UNIT ONE

SAMPLING AND SAMPLING DISTRIBUTIONS

Unit Objectives

After a thorough study of this unit, you will be able to:

 Define sampling
 Understand basic concepts of sampling.
 Know the need for sampling and errors in sampling
 Know methods of sampling.
 Understand the difference between parameters and statistic.
 Develop acquaintance with sampling distribution of the mean, the proportion and
difference between two means..

Unit Introduction
In most managerial decisions, we may confine in to information available in a sample
than enumerating each and every population elements because of various logical reasons.
In practical sense, making a decision based on an analysis of whole items in a population
is costly, infeasible and to the extent of destructiveness. Thus, if taken and analyzed
properly, a sample is a good unit of decision making in most instances. Scientific
investigations, be at large or small scale are mostly carried out with consideration of a
representative and reliable portion of population elements due to scarcity of resources and
sometimes for efficient management of samples elements than swinging in vicious circle
of too much population elements and/or even infinite population set ups.
Cognizant to the above fact, we need to be well acquainted with the fundamentals of
sampling theory as related to its managerial application. This unit, therefore, is dedicated
to our study of sampling and sampling distributions. To this end, the unit is organized in
to sections as indicated below.

Unit Outline
1.1.1 Basic concepts and terminologies in sampling theory
1.1.2 Methods of sampling
1.2.1 Sampling distributions of the mean, the proportion and difference between
two means.

1
 Section One: Basic concepts &Terminologies in sampling and
sampling distributions

Section Objectives:
Up on completing this section, you will be able to:
- Define sampling.
- Identify basic concepts.
- Develop know-how of basic terminologies in sampling
- Understand the need for sampling.
- Develop an insight on sampling methods
Section Outline:
1.1.1 Basic concepts and terminologies in sampling theory
1.1.2 Methods of sampling

1.1.1 Basic concepts and Terminologies in Sampling Theory

1.1.1.1 Basic concepts:
o Population: is an aggregate of objects (animate or inanimate) under study. It is a
collection of individuals or of their attributes or of results of operations which can
be numerically specified.
o Sample: is a subset selected from a population. It is a portion chosen for study
from a population.
o Census: a census involves complete enumeration or full count of the entire units
comprising the population in respect of the parameter of our interest.
o Sampling: sampling consists of drawing a sample from a given population and
using the sample data to gain knowledge about the population parameters.

1.1.1.2 The Need for Samples

Why sampling is preferred to census?
 The cost of all items in a population is often prohibitive.
 Sampling requires less time (facilitate timely results).
 Non- feasibility of full count.
 Destructive nature of certain tests.

1.1.1.3 Errors in Sampling

There are two types of errors in surveying a data. These are:
 Sampling (random) errors
 Non- Sampling (non-random) errors.

2
a) Sampling Errors:
Sampling errors refer to those variations that arise in using a sample instead of census. It
is associated only with sample surveys and tends to disappear in census study.
b) Non-Sampling Errors:
Arise in all surveys whether it is a sample survey or a census survey.

1.1.2 Methods of Sampling

The various methods of sampling can be grouped into two categories:
 Probability (random) sampling method
 Non-probability (non-random) sampling method
a) Random Sampling Methods
Random sampling method consists of methods which permit selection of population units
to be included in the sample according to the known probabilities. Such methods don’t
provide any discretion to the researcher in deciding which particular population units
should be selected in the sample.
b) Non-Random Sampling Methods
In this method the selection of population units in the sample is decided purely on the
basis of such considerations as personal judgment, experience, convenience etc.

Methods of Random Sampling:

1. Simple random Sampling: is a sampling method whereby each individual
item of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
2. Stratified random sampling: this is a sampling method in which a
population is first divided in to non-overlapping groups called strata, and a sample
is selected from each stratum. The strata samples are then combined giving the
resultant sample as a stratified random sample.
3. Cluster random sampling: in cluster random sampling the population to
be sampled is divided into a number of groups called clusters. The cluster
sampling approach requires the selection of a sample of needed size from one or
more clusters by means of simple random sampling.
4. Systematic random sampling: this method involves the selection of every
nth item in the population. If systematic random sampling is to be used, the
population must be arranged in some random line or secretes. If N is the
population size and n is the sample size, then N/n is the gap between successive
sampled items.
5. Multi-Stage Sampling:
Items are selected in different stages at random. Multi-stage sampling is a further
improvement over cluster sampling.

Methods of Non-Random Sampling

Techniques of non-probabilistic sampling mainly include the following.

3
 o Quota Sampling
o Judgment(purposive) sampling
o Snowball sampling
o Convenience sampling
o Dimensional sampling

Section Two: Overview of Sampling Distributions

Section Objectives:
Up on completing this section, you will be able to:
- Define parameter and statistic.
- Identify basic concepts in sampling distributions.
- Develop know-how of sampling distributions
- Understand the sampling distribution of the mean, proportion and
difference between two means
Section Outline:
1.2.1 Sampling distributions
1.2.1.1 Sampling distribution of the mean
1.2.1.2 Sampling distribution of the proportion
3.2.1.3 Sampling distribution of the difference between two means

1.2.1 Sampling Distributions

Basic concepts:
 Parameter: is a numerical characteristic of a population.
 Statistic: is a numerical characteristic of a sample.
 Population distribution: is the distribution of the individual measurements of a
population.
 Sampling distribution: is a probability distribution of a sample statistic. It
includes all possible values that a statistic such as a mean can assume for a given
sample size and describes the manner in which sample statistic vary from sample
to sample.

4
1.2.1.1 Sampling Distribution of the Mean

Sampling distribution of the mean is a probability distribution consisting of a list of all

possible sample means of a given sample size selected from a population and the
probability of occurrence associated with each sample mean. The number of samples that
can be drawn from a population depends on whether we sample with replacement or
without replacement.
i) Sampling with Replacement;
In sampling with replacement a selected element is returned to the population before
another selection is made. As a result the number of samples of size – n that can be drawn
from the population of size -N is given as: (N)n where, N- population size and
n – sample size.

Example; N = 3 and n = 2 ; number of samples = Nn = 32 = 9 samples

Say A, B, and C are the elements in the finite population, then the sample elements are;
AA, AB, AC, BA, BB, BC, CA, CB, and CC.
ii) Sampling without Replacement;
In sampling without replacement it will be impossible to get a sample in which an
element appears more than once. Thus, the number of simple random sample size of n
that can be drawn without replacement from a population of size N is given by:
(Nn) = N!
n! (N- n)!

E.g. N = 3 and n = 2; Number of samples = (32) = 3 samples.

In establishing relationship between the population and the sampling distribution of

the mean the following symbols will be used.
N = population size n = sample size

x = population mean X = mean of sample means

x = population standard deviation X = standard deviation of sample means
X = sample mean

5
Example:
A population consists of the following ages: 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50. A random sample of
two is to be selected from this population without replacement.
Find;
a) The mean of the population.
b) The standard deviation of the population.
c) Mean of sampling distribution of the means.
d) Standard deviation of sampling distribution of the means.

Solution:
N = 5; n = 2

a) Population mean → μx = 10 + 20 + 30 + 40 + 50
5
μx = 30

b) population standard deviation →  x)

 (x  N
2

x 
N

(10  30) 2  (20  30) 2        (50  30) 2

x 
5

1000  14.14
x 
5

c) Mean of sampling distribution of the means;

6
  2
Population Values Sample items ( n=2) Sample mean ( x ) (x - x)
10 (10,20) 15 225
20 (10, 30) 20 100
30 (10,40) 25 25
40 (10,50) 30 0
50 (20,30) 25 25
(20,40) 30 0
(20,50) 35 25
(30,40) 35 25
(30,50) 40 100
(40,50) 45 225


 2
x  300 ∑( x - x) = 750


Aggregate sample means = x = 300/10 = 30
d) Standard deviations of sample means;
x =
 x)
 (x  N
2

numberofsamples

750
10

≈ 8.7

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 Probability Distribution of the Sample Means ( x )

Sample mean ( x ) Frequency Probability

15 1 0.1
20 1 0.1
25 2 0.2
30 2 0.2
35 2 0.2
40 1 0.1
45 1 0.1
10 1.00

Properties of the Distribution X

1) The mean of the sampling distribution of the means is always equal to the population
mean. i.e., x =  x
2) The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the means (standard error) can
be computed without requiring a listing of all possible sample means as follows.

a) x = ( (x ) / ( n ))( (N  n) /(N 1) ) if n>0.05N and if sampling is
made without replacement from a
finite population.


b) ) x = ( (x ) / ( n )) if n < 0.05N and if sampling is made with replacement.

