from requirements of the flight manual limitations section, emergency procedures or other
airworthiness requirements stipulated by the regulatory authority, unless the regulatory authority or flight manual provides
otherwise.

The operator specifies the procedures for invoking MEL in the preamble to the MEL.

The Preamble to the MEL shall define the rectification interval of the defects. In general, the MEL items may be
categorized as follows:

Category ‘A’: Items in this category shall be repaired within the time interval specified in the remarks column of the MEL.

Category ‘B’: Items in this category shall be repaired within three (3) consecutive calendar days, excluding the day the
malfunction. was recorded in the aircraft maintenance record/logbook. For example, if it was recorded at 10 a.m. on January 26th,
the three-day interval would begin at midnight of the 26th and end at midnight of the 29th.
Category ‘C’: Items in this category shall be repaired within ten (10) consecutive calendar days, excluding the day
the malfunction was recorded in the aircraft maintenance record/logbook. For example, if it was recorded at 10 a.m.
on January 26th, the 10 day interval would begin at midnight of the 26th and end at midnight of February 5th.

Category ‘D’: Items in this category shall be repaired within one hundred and twenty (120) consecutive calendar
days, excluding the day the malfunction was recorded in the aircraft maintenance log and/or record.

For the purpose of categorization, the ‘Flight Day’ as used in the MEL shall mean a 24 hour period (from midnight to
midnight) either Universal Coordinated time (UTC) or local time, as established by the operator in their preamble,
during which at least one flight is initiated for the affected aircraft.

The preamble of the MEL shall also stipulate that whenever the MEL is invoked, the flight dispatch shall be
informed.

The preamble shall include the procedures of acceptance of defects and the requirement of making technical entries
in Aircraft Technical log. Procedure for invoking MEL after commencement of flight (chocks off) shall also be
included.
Explanation of the following shall be included in the preamble;

i) ‘O’ & ‘M’ items

ii) ETOPS items, RVSM items and other comments on MEL items

The regulatory requirements specified in the MMEL for systems such as TCAS, GPWS, CVR, DFDR, Emergency
Escape Path Mark lighting etc. are included based on the relevant requirements in the CAR. A list of such MEL items
is submitted to the local Airworthiness Office for approval.

While seeking approval of the MEL, the operator submits a certificate that the MEL has been prepared in
consultation with the operations department.

The MEL shall include all the maintenance and operational procedures given by the manufacturer in Dispatch and
Deviation Procedures Guide (DDPG)/ Operations procedures.

The operator has to ensure that the MEL is not less restrictive than the MMEL.
1. Copy of MEL compiled by the operator along with copy of MMEL of the aircraft type, procured from Design
Organization or Manufacturer is submitted to Regulatory Airworthiness Authority

2. While submitting the MEL and its revisions for approval, the operator ensures that these conform to the
latest revision of MMEL. The MMEL revision number is indicated on the MEL.

3. After scrutiny, the concerned official from the Regulatory Authority submits the MEL to the assigned
Flight Operations Inspector for further scrutiny from operational angle.

4. Any deficiency noticed during scrutiny either by Airworthiness office or Flight Operations Inspector is
referred to the operator by the Airworthiness Authority for corrective action.

5. On being satisfied that the proposed MEL meets the MMEL and regulatory provisions stipulated by
Airworthiness Regulatory Authority from maintenance and operational aspects, the MEL of the operator is
approved by the Airworthiness Regulatory Authority along with a copy of approved MEL.

6. Approval of any revision/ amendment to the MEL is done following the same procedure as given above. The
proposed revision in MEL is submitted to respective Airworthiness Regulatory Authority Office for approval
within the stipulated time, after receipt of MMEL revision.
7. The extension of applicability of MEL to include same type of aircraft having similar configuration may be
done through temporary revision. However in case of any change in the MEL item for such aircraft, the MEL
requires approval.

8. A copy of the approved MEL is carried on board the aircraft as part of the Operations Manual. The
manual contains procedures for continuation of flight should any items of equipment required for operation of
flight become unserviceable.

9. Operator is required mention in their Continuing Airworthiness Management Exposition (CAME) the
procedure for revoking the MEL.

10. A Designated official from the Operator (Continuing Airworthiness Manager) is responsible for exercising
necessary control to ensure that no aircraft is dispatched with multiple items inoperative, which results in
increase of the flight crew workload. In such cases flight crew is consulted.