3) Form of distribution of X;
These are two important theorems with respect to the shape of the sampling distribution
of the means.
i. If X is the mean of random sample taken from the population and if the population
values are normally distributed, the sampling distribution of X is also normally
distributed regardless of sample size with x =  x and

8
  x = x
n
ii. When the population values are not normally distributed, we take advantage of the
central limit theorem.
The central limit theorem states that if the population is not normal, the distribution of the
sample means will approximate a normal distribution with x =  x and

x =  x / n if the sample size is sufficiently large.
This approximation is near perfect for n > 30 but n < 0.05N.

4) Determination of Z- score;
Z = X -  x where, X = the normally distributed random variable

x x = mean of sample means which is equal to x

x = the standard deviation of sample means which is equal to x/ n .

Example:
Hourly wages of workers in an industry have a mean wage rate of Birr 5 and standard
deviation of Birr 0.60. What is the probability that the mean wage of a random sample of
50 workers will be between Birr 5.10 and Birr 5.20?

Solution:

x = 5, x = 0.60, n = 50


x 
n = 0.6/ 50 = 0.0849 , P( 5.10 < x < 5.20) = ?

Z1 = x -  x = 5.10 – 5 ≈ 1.18
x 0.0849

Z2 = x -  x = 5.20 – 5 ≈ 2.36
x 0.0849

0.1099

p̂
1.18 2.36
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P( 5.10 < x < 5.20) = P(1.18 < z < 2.36) = 0.1099.

Therefore, the probability that the hourly wage rate is between birr 5.10 and 5.20 is
approximately 11%.

1.2.1.2 Sampling Distribution of the Proportion

Sampling distribution of the proportion is the probability of all possible values of the
sample proportion p. In sampling distribution of sample proportions the following
symbols should be used.
N = population size n = sample size
P = population proportion p = sample proportion
p = population standard deviation  p = mean of sample proportions

p = standard error of the proportion

 Properties:
1) The true population proportion and the mean of sampling distribution of the
proportions are equal. P =  p
2) The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of proportions is computed in two
ways.
a) When the population is infinite or very large or when sampling is conducted with
replacement;

 p (1  p)
p= ; where p = population proportion
n
n = sample size
b) When sampling is done without replacement and the sample size
p (1  p) N  n)
exceeds 5% of the population size then; p = .
n N 1

3) Sampling distribution of the proportion will be normal:

a) When samples of a fixed size are drawn form a normally distributed population.

10
b) When sampling distribution of the proportions confirms with the central limit theorem;
i.e. n > 30 or when n.p > 5 and n.q > 5.
4. The Z- value is computed as;
Z= p -  p where, p = the identified sample proportion
p  p = standard error of the proportion

Example:
A manufacturer of screws has noticed that on an average two percent of the screws
produced are defective. A random sample of 400 screws is examined for the proportion
of defective screws. Find the probability that the proportion of defective screws in the
sample is between 0.01 and 0.03.

Solution:
n = 400, p = 0.02 =  p

P( 0.01 < p < 0.03) = ?

 
pq

0 . 02 0 . 98 
pˆ
n 400
 . 007 .

At p = 0.01, z1 = p -  p
 p

= 0.01 – 0.02 ≈ -1.43

0.007

At p = 0.01, z2 = p -  p where, p = the identified sample proportion

 p

= 0.03 – 0.02 ≈ 1.43

0.007

0.8472

p̂
-1.43 1.43

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P( 0.01 < p < 0.03) = P( -1.43 < z < 1.43) ≈ 0.8472

1.2.1.3 Sampling Distribution of the Difference between Two Means

Population 1 Population 2
 
1= means of population 1 2 = mean of population 2
x x
1 = sample mean of population 1 2 = sample mean of population 2
n n
1 = sample size of population 1 2= sample size of population 2

(x1 - x2) represent the difference of sample means

(1 - 2) represent the difference of population means
 Properties
  
1) x1 - x2 = 1- 2


2) x1 - x2 =
 ( 1 2 ) /(n1 )   ( 2 2 ) /(n2 )  where 12 = variance of population 1

22 = variance of population 2

If sampling with replacement
= ( 1 2 ) /(n1 ) ( N1  n1 ) /( N1  1)  ( 2 2 / n2 )  ( N 2  n2 ) /( N 2  1)
If sampling without replacement

3) Form of the distribution of (x1 - x2);

The distribution of x1 - x2 is normal;
a) When both populations are normal.
b) When the central limit theorem applies (n1 > 30 and n2 > 30).

x x  
4) Z = ( 1- 2) - ( 1- 2)

x1 – x2

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Example :
Consider two manufacturers, A and B of electric bulbs. Bulbs manufactured by A have
mean life of 900 hours and standard deviation of 30 hours. Those manufactured by B
have man life of 860 hours and standard deviation of 20 hours. Find the probability that
the mean life based on random sample of 40 bulbs of manufacturer A will be less the 28
hours of the mean life based on a random sample of 30 bulbs of manufacturer B.
Solution:
1  900hours,  2  860hours  1  30hours ,  2  20hours; n1 = 40 bulbs and n2 = 30
bulbs.
P( X 1  X 2 ) <28 ?

 x  x  1   2  900  560  40
1 2

=
 (30 2 ) /(40)   (20 2 ) /(30) 

≈ 5.98 hours.

At X
(  X ) = 28;
1 2

Z
X 1  X 2    1   2 
 12  22

n1 n2

Z
28  40  2.00
5.98

28 40 X1  X 2

-2 0 Z
P ( X 1  X 2 )   2  0 .0228

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Unit Summary

 Population: is an aggregate of objects (animate or inanimate) under study.

Sample: is a subset selected from a population.
 Census: a census involves complete enumeration or full count of the entire units
comprising the population in respect of the parameter of our interest.
 Sampling: sampling consists of drawing a sample from a given population and
using the sample data to gain knowledge about the population parameters.
Methods of Random Sampling:

 Simple random Sampling

 Stratified random sampling

 Cluster random sampling

 Systematic random sampling

 Multi-Stage Sampling

Sampling Distributions
 Parameter: is a numerical characteristic of a population.
 Statistic: is a numerical characteristic of a sample.
 Population distribution: is the distribution of the individual measurements of a
population.
 Sampling distribution: is a probability distribution of a sample statistic

Sampling Distribution of the Mean

 Sampling with Replacement: (N) n ; where, N- population size and
n – sample size.
 Sampling without Replacement

(Nn) = N!
n! (N- n)!  x)
 population standard deviation →  (x  N
2

x 
N
 Standard deviations of sample means

 x)
x = (x  N
2

numberofsamples

14
  Determination of Z- score
Z=X-x
x .

 Sampling Distribution of the Proportion

a)

 p (1  p)
p=
n
p (1  p) N  n)
b) p = .
n N 1
 The Z- value is computed as:
Z= p -  p
p
Sampling Distribution of the Difference between Two Means
  
x1 - x2 = 1- 2


x 1 - x2 =
 ( 1 2 ) /(n1 )   ( 2 2 ) /(n2 ) 

= ( 1 2 ) /(n1 ) ( N1  n1 ) /( N1  1)  ( 2 2 / n2 )  ( N 2  n2 ) /( N 2  1)

x x  
Z=( 1- 2) - ( 1- 2)

x1 – x2

15
 UNIT TWO
STATISTICAL ESTIMATION

Unit Objectives

After a thorough study of this unit, you will be able to:

 Define statistical estimation
 Understand basic concepts in statistical estimation.
 Know the need for estimation
 Develop acquaintance with point and interval estimators of the mean, the
proportion and difference between two means.
 Develop an insight on sample size determination

Unit Introduction
In most managerial decisions, we may prefer to make estimations based on sample
evidence so as to get information about parametric values. For instance, a sample statistic
(e.g. sample mean, sample proportion, sample standard deviation…..) are good point
estimators of parameters like (population mean, population proportion, population
standard deviation …). In this unit, our emphasis area is on one of statistical inference
which is estimation. That is, a statement about an unknown population parameter is
derived from information contained in a random sample selected from the population.

Cognizant to the above fact, we need to be well acquainted with the fundamentals of
estimation as related to managerial application. This unit, therefore, is dedicated to our
study of statistical estimations which might include both point and interval common
estimators. For simplicity, the unit is organized in to sections as indicated below.

16
 Unit Outline
2.1.1 Basic concepts and terminologies in estimation
2.1.2 Point and interval estimators of the mean, proportion and difference
between two independent means.
2.2.1 Determination of sample size in statistical inference

Section One: Basic concepts, Terminologies, point and interval

estimators

Section Objectives:
Up on completing this section, you will be able to:
- Define statistical estimation.
- Identify basic concepts in statistical estimation.
- Identify point and interval estimators of the mean, proportion and
difference between means.

Section Outline:
2.1.1 Basic concepts and terminologies in statistical estimation
2.1.2 Point and interval estimators of the mean, proportion and difference between two
independent means.

2.1.1 Basic Concepts and Terminologies in Estimation

 Estimation: refers to any procedure where sample information is used to estimate or

predict the numerical value of some numerical measures called parameters.
Type your text  Estimator: is a sample statistic that is used to estimate an unknown population
parameter.
 Estimate: is the numerical value determined from the estimator. It is the actual sample
evidence.
There are two types of estimates:

17
2.1.2 Point and Interval Estimates
A point estimate is a single value that is measured from a sample and used as an estimate
of the corresponding population parameter.
An interval estimate
An interval estimates or establishes an interval or a range within which a population
parameter probability lies.

2.1.2.1 Point estimators of the mean and the proportion

 Sample mean ( x ) : x 
x i
 estimates
n
x
 Sample proportion ( p ): p   estimatesP ; where x is number of successes in
n
the sample and n is sample size.

 The sample standard deviation s x is an estimator of the unknown population

standard deviation  .

Sx 
 (x i  x) 2
, Where x = sample mean
n 1

 The sample standard error of the mean S x is an estimator of the unknown

standard error of the mean  x . When the sample size is small, S x , and  x are
computed as:
 S
 x  x and S x  x
n n

 Sample standard error of the proportion ( S p ) ;

pq
Sp  → p
n

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2.1.2.2 Interval estimate of the mean, the proportion and difference
between two means

2.1.2.2.1 Interval estimations of the population mean

Is an interval estimate together with a statement if how confident we are that the interval
is correct. It is determined by the confidence level. The confidence level symbolized by C
indicates the chance that the interval is correct.

E.g. if C = 95% it indicates that there is a probability that an interval is correct is 95%.
 = 1-C = 1-0.95 = 5% indicates the chance that the interval is incorrect. The choice of
the method used in constructing a confidence interval for the mean depends on whether
or not the population is normal and whether or not the population standard deviation is
known.

There are 3 cases for interval estimate of the mean ():

i. Confidence interval estimate for  when population is normal,  is known

and n is large or small


  x  Z
2 n

 
xZ    xZ
n n

Where x = sample mean

 = Population mean
 = Population standard deviation
n = Sample size
C = confidence coefficient (level)

19
  = 1-C

ii. Confidence Interval estimate for  when population is normal,  is

unknown and n is large ( n ≥ 30)

S
  xZ Where S x = sample standard deviation
n
S S
xZ    xZ
n n

iii. Confidence interval estimate for  when population is normal,  is unknown

and n is small ( n < 30 )

In cases (i) and (ii) above, standard normal distribution is used to develop the interval.
If the sample size is small n  30 , we can only construct a confidence interval estimate
for  if and only if the population is normally distributed. Therefore, when the
population is normal, n is small and sample standard deviation (s) is used to estimate the
population standard deviation   , we use a distribution called t distribution to get the
interval estimate of the population mean  . A t-distribution like the Z-distribution is a
continuous distribution, bell shaped and flatter at the center than is the standard normal
distribution. However, as the sample size increases the curve representing the t-
distribution approaches the standard normal distribution. The t-distribution is a family of
continuous probability distributions with a specific t-distribution depending on a
parameter known as degrees of freedom (V). i.e., there is a unique t-distribution for each
degrees of freedom where V = n-1.

The t formula for sample when  is unknown, population is normal and n is small is
x
t
s
n

20
Thus, when  is unknown and n<30, the internal estimate is given by:

S
  x  t
2
V n
Just like the Z-value, t value can be obtained from the t table found at the appendix. To

get this value, that is t , we have to first find . For example, to get t value for a 98%
2
,V 2


confidence level where V= 26, first calculate
2

 1  C 1  0.98
   0.01
2 2 2


We can now look up the table. In the table the figures at the top of every column are
2
and at the beginning of each row are degrees of freedom, V.

Therefore when we look at the intersection of 0.01 and 26 we get 2.48. This is the t-
value.

Remark:
Z – Distribution

A normal distribution
n >30  unknown t – distribution
Population normal
n<30

Population not normal Non – parametric test

21
The most commonly used internal confidence levels are:

Confidence level(C) Z- value

80% 1.28
90% 1.64
95% 1.96
98% 2.33
99% 2.58

Example-1: A normal population has a standard deviation of 10. A random sample of

size 25 has a mean of 50. Construct the 95% confidence interval estimate of the
population mean and interpret the result.

Solution:

 Sample mean x  50
 Population standard deviation
   10
 n = 25
 c = 0.95

 
x  Z   x Z
2 n n 2

At the 95% confidence level, the z-distribution is given as :

x
95%

z =-1.96 z =+1.96
0.475 0.475
0.25 0.25

22
Because the distribution is symmetric and the interval is equal on each side of the
1
population mean,   (95%) or 0.4750 of the area falls on each side of the mean. The Z
2
table gives a Z value of 1.96 for this portion of the normal curve. Thus, the Z value for a
95% confidence interval is always 1.96. In other words, of all the possible x values
along the horizontal axis of the diagram, 95% of them should fall within a Z score of 1.96
from the population mean. Now, we can estimate the population mean by substituting
1.96 in place of Z.
 
xZ    xZ
n n
10 10
50 - 1.96    50  1.96
25 25
50  3.92    50  3.92
46.10    53.92
Interpretation: it can be said that with 95% confidence that the population mean is
between 46.10 and 53.92.

Example -2: The director of sale for an auto manufacturer wants to estimate the
average Birr damage to new Autos when driven into a brick wall at 20 miles per hour.
The director is authorized to use three autos. Assuming that the birr value of damage is
normally distributed and the sample results for crushing the three autos are Br. 1350, Br.
1450 and Br. 1500;
a) What is the point estimate of the average Br. Damage for the population of all
cars of this type manufactured by the company?
b) Construct a 99% confidence estimate interval for the population average Br.
Damage?

Solution:
Xi = Br. 1350, Br. 1450, Br. 1500; n = 3

23
 xi 1350  1450  1500
a) Sample mean ( x ) : x  =  1433.33
n 3

b) Confidence interval estimate; C = 99%

Sx 
 (x i  x) 2
=
(1350  1433.33) 2  (1450  1433.33) 2  (1500  1433.33) 2
n 1 3 1

11,666.67
Sx  ≈ 76.38
2

S 76.38
Sx    44.10
n 3

 1  0.99
With C = 99%,   0.005
2 2
V  n  1  3  1  2 ; t 0.005, 2  9.925

S S
x  t    x  t
2
,V n 2
,V n

 76.38   76.38 
1433.33  9.925     1433.33  9.925 
 3   3 

995.61    1871

Interpretation: we can state with 99% confidence that the average birr damage for the

population of cars produced by the company lies between birr 995.61 and birr 1871.