11. Notwithstanding the MEL, an AME need not certify the aircraft for 'Flight' or a Pilot need not accept the
aircraft for flight if it is considered that it is unsafe to do so.
12. The AME responsible for releasing the aircraft, after invoking the provisions of MEL informs the Pilot of the
aircraft of the same, and also a) makes a mention of it in the technical log and b) placard the inoperative system
suitably. The AME takes maintenance action as prescribed in Despatch Deviation Guide/ Procedure Manual and
the flight crew take operational action as mentioned in the Despatch Deviation Guide . Despatch Deviation
Guide should be on board the aircraft.

13. As a normal practice the defects carried forward under MEL are rectified and deficiencies made good at the
first available opportunity where facilities exist

14. MEL can be invoked by a) certifying staff authorized by the a maintenance organization or b) approved pilot.
However, approved pilot is authorized to invoke MEL in respect of those items only, which do not require any
maintenance actions/ procedures.

15. Operators are expected to maintain approved MELs and updated copies of MMEL for those aircraft for
which manufacturers have issued MMELs. Upon receipt of revision status of MMEL, operators revise the MEL
for aircraft operated by them accordingly and follow the stipulated procedure for revision of MEL.

16. Operators must maintain a record of all releases or revisions under MEL. The records are checked by
Airworthiness Regulatory Authority officers / inspectors during their surveillance.
Every aircraft, registered in India, is required to carry on board "Cockpit check List" and "Emergency Check List" as specified by
the Director General of Civil Aviation for the particular type of aircraft. The carriage of such Checklist is mandated as per Rule
7B of Aircraft Rules, 1937.

Historical Background:

On October 30, 1935, the most sophisticated aircraft in aviation history at the time, a strategic military bomber B-17 ”FLYING
FORTRESS” rolled off the runway, pitched up in a perfect lift and within seconds entered into a deadly stall from which it
couldn’t recover, crashing onto a nearby field. While the co-pilot and the other flight engineers were rescued, the pilot couldn’t
make it out alive.

How could this majestic marvel of engineering and technology, which had been in development for a long time, possibly fail?
Investigations would later on reveal it was simply because the pilots had forgotten to release the flight control gust locks before
taking off. The fact that something so trivial could be forgotten only pointed to the realization that aircrafts systems had become
much more complex and it was beyond human capacity to remember each and every intricate details for a safe flight. Following
the crash of the B-17, the concerned agencies strictly mandated the use of Cockpit checklists in its entire fleet and checklists have
been an integral part of flight decks ever since.

Within a 25-month period in 1980's , there were three major airline accidents in which the misuse of a checklist was determined
by the Authorities to be one of the probable causes of accident. In the first, Northwest Airlines Flight 255, an MD-80, crashed
shortly after takeoff from Detroit Metro Airport following a no-flap/no-slat takeoff (1988). In the second, Delta Air Lines Flight
1141, a B727, crashed shortly after lifting off from Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport, following a no-flap/no-slat takeoff
(1989). In the third, USAir Flight 5050, a B737, ran off the runway at LaGuardia Airport and dropped into adjacent waters,
As Per DGCA publication:

"Cockpit Check list" means a list containing items of inspection/action to be performed by the flight crew, in the order as
listed, and in the circumstances as indicated for ensuring safe operation of aircraft.

"Emergency Check List" means a list containing items of action to be performed by the flight crew in the order as listed, whenever
emergent situations develop in flight on account of failure/malfunction of aircraft systems/components and requiring extra
alertness on the part of flight crew, for ensuring safe operation of aircraft.

“Electronic Checklist (ECL)” means checklist that is displayed to the flight crew by means of some electronic device. Cockpit and
emergency checklists may be presented in an ECL.

A Cockpit checklist is a list used by the crew to make sure the aircraft is in the proper configuration for a given phase of flight.
These phases of flight include take-off, climb, cruise, descent, approach, and landing.