2.1.2.2.2 Interval estimations of the population proportion P 

If a simple random sample of size n is selected from a population that has p as the
proportion of successes, the sample proportion of successes is symbolized as p ; and

q  1  p . The formulas are:

24
 number of successes in a sample size of n
p
n

q  1 p

The confidence interval estimate for a population proportion is determined in either of the
following ways.
i. P known and population normal; z-distribution is used.

pq pq
The interval is given as: p  Z  p  p  Z
2
n 2
n
ii. If sample size n ≥ 30; P unknown, z-distribution is used.

pq pq
The interval is given as: p  Z  p  p  Z
2
n 2
n
iii. P unknown, n < 30, and population normal; t-distribution is used.

pq pq
The interval is given as: p  t , , v  p  p  t , v
2
n 2
n
Example-1: A random sample of 500 houses in a city disclosed that 125 of these houses

had colour sets. Find a 98% confidence interval for the proportion of houses in the city

with colour TV sets.

Solution:
1. First we have to compute the sample proportion of coloured TV sets:
125
p  0.25 q  1  p  1  0.25  0.75
500


2. Then we have to find out
2
 1  c 1  0.98
   0.01
2 2 2

25
3. Then we have to look up Z  from the table and we find
2

Z 0.01  2.33

4. Finally we have constructed the interval using the formula

pq pq
p  Z  p  p  Z
2
n 2
n

0.25(0.75) 0.25(0.75)
0.25  2.33  p  0.25  2.33
500 500

 0.205  p  0.295

Interpretation:

It can be said with 98% confidence that the population proportion of houses in the city
with colour TV sets lies between 20.5% and 29.5%.

Example-2: A department store owner wants to determine the proportion of its charge
accounts having an unpaid balance birr 500 or more. A sample of 250 accounts revealed
that 100 of them had an unpaid balance of Br. 500 or more. Develop a 95% confidence
interval for the proportion of the population.

Solution:
Given: n= 250, x = 100, c = 0.95
1. First we have to compute the sample proportion of unpaid charge accounts:
100
p  0.4 q  1  p  1  0.4  0.6
250


2. Then we have to find out
2
 1  c 1  0.95
   0.025
2 2 2

26
3. Then we have to look up Z  from the table and we find
2

Z 0.025  1.96

4. Finally we have constructed the interval using the formula

pq pq
p  Z  p  p  Z
2
n 2
n

0.4(0.6) 0.4(0.6)
0.4  1.96  p  0.4  1.96
250 250

 0.339  p  0.461

Interpretation:

It can be said with 95% confidence that the population proportion of charge accounts lies
between 33.9% and 46.1%.

2.1.2.2.3 Interval estimation of the difference between two means 

i. The formula for the confidence interval estimate for 1   2 when the population

is normal and the population standard deviation is known is as follows:

Zx 
x  x      
1 2 1 2
1  x2
 x x
1 2

Rearranging the formula;

1   2  x1  x 2  Z   x  x
1 2
2

Where 1   2 = difference between two population mean

x1  x2 = Difference between two sample means
 x  x = standard error of the difference between two means.
1 1

27
  1 2  22
 x x  
1 2
n1 n2

ii. Interval estimation of the unknown difference between two population means
1  2  when population is normal, population standard deviation is unknown and n
is large;

The formula for constructing a confidence interval for 1   2 is as follows:

1   2  x1  x2  z  s x  x 1 2
2

 s1 2 s 2 2 
sx x    

1 2
n
 1 n 2 

iii. Confidence interval estimate for 1   2 , when the population is normal, 1 and  2
are unknown and sample size is small

In this case the formula for constructing a confidence interval for 1   2 is as follows:

1   2  x1  x2  t  , v s x  x 1 2
2

Where: ν is the pooled degree of freedom which is calculated as:   n1  n2  2 and

s 2 s 2 
s x  x   1  2 
 n1 n2 
1 2

Example: A company is interested in estimating the difference between the mean credit
card balances at two of its branches. Independent samples of credit card customers
provide the following results.

28
 B1 B2
n1 = 32 n2 = 36
x1  500 x 2  375
s1 = Br. 150 s2 = Br. 130
Develop a 99% confidence interval estimate of the difference between population mean
balances.

Solution:

1. Calculate sx x
1 2

sx x 
s12 s 22
 
1502  1302  34.243
1 2
n1 n2 32 36


2. Calculate
2

 1  c 1  0.99
   0.005
2 2 2

3. Look up Z  from the table

2

Z 0.005  2.58

4. Construct the confidence interval using the formula

x1  x2  Z  s x  x  1   2  x1  x2  Z  s x  x
1 2 1 2
2 2

500-375-2.58(34.243) ≤ 1  2  ≤500-375+2.58(34.243)

29
  36.65  1   2  213.35

Interpretation: It can be stated with a 99% confidence that the mean credit card balance
at the two branches lies between birr 36.65 and birr 213.35.

Section Two: Sample size determination in statistical inference

Section Objectives:
Up on completing this section, you will be able to:
- Understand factors used in the determination of sample size.
- Identify basic formulas in sample size determination.
- Compute sample size sufficient enough for making a decision
- Identify sample size for an unknown population parameters desired to be
estimated.

Section Outline:
4.2.1 Sample size determination in statistical inference

2.2.1 Sample size determination in statistical inference

There are three factors that determine sample size.
a) The degree of confidence level selected (C)
The higher the confidence level the larger the sample size and vice versa.
b) The maximum tolerable error (e)
It is the maximum error that will be tolerable at a specified confidence level. It refers to
the maximum difference between the sample statistic and population parameter with
equal confidence level.
c) The population variation (δ)
A population with higher variation requires larger sample size.
Steps in determining sample size:

30
If the sample statistic is normally distributed in accordance with the central limit theorem,
sample size can be estimated using the following steps.

Step – 1: Determine the confidence level

A higher confidence level requires a larger sample size. The appropriate Z- value is then
found just in the procedure for interval estimates.

Step – 2: Determine how much error (e) is tolerable

The magnitude of error will depend on how critical an accurate estimate is. A smaller
tolerable error requires a larger sample size.

Step – 3: Determine the population standard deviation or the population proportion and
if it is unknown estimate it
This can be done by using () or (p) possibly from a previous study. Another possibility
is to conduct a pilot study, taking a small sample and using the sample standard deviation
(S) or the sample proportion ( p ) to estimate the population standard deviation or the
population proportion.

Step – 4: Based on the information gathered in step 1 through 3 determine the sample
size by using the formula:
a) Sample size for estimating a population mean n 

The confidence interval estimate of  is

x 
x  Z    x  Z x
2 n 2 n

The above is of the form x  e where

x
e  Z
2 n

31
Squaring both sides, we have
Z 2 S x2
e2  2
n
Solving for n, we have
2
Z 2  x2  Z  x 
 
n 2
 2 
e2  e 
 
Thus, the sample size that is large enough to estimate the unknown population mean is
given as:

2
 Z  x 
 
n   2 
 e 
 

If the population standard deviation (δ) is unknown, we will use the sample standard

deviation(S) to estimate it and the formula is read as:

2
 Z  sx 
 
n   2 
 e 
 

Remark: If  and S is unknown, we can roughly approximate  by the following

formula:

Highest point - Lowest point

 
4

b) Determination of sample size for estimating a population proportion (n p )

The confidence interval estimate for p is

32
 pq
p  p  Z
2
n
pq pq
Let us call Z  the error term and symbolize it by e. Thus, e  Z 
2
n 2
n
So, we can express the confidence interval as follows:
p  pe
If we square both sides of
pq
e  Z
2
n
We obtain,
pq
e 2  Z 2
2
n
When we rearrange the above we get
Z 2 p q
n 2

e2
Therefore, the formula for n p , the sample size needed in estimating a population
proportion with confidence coefficient c, is

Z 2 pq
np  2

e2
If the planning value p is not known, use the sample proportion ( p ) to determine the
sample size (n).