When it comes to aviation, SAFETY is of paramount importance. A slight breach of focus and an incident can turn into a fatal
accident. If you thought everything could be read from instruments on-board, then you couldn’t be more wrong. There are certain
things a pilot needs to have at the back of their head at all times, also known as ”memory-items”- refer to those corrective actions
that need to be executed in ”time-critical” events such as engine flame-out, sudden loss of pressure and such. Checklists are
manuals that guide the crew through mandated procedures in the event of a ”time-critical” event. This would essentially lead to
effective crew resource management and efficient decisions. Cockpits in the past were notorious for being stacked with piles of
charts, logbooks and technical documents. Modern aircraft have evolved to de-clutter the cockpit and provide a more electronic
way of accessing things.
Each operator of an aircraft including private aircraft operators, establishes a system, for each type of aircraft operated by them,
for visual inspection of the aircraft externally and internally before flight and for safe manipulation of controls of aircraft systems,
during every flight by the members of the flight crew. The system shall have a listing of procedures, in brief, to be followed by the
flight crew during the various phases of operation of aircraft like before, during and after takeoff as well as before and after
landing and during emergent situations. Normal procedures shall be listed and called "Cockpit Check List" and emergency
procedures shall be listed and called "Emergency Check List". The design and utilization of paper and electronic checklists are
keeping in view the Human Factors principles.

The Normal Checklist listed the following objectives for the need of a checklist:
• Aid the pilot in recalling the process of configuring the aircraft.
• Provide a standard foundation for verifying aircraft configuration that will defeat any reduction in the flight crew’s
psychological and physical condition.
• Provide convenient sequences for motor movements and eye fixations along the aircraft cockpit panels.
• Provide a sequential framework to meet internal and external cockpit operational requirements.
• Allow mutual supervision (cross checking) among crew members.
• Enhance a team (crew) concept for configuring the plane by keeping all crew members ‘in the loop’.
• Dictate the duties of each crew member in order to facilitate optimum crew coordination as well as logical distribution of
cockpit workload.
• Serve as a quality control tool by flight management and government regulators over the pilots in the process of configuring
the plane for the flight.

When a checklist is run through completely, the pilot monitoring makes sure everyone in the cockpit is aware and this is called
a ”loop”.
Normally the cockpit check system and the emergency procedures to be followed are given by the aircraft manufacturers in their
Operations Manual/Crew Operating Manual/Flight Manual. The operators shall use the check lists provided by the
manufacturers, under intimation to the Flight Standards Directorate. Any deviations from the manufacturer's procedures shall be
followed only after obtaining approval of DGCA and such deviations with proper justification shall be forwarded to the DGCA.
Such Check Lists shall have the concurrence of FSD, DGCA before acceptance and adoption.

NORMAL CHECKLIST :-

Take-off, Descent and Landing are critical aspects of flight. Normal checklist begins with pre-flight checklist- This includes
checks before starting the engines. In this stage, generally all mandatory pre-flight checks are ticked. The ”pilot-monitoring”
refers to the checklist and cross verifies with the ”pilot flying” for all the steps mentioned in the checklist. In case a pilot has
missed something, he/she can then perform the appropriate action. Similar steps are followed before initiating a descent and
approach into the destination airport.

NON-NORMAL CHECKLIST :-

Also called as ” read and do” checklist-They usually relate to abnormal/emergency procedures where a cockpit flow pattern
from memory ( as is the case in normal checklist) is not desirable. This checklist gives the pilot, the power to make his own
decision based on his awareness of the situation and must be mutually assessed and agreed upon by both crew members before
further action. Modern cockpits are advanced that auto-detect errors by the sensors themselves and the corresponding correct
checklists are displayed to the pilots.
Operators who do not have such information in respect of their aircraft are required to contact the aircraft manufacturers for the
purpose. However, pending receipts of such a list from the manufacturers, they are required to prepare their own list, which shall
be submitted to the DGCA. The DGCA will intimate to the operator the acceptance of the same.

Aircraft requiring two or more crew members must follow the procedure of "challenge and response” while using the "Cockpit
Check List" and the check list shall also indicate the function of each flight crew member vis-a-vis each item of the list, to avoid
confusion.

Although the aircraft checklist has long been regarded as a foundation of pilot standardization and cockpit safety, it has escaped
the scrutiny of the human factors profession. The improper use, or the non-use, of the normal checklist by flight crews is often
cited as a major contributing factor to aircraft accidents.

The approved procedures include each item necessary for flight crew members to check for safety before starting engines, taking
off, or landing, and in engine and system emergencies. The procedure are designed so that a flight crew member will not need to
rely upon his memory for items to be checked.