Z 2 pq
np  2
e2
Remark:

For a population proportion, when we are not provided with a population value but
provided with two estimates, select the one closer to p = 0.5.
Assume the following values;
i) When p is between 0.6 and 0.8, select 0.6 as p.

33
 ii) When p is between 0.4 and 0.6, select 0.5 as p.
iii) When p is between 0.3 and 0.45, select 0.45 as p.

Example: Suppose a university is performing a survey of the annual earnings of

graduates from its school of management. It knows from past experience that the standard
deviation of the annual earnings of the entire population of graduates is about Br. 1500.
How large a sample size should the university take in order to estimate the mean annual
earnings of the graduates within + 500 birr and at a 98% confidence level.

Solution:
e  500 c= 0.98
  1500
2
 Z  
 
n   2 
 e 
 
Therefore we have to calculate Z 
2
 1  c 1  0.98
   0.01
2 2 2
Z 0.01  2.33
2
 2.33(1500) 
 n    ≈ 49
 500 

Therefore, there sample size should be 49.

Example: To evaluate the effect of its advertising Pepsi cola wants to learn what
proportion of consumers know the company’s product slogan. The slogan has been used
in many newspapers and television advertisements. Marketing experts think the
proportion will be as low as 15% and as high as 45%. The proportion is to be estimated to
be with in + 5% with a confidence coefficient of 95%.
What should the sample be if the company wants to be on the safer side?

34
Solution:

e = 0.05 c = 0.95
P = 0.45
Z 2 pq
np  2
e2
To use the above formula we have to first calculate the values of Z  and q.
2
q  1 p
 1  0.45  0.55
 1  c 1  0.95
   0.025
2 2 2
Z   Z 0.025  1.96
2
We can now substitute the above figures in to the formula to obtain the sample size.
Z 2 pq
np  2 2
e


1.962 (0.45)(0.55)
(0.05) 2
 381
Therefore, the sample size is 381 to be on the safer side.

35
Unit Summary

 Estimation is the process of predicting or estimating the unknown population

parameter through sampling.
 A point estimate is a single value of an estimator.
 Interval estimate specifies the range of values with in which the unknown
population parameter is expected to lie.
Before going to the next unit, make sure you know the following :
 How to make point estimations of different population parameters.
 How to make interval estimations of different population parameters.
 How to determine sample size

Key Formulas :

x
 xi
n

Sx 
 (x i  x) 2
n 1

pq
Sp 
n

 
xZ    xZ
n n

S S
xZ    xZ
n n

S
  x  t
2
V n

36
 pq pq
p  Z  p  p  Z
2
n 2
n

pq pq
p  Z  p  p  Z
2
n 2
n

1   2  x1  x 2  Z   x  x
1 2
2

1   2  x1  x2  z  s x  x 1 2
2

2
 Z  
 
n   2 
 e 
 

Z 2 pq
np  2
e2

Key Terms:

 Estimation  Statistic
 Point estimate  Variability
 Estimator
 Interval estimate
 Estimate
 Confidence level
 Parameter
 Precision

37
 UNIT THREE
HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Unit Objectives

After a thorough study of this unit, you will be able to:

 Define hypothesis and hypothesis testing
 Understand major types of hypotheses and tests
 Identify errors in hypothesis testing
 Know the steps in hypothesis testing
 Conduct a hypothesis test about a population mean
 Conduct a hypothesis test about a population proportion
 Explain and interpret the result of any hypothesis testing
 Develop acquaintance with hypothesis testing and its application in business
decision making.
 Develop an insight on test statistic and forms of hypothesis

Unit Introduction
In most managerial decisions, we may prefer to make justifications based on sample
evidence regarding values of a population. For this reason, our emphasis area is on testing
a given proposed or hypothesized parametric value depending on sample evidence
availed whether the hypothesis is a reasonable statement and should not be rejected or is
unreasonable and should be rejected. That is, a statement about an unknown population
parameter is justified to be accepted or rejected from information contained in a sample
value (statistic) taken from the population. On top of this, we need to be well acquainted
with the fundamentals of hypothesis testing and their managerial applications in making
sound decisions. This unit, therefore, is dedicated to our study of hypothesis testing
which include tests about a population mean, a population proportion, the difference
between population means and between population proportions. For simplicity, the unit is
organized in to sections as indicated below.

38
Unit Outline:
3.1.1 Basic concepts, terminologies and errors in hypothesis testing,
results of hypothesis testing, one-tailed versus two-tailed tests, and
test statistic & forms of hypothesis.
3.2.1 One tail and two tail tests of a population mean and a population
proportion.
3.2.2 One tail and two tail tests of the difference between two population
means.

Section One: Basic concepts, Terminologies and Errors in Hypothesis

Testing

Section Objectives:
Up on completing this section, you will be able to:
- Define hypothesis and hypothesis testing.
- Identify basic concepts in hypothesis testing.
- Identify and describe common errors in hypothesis testing.
- Understand results of hypothesis testing
- Differentiate between one-tailed and two-tailed tests
- Explain test statistics and forms of hypothesis

Section Outline:
3.1.1.1 Basic concepts and terminologies in hypothesis testing.
3.1.1.2 Errors in hypothesis testing.
3.1.1.3 Results of hypothesis testing
3.1.1.4 One – tailed versus Two – tailed tests
3.1.1.5 Test statistic and forms of hypothesis

39
3.1.1 Basic Concepts, Terminologies and Errors in Hypothesis Testing
3.1.1.1 Basic Concepts and Terminologies in Hypothesis Testing

 Hypothesis: is a statement or an assumption made about the value of a population

parameter developed for the purpose of testing.

E.g. the average annual income of business and economics graduates these days is greater
than Br. 10000. Sample or census data and probability calculations are then used to check
the reasonableness of the statement.

Hypothesis Null hypothesis (Ho)

Alternative hypothesis (Ha)

 Null Hypothesis (Ho): is the statement or claim about the value of a population
parameter. It is set up for the purpose of either accepting or rejecting it.
Null hypothesis (Ho) is a statement that will be accepted if the sample data fail to provide
us with convincing evidence that it is incorrect(false).
 Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): is a statement that will be accepted if our sample
data provide sufficient evidence that Ho is false.
In thorough research undertakings, the null and alternative hypothesis are formulated so
that the rejection of Ho supports the conclusion and further actions be taken. The research
hypothesis therefore should be expressed as the alternative hypothesis.
 Hypothesis Testing: is a procedure based on sample evidence and probability
theory used to determine whether the hypothesis is a reasonable statement and
should not be rejected or is unreasonable and should be rejected.

3.1.1.2 Errors in Hypothesis Testing

In either accepting or rejecting Ho, two types of errors are committed.

 Type I error: is to reject Ho when it is actually true. The probability of committing

such an error is denoted by alpha (  ).

40
  Type II error: refers to the failure to reject Ho when it is actually false. The
probability of committing such error is denoted by beta (  ).
The probability  is called the level of significance. The significance level is the risk we
assume of rejecting the null hypothesis while it is actually true.

3.1.1.3 Results of Hypothesis Testing

Ho is true Ho is false
Accept Ho Correct decision Type II error
Reject Ho Type I error Correct decision

A researcher usually aims at setting the probability of making type I error at low level as
it is too unaffordable to commit such types of errors.

3.1.1.4 One – tailed versus two – tailed tests

A one-tailed test occurs when the alternative hypothesis (Ha) specifies direction.

Example
Ho: The mean income of female stockbrokers is at least $ 85,000 per year.
Ha: The mean income of female stockbrokers is less than $ 85,000 per year.

 A test is two tailed when Ha does not specify any direction.

Example
Ho: The mean weight of students in a university is 60 kg.
Ha: The mean weight of students in a university is different from 60 kg.

3.1.1.5 Test statistic and forms of hypothesis

A test statistic is the value (quantity) computed using sample information to test a
hypothesis. It is used to decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis. The major
types of test statistics are: Z, t, χ2, F and there are three applicable hypothesis forms
which Ho contains; “=”, “>” or “<”.

41
a) Ho:  = 5 This leads to two tailed test

Ha:   5
* Decision Rule: reject Ho, if /sample Z/ > Z  /2

C = 98%

-2.33 2.33

If sample Z = 2.5,/2.5/> 2.33; so, reject it.