The approved procedures are readily usable in the cockpit of each aircraft and the flight crew shall follow them when operating
the aircraft.
WHAT IS A CHECKLIST? The major function of the flight deck checklist is to ensure that the crew will properly configure the
aircraft for any given segment of flight. It forms the basis of procedural standardization in the cockpit. The complete flight
checklist is sub-divided into specific task-checklists for almost all segment of the flight, i.e., PREFLIGHT, TAXI, BEFORE
LANDING, etc.; and in particular before the critical segments: TAKEOFF, APPROACH, and LANDING. Two other checklists are
also used on the flight-deck: the abnormal and emergency checklist.

FACTORS INFLUENCING CHECKLIST PERFORMANCE

Perception- Several checklist-related incidents were the result of a situation in which a pilot thought he/she had set and checked a
control properly, but actually had not. Perception changes constantly depending on the physical stimuli and on the way in which
we blend incoming information with information already stored in memory.

Cockpit Resource Management- Checklist procedures are accomplished by coordinated actions and communication between the
captain and the other pilot(s). In addition, the checklist procedure is designed in such a way as to assign very distinct role
definitions. It also requires assertiveness from subordinates when the checklist is not initiated properly by the captain, as well as
firm leadership by the captain when the subordinate officers are the culprits.

Interruptions and Distractions- One of the frequently occurring causes of hazardous events in air carrier operation is the human
susceptibility to distractions.

In 1983, a Republic Airlines MD-82 had both engines stop while cruising at 35,000 feet, 20 miles north of Bryce, Utah. During the
emergency descent, the crew performed the appropriate emergency procedure and restarted both engines at 12,000 feet.
The investigation revealed that the main fuel tank on each wing was empty while the center tank contained all the fuel needed to
complete the flight.
The airline’s MD-82 CLIMB checklist method required the pilot not flying to conduct this checklist by himself (no mutual
redundancy).

During the checklist, as the pilot completed an item, he called for next procedure. Crew then received a radio call to “change to
departure” frequency. After flaps and slats were retracted and the radio frequency changed, pilot continued with the checklist as
planned. The pilot responsible had omitted a critical step and left the center boost pump switches off due to distraction – which
resulted in fuel being drawn only from the wing tanks.
"Emergency Check List" means a list containing items of action to be performed by the flight crew in the order as listed, whenever
emergent situations develop in flight on account of failure/malfunction of aircraft systems/components and requiring extra
alertness on the part of flight crew, for ensuring safe operation of aircraft.

An emergency situation is one in which the safety of the aircraft or of persons on board or on the ground is endangered for any
reason.

An abnormal situation is one in which it is no longer possible to continue the flight using normal procedures but the safety of the
aircraft or persons on board or on the ground is not in danger.

Emergency or abnormal situations may develop as a result of one or more factors within or outside an aircraft, for example:
• Fire on board the aircraft;
• Aircraft component failure or malfunction (e.g. engine failure, landing gear malfunction or loss of pressurisation);
• Shortage of fuel (or other essential consumable substance);
• Flight crew uncertain of position;
• Worsening weather;
• Pilot incapacitation (e.g. as a result of illness);
• Aircraft damage (e.g. as a result of collision, bird strike or extreme weather;)
• Illegal activity (e.g. bomb-threat, willful damage or hi-jacking).
An emergency or abnormal situation may result in it being impossible to continue the flight to destination as planned, resulting in
one or more of the following outcomes:
• Loss of altitude;
• Diversion to a nearby aerodrome;
• Forced landing.
An operator establishes and maintains a ground and flight training program, approved by the State of the Operator, which ensures
that all flight crew members are adequately trained to perform their assigned duties. The training program includes necessary flight
crew coordination and training in all types of emergency or abnormal situations or procedures caused by powerplant, airframe or
systems malfunctions, fire or other abnormalities. The training for each flight crew member, particularly that relating to abnormal
or emergency procedures, shall ensure that all flight crew members know the functions for which they are responsible and the
relation of these functions to the functions of other crew members. The training program is imparted on a recurrent basis, as
determined by the State of the Operator.

For ease of use, the Emergency Checklist is normally contained in a separate volume from the Operations Manual, which may be
referred to as the Quick Reference Handbook (QRH).