If sample Z = 2 /2/ > 2.33, accept it.
b) Ho:  < 10 This leads to a one tailed test
Ha:  > 10 (Right tailed test)
* Decision Rule: reject Ho, if sample Z > Z 
c) Ho:  > 5 one tailed test
Ha:  < 5
* Decision Rule: reject Ho, if sample Z < -Z 

Steps in Hypothesis Testing

Step 1: state the null and alternative hypothesis.
Step 2: determine the level of significance and find the Z or t value for the level of
significance and then form the decision rule.


For a one tailed test use Z  or t 
 For a two tailed test use Z  /2 or t  /2
Step 3: Take a random sample from the population and compute the appropriate test
statistic, Z or t.

42
 x
 sample Z = if  x is known
x
x
= if  x is unknown
sx
x
 sample t =
sx

Step 4: Based on steps 2 and 3, make a decision (Accept or Reject Ho).

Section Two: One-tailed and Two-tailed tests of the Mean, the Proportion,
and Difference between two Independent Means

Section Objectives:
Up on completing this section, you will be able to:
- Undertake one-tailed and two tailed tests of the mean.
- Conduct one-tailed and two tailed tests of the proportion.
- Conduct one-tailed and two tailed tests of the difference between two
independent means.

Section Outline:
3.2.1 One tail and two tail tests of a population mean and proportion.
3.2.1.1 One tail and two tail tests of a population mean
3.2.1.2 One – tailed and two tailed tests of a population proportion
3.2.2 One tailed and two tailed tests of the difference between two means

3.2.1 One tail and two tail tests of population mean and proportion
3.2.1.1 One tail and two tail tests of population mean
In testing a population mean (  );
a) use the sample Z statistic when :
i) the population is normal and  x is known
x
Sample Z =
x

43
 ii) the sample size n > 30
b) Use the sample t test statistic when the population is normal,  x is unknown and
n < 30.
x
Sample t =
sx
Example-1:
Suppose an employer wishes to know the hypothesis that the true typing level of
secretaries is at least 200 words per hour. A sample of 36 executive secretaries is selected
and the sample mean is found to be 185 words per hour with a standard deviation of 25
words per hour.
a) Assuming a 90% confidence level, state and test the appropriate hypothesis.
b) What is the implication of the test result?

Solution:
a)
Step 1: state the null (Ho) and alternative (Ha) hypothesis;
Ho:  > 200 one tailed (left)
Ha  < 200
Step 2: Form the decision rule;
C = 0.9  = 0.1
n = 36, x = 185, Sx = 25
Use Z  , because  x is unknown and n> 30.
Z  , Z0.1 = -1.28, negative because it is to the left of  .
Step 3: Compute the test statistic;
sx 25 25
Sx     4.16
n 36 6

x   185  200
Sample Z =   3.6
sx 4.16
Step 4: Make a decision
Sample Z < -1.28
-3.6< -1.28

44
* So, reject the null hypothesis (Ho)
b) The test result indicates that the true typing speed level of the secretaries is less than
200 words per hour.
Example -2:
During contract negotiations with officials of AT and T company, union officials claim
that the mean hourly wage paid by other companies in the region is higher than the mean
hours wage of $ 4.5 paid by AT and T company. Perform a hypothesis test at the 5%
level of significance if the mean wage of a random sample of 49 workers in other
companies is $ 4.65 and the standard deviation is 0.56 $.
Solution:
Step 1: State Ho and Ha;
Ho:  < 4.5 right tailed test
Ha:  > 4.5
n = 49
x = 4.65 Sx = 0.56
 = 4.5
 = 0.05
Z  = Z0.05 = 1.64
Step 2: Form the decision rule;
Reject Ho if sample Z > 1.64
Step 3: Compute the test statistic;
x   4.65  4.5
Sample Z =   1.88
sx 0.56
49
Step 4: Make a decision;
Reject Ho because sample Z (1.88) is greater than Z  (1.64).
Implication: the mean hourly wage paid by other companies is higher than what is paid
by AT and T company (i.e., 4.5).
Example - 3:
The Jamestown steel company manufactures and assembles desks and other office
equipments at several plants in western New York State. The weekly production of the

45
model A325 desk at the Fredonia plant is normally distributed, with mean of 200 and
S.D. of 16 desks. Recently, due to market expansion, new production methods have been
introduced and new employees hired. The vice president of manufacturing would like to
investigate whether there has been change in the weekly production of the model A325
desk. To put it another way, is the mean number of the desks produced at the Fredonia
plant different from 200 at 0.01 significance level? The mean production level for 50
weeks taken as a sample was 203.5.
Solution:
Step 1: state the null and alternative hypothesis;
Ho:  = 200 two tailed test because there is no direction specified.

Ha:   200
Step 2: form the decision rule;
The significance level is 0.01 and half of 0.01 i.e, 0.005 is in each tail. The area where Ho
is not rejected, located between the two tails, is therefore 0.99.

Ho not rejected
Area of Acceptance

C = 99%
-2.58 2.58

Reject Ho, if the computed sample Z is not between -2.58 and 2.58. i.e. /sample Z/> Z  /2

Step 3: compute the test statistic (sample Z);

x   203.5  200
Sample Z =   1.55
x 16 50
Step 4: Make a decision;
The computed value of sample Z = 1.55 is not in the rejection region.
i.e. /sample Z/ < 2.58
1.55<2.58

46
So, Accept Ho and we conclude that the population mean is not different from 200.

3.2.1.2 One tail and two tail tests of population proportion (P )

a) one tailed tests;
i) Left tail test;
Ho: P> Po Decision rule: reject Ho if sample Z < -Z 
Ha: P< Po
P  Po
Sample Z =
P
ii) Right (upper) tail test;
Ho: P≤ Po Decision rule: reject Ho if sample Z > Z 
Ha: P> Po
b) A two tailed tests;
Ho: P= Po Decision rule: reject Ho if /sample Z/ > Z  /2
Ha: P Po

Example 1:
The director of a college placement office claims that at least 80% of graduating seniors
have made employment commitment one month prior to graduation. At a 5% level of
significance, what is your conclusion if a sample of 100 seniors show that 75 actually
made employment commitment one month prior to graduation?

Solution:
Step 1: state Ho and Ha;
Ho: P> 0.8 left tail test
Ho: P< 0.8

Step 2: formulate the decision rule;

75
 = 0.05 p = 0.75 =
100

47
 n = 100
Z  /2 = -1.64
Decision rule: reject Ho if sample Z < -1.64.
Step 3: compute sample Z;

Po(1  Po) 0.8(1  0.8)

 p=   0.04
n 100

p  po 0.75  0.8
So, sample Z =   1.25
p 0.04
Step 4: Make a decision;
Sample Z < - 1.64
-1.25  -1.64  Accept Ho!
Implication: The claim made by the placement director is true.

Example 2:
A governmental agency will grant unemployment aid to a region if a sample shows
substantial evidence that more than 75% of the region’s workers are unemployed.
Perform a hypothesis test at the 2% level of significance if there are 170 unemployed in a
random sample of 2000 workers. What is implied by the test result?

Solution:
Step 1: state Ho and Ha;
Ho: P≤ 0.075 right tailed test
Ho: P> 0.075
Step 2: form the decision rule;
 = 0.02 x = 170
n = 2000 Z  = Z0.02 = 2.05
Step 3: compute the test statistic;
x 170
*p   0.085
n 2000
po (1  po ) 0.075(1  0.075)
p   0.0059
n 2000

48
 p  po 0.085  0.075
Sample Z =   1.69
p 0.0059

Step 4: Make a decision;

Accept Ho!
Implication: The governmental agency will not grant unemployment opportunity or aid.

3.2.2 One tail and two tail tests of the difference between two
population means

Assume that we start with two normal populations. Population 1 has mean of  1 and a

standard deviation of 1 . Population 2 has a mean of μ2 and a standard deviation of  2 .

Next we draw independent samples of size n1 and n2 from the respective populations and

compute the difference x1  x2 between the means of all pairs of samples. Then it can
be proved mathematically that the distribution of the difference between means,
 
distribution x1  x2 , is normal.
Remark:

 x  x  1   2
1 2

And a standard error of

 12  22
x  
1x
2 n1 n2
If we do not know the value of  1and 2 ; we estimate them by sample standard
deviations S1 and S2. If both sample sizes are greater than 30. Then we can assume that

distribution x  x  is normal, and we may use the sample standard error of the
1 2

difference between means to estimate the standard error of the distribution x  x . 1 2

49
 S12 S 22
Sx  
1x
2 n1 n2
So the test statistic is

x1  x2
Sample Z= Sx x
1 2

Remark: if  1and 2 are not known for small samples, it leads to a different formula
for computing the standard error.

Sx x 
n1  1S12  n2  1S 22  1 
1

n1  n2  2 n n2 
 1
1 2

Example:
In a wage distribution involving male and female employment independent samples
show the following hourly wage results:
Male Female
n1 = 44 n2 = 32

x1  Br.6.25
x2  Br.5.7
S1  Br.1 S2  Br.0.8
The null hypothesis is stated such that male employees have a mean hourly wage less
than or equal to that of female employees. Test the hypothesis with 5% significance level.

Solution:

Ho : 1   2 ...1   2  0
i)
Ha : 1   2 ...1   2  0
The Ha has the > sign; so the test is a right tail test with a tail area Z 0.05 = 1.64

50
ii. The decision rule is then;
Reject Ho if sample Z > 1.64

S12 S 22
iii. S x  
1x
2 n1 n2

12 0.82
   0.2067
44 32

x1  x 2 6.25  5.7
SampleZ    2.66
Sx x 0.2067
1 1

iv) Reject Ho!

Remark: For small sample test when  1  2; suppose we have two normal
populations whose standard deviations are unknown but are equal. If the independent
samples used in testing means are small (30 or less), then the test is based upon the
students t distribution.
The decision rule is formed as tα, v (or t  for a two tail test) where ν = degrees of
,
2
freedom = n1+n2-2 (in this two sample test, two degrees of freedom are lost).

The test statistic sample t has the same symbols we use for large sample Z test.
x1  x2
Sample t = S 
x 1 x2

51
Unit Summary
In this unit, null hypothesis about values of population parameter are tested against
alternative hypothesis.
The tests presented in this unit are listed below.
 Tests of the mean: The three possible forms of hypotheses about population
mean are:
a) Ho: μ ≤ μn
Ha: μ > μn
b) Ho: μ ≥ μn
Ha: μ < μn
c) Ho: μ = μn
Ha: μ≠ μn
 Tests of a Proportion:
a) Ho: P≤ Pn
Ha: P > Pn
b) Ho: P ≥ Pn
Ha: P < Pn
c) Ho: P= 0.04
Ha: P  0.04

 Large Sample Testes Of The Difference Between Two Means (Independent

Samples)
H 0 : 1   2  0
a)
H a : 1   2  0
H 0 :   n
b)
H a :   n
H 0 : 1   2  0
c)
H a : 1   2  0

52
 UNIT FOUR
CHI SQUARE (χ2) DISTRIBUTION

Unit Objectives

After a thorough study of this unit, you will be able to:

 Define chi square distribution
 Understand nature of chi square distributions
 Identify areas of application of chi square distributions
 Conduct test of independence (contingency table test) and test of equality.
 Conduct Goodness – of – fit test for the normal, binomial, and Poisson
distributions.
 Compute χ2 critical values and make decisions
 Explain and interpret the results of chi square tests

Unit Introduction
A chi-square distribution involves using sample data to test for the independence of two
variables.
In this chapter your will learn to perform tests for equality of proportions, test of
independence and goodness-of-fit-tests for the common probability distributions. The
latter is applied to check assumptions made about populations. The tests are useful as
many problems in statistical inferences are solved by assuming a particular probability
distribution for the population. For example, by performing a goodness-of-fit-test, you
can find out whether it is reasonable to assume that a population has a particular
distribution such as, binomial, normal or poison distribution. This unit, therefore, is
dedicated to our study of chi square distribution. The unit is organized in to sections as
indicated below.

53
Unit Outline:
4.1.1 Introduction to chi square distribution.
4.2.1 Test of independence (contingency table test).
4.2.2 Test of equality of two or more population proportions.
4.2.3 Goodness – of – fit tests (Binomial, normal and Poisson
distributions).

Section One: Introduction to chi square (χ2) Distribution

Section Objectives:
Up on completing this section, you will be able to:
- Define chi square distribution.
- Understand basic nature of chi square distribution.
- Identify and describe properties of sample chi square.
- Know areas of application of chi square distribution.

Section Outline:
4.1.1.1 Definition of chi square distribution
4.1.1.2 Properties of chi square distribution
4.1.1.3 Areas of application of chi square distribution

4.1.1 Introduction to Chi Square Distribution

4.1.1.1 Definition:
A chi-square distribution (χ2 – distribution) is a continuous probability distribution used
for statistical tests such as tests of independence, tests for equality and goodness-of-fit
tests. A chi-square distribution involves using sample data to test for the independence of
two variables.
The mathematical expressions for the chi square distribution contains only one parameter,
the number of degrees of freedom, V.

54
There is a particular chi-square distribution for each particular number of degrees of
freedom.

The distribution Z2 (the square of the standard normal variable) is the chi-square
distribution with V= 1 degree of freedom. The random variable of the distribution is
denoted by χ2. The random variable of the distributions is denoted by χ2 (χ is the Greek
letter Chi – which is read as “ki”). The χ2 distribution is a continuous distribution and
since it is a probability distribution, the total area under each curve is 1.
. The figure above shows chi-square distributions for V=2, 5 and 10 degrees of freedom.

4.1.1.2 Properties of sample chi square distribution

1. The variable χ2 (the computed value) cannot be negative, because chi-square
curve do not extend to the left of zero (because the difference between fo and fe is
squared).
When V exceeds 2, chi-square curves have one mode and are skewed to the right.
When V is very large (i.e. n is large) the chi-square distribution is almost the same
as normal distribution having a mean equal to V and a standard deviation equal to
2V .
The significance level 2 will be right tail areas of chi-square distribution. The symbol
x2  , V, will mean the value of the chi-squire such that the distribution with degree of
freedom V has a right tail area of  .

55
 2. The mathematical expression for the chi-square distribution contains only one
parameter, the number of degree of freedom (V). There is a particular chi-square
distribution for each particular number of degrees of freedom.
3. The chi-square distribution is positively skewed. However, as the number of
degrees of freedom increases, the distribution begins approximating the normal
distribution.

4.1.1.3 Areas of application of a chi square distribution

The chi-square distribution is used to:
1. Perform tests of independence between two or more variables (contingency table
tests).
2. Examine the equality of several population proportions.
3. Conduct goodness-of-fit-tests.

Section Two: Test of Independence, Test of Equality and Goodness-of-

fit Tests

Section Objectives:
Up on completing this section, you will be able to:
- Conduct test of independence between two or more variables.
- Conduct test of equality of two or more population proportions.
- Conduct goodness-of-fit tests for binomial, normal and Poisson
distributions.

Section outline:
4.2.1 Test of independence
4.2.2 Test of equality
4.2.3 Goodness-of-fit tests:
4.2.3.1 Goodness-of-fit test for the binomial distribution
4.2.3.2 Goodness-of-fit test for the Poisson distribution
4.2.3.3 Goodness-of-fit test for the normal distribution

55
4.2.1 The Chi Square Distribution as Test of Independency (Contingency
Table Test)
The chi-square distribution involves using sample data to test for the independence of
two variables.

Example:
Consider the test of independence conducted by the Coca Cola Company. In an
analysis of the market segments for the three major types of soft drinks Coca Cola,
Sprite and Fanta the firm’s market research team has raised the question of whether or
not preferences for the three soft drinks differ among male and female consumers.

Based on the study results, the company can adjust its advertising strategies etc.

Contingency table for soft drink preference and sex of soft drink customers
Column category
Row category Coca Cola Sprite Fanta Row total
Male Cell (1,1) Cell (1,2) Cell (1,3) XXX
Female Cell (2,1) Cell (2,2) Cell (2,3) XXX
Column total XXX XXX XXX Grand total

After identification of the population as male and female soft drink consumers, a
sample can be drawn and every individual in the sample will be classified in one of
the six cells in the table. For example, an individual may be a male preferring Coca
Cola (cell 1, 1), a female preferring Sprite (cell 2, 2) etc. Since all the possible
combinations of the soft drinks and sex types are listed, we call it a contingency table.
The contingency table test determines whether or not two categorical variables are
related to each other. The data necessary for the contingency table consists of sample
measurements arranged in rows (r) and columns (c). The actual sample measurements
are called observed frequencies (fo).

56
 Steps in Testing a Contingency Table for Independence:
Step 1: state Ho and Ha
Ho: The row and column categories are independent
Ha: The row and column categories are not independent.
Step 2: form the decision rule
Reject Ho if the sample χ2> χ2  , V
Where  = the level of significance
V = (r-1) (c-1)
r: number of rows
c: number of columns
Step 3: compute sample χ2
( fo  fe) 2
Sample χ2 =  fe
Where fe: expected frequency for contingency table in row and column based on the
assumption of independence.
fo: observed frequency for contingency table in row and column.
Row total (RT ) X column total (CT)
Expected frequency=
Grand total (GT)

( fo  fe) 2
The formula χ2 =  fe shows that the larger the square differences are

relative to their respective expected frequencies, the larger will be the value of the
sample χ2. Therefore, large values of the sample χ2 lead to rejecting the independence
hypothesis.

Step 4: make a decision

Reject Ho if sample χ2 > χ2,  , V
Where  = significance level of the test,
df = V = (r-1) (c-1)

57
 Example:
A statistician of a government organization obtained data from a random sample of 250
workers classified by education and income level as shown below.

Education Income Level Row total

Background Low Medium High
Diploma 20*24 38*40 42*36 100
Degree 40*36 62*60 48*54 150
Column total 60 100 90 250

He wants to know if education has something to do with income level. Perform the test
for independence at the 5% level.

Solution:
Step 1: state Ho and Ha;
Ho: Income level is independent of education background.
Ha: Income level is not independent of education background.
Step 2: form the decision rule;
 = 0.05
V = (r-1) (c-1) = (2-1) (3-1) = 2
χ2  , V = χ2 0.05, 2 = 5.99
Decision rule: Reject Ho if sample χ2 > 5.99
Step 3: compute the sample χ2
 ( fo  fe) 2 
Sample χ2 =   fe 
 
RT.CT
fe =
GT
100 x100
fe for the first row, second column entry is 40 given by  40
250
100 x60
fe first row, first column =  24 and so on.
250

58
 fo fe fo-fe (fo-fe)2 (fo-fe)2/fe
20 24 -4 16 0.667
38 40 -2 4 0.100
42 36 6 36 1.000
40 36 4 16 0.444
62 60 2 4 0.067
48 54 -6 36 0.667
Sample χ2 2.945

Step 4: make the decision;

Accept the null hypothesis because sample χ2 (2.945) is less than 5.99 i.e. the income
level is independent of educational background.

4.2.2 The Chi Square Distribution as Test for Equality of Several

Population Proportions
The test for equal proportions is performed in exactly the same way as independence.
However, the hypotheses are stated in terms of equality.
Note:
Ho: The proportions in any row or column are equal.
P1 = P2 = --------- = PK
Ha: The proportions in at least one row or column are not equal.

Example:
A supervisor of a company has been inspecting the performance of a random sample of
200 workers to see if the proportions of performance of workers having different
educational levels are equal.
The findings are given below.

59
 Educational level
Supervisors rating No High school High school but not Completed high Row total
[1] completed [2] school [3]
Satisfactory 12 63 65 140
No satisfactory 8 17 35 60
Column total 20 80 100 200

Test at 5% level, the hypothesis that the population proportions of satisfactory workers in
educational levels, 1, 2, and 3 are equal.

Solution:
Step 1: state Ho and Ha
Ho: The population proportions of satisfactory rated workers in educational level
1, 2 and 3 are equal i.e. P1 = P2 = P3.
Ha: The proportions of satisfactory rated workers are not equal for all educational
levels, at least one may vary. P1 P2 P3.
Step 2: form the decision rule
 = 0.05 V = (r-1_ (c-1) = (2-1) (3-1) = 2
χ2  , V = χ2 0.05, 2 = 5.99
Reject Ho if sample χ2 > 5.99

Step 3: compute sample χ2

fo fe fo-fe (fo-fe)2 (fo-fe)2/fe
12 14 -2 4 0.286
63 56 7 49 0.875
65 70 -5 25 0.357
8 6 2 4 0.667
17 24 -7 49 2.042
35 30 5 25 0.833
Sample χ2 = 5.06

60
Step 4: make the decision;
Accept the null hypothesis because sample χ2 (5.06) is less than the critical value (5.99)
separating the reject and do not reject Ho region.

Implication: Performance is not affected by an individual’s educational level.

4.2.3 Application of Sample χ for Goodness-of-fit Tests

A goodness-of-fit test is a statistical test to determine the likelihood that sample data has
been generated from a population that confirms to a specified (hypothesized) type of
probability distribution. Goodness-of-fit test is to determine how well an observed set of
data fits an expected set of data. The tests use sample data as a basis for accepting or
rejecting assumptions about a population’s distributions. The assumptions are stated as
the null hypothesis.
In performing a goodness-of-fit test;
 First compute the frequencies that would be expected if Ho is true.
 Second, use the differences between fo and fe to calculate sample χ2. Finally,
compare the sample χ2 with the appropriate χ2  , V to decide whether Ho should
be accepted or rejected.
Note: Goodness-of-fit tests differ from independence tests both in the method used to
compute expected frequencies and in the rule for determining the number of
degrees of freedom.
In this test, the method for calculating the expected frequencies depends on the
population assumptions that are made. And the number of degrees of freedom is
calculated as follows.

V= e-1-g
Where:  e: the number of values of fe used in computing the sample χ2.

g: number of population parameters estimated from a sample.

61
4.2.3.1 Goodness – of – fit test: Binomial Distribution
A particular binomial distribution is specified by the values of two parameters,  and P
where
 = the sample size or number of trials
P = probability of success
The expected frequency for the number of success in  trials is calculated by multiplying
each of the probabilities by the sample size i.e.
fe=  x P

Example:
A manufacturer packages drinking glasses in boxes of 50. All glasses from a sample of
100 boxes were examined and the number of defective glasses in each box was recorded.
The sample data is given below.

Number of defective glasses Number of boxes observed

in a box of 50 (fo)
0 69
1 22
2 4
3 1
4 3
5 1
Total 100

Required:
a) How many glasses were examined?
b) How many defective glasses were found?
c) Compute the sample proportion defectives.
d) Do the sample data support the null hypothesis that the numbers of defective
glasses in a box are binomially distributed?

62
Solution:
a) Number of glasses examined = (number of glasses per box) x (number of boxes)
= 50x100 = 5000 glasses
b) Number of defective glasses = (0 x 69) +(1x22) + (2x4) + (3x1) + (4x3) + (5x1)
= 50 glasses
n o of defective glasses 50
c) P    0.01
total n o of glasses examined 5000
d) Calculate the expected frequencies first (fe);
fe (0) =  .P = 100x0.605 = 60.5 ------ fe – I
fe (1) =  .P = 100x0.3056=30.56 --------- fe – II
fe (2) =  .P = 100x0.0756 = 7.56
fe (3) =  .P = 100x0.0122 – 1.22 = 8.94 = fe
fe (4) =  .p = 100x0.0015 = 0.15 Note = fo = 4+1+3+1 = 9
fe (5) =  .P = 100x0.001 = 0.01

Note: fe values should be at least 5 (i.e fe> 5).

 e = number of fe values = 3 i.e. (60.5, 30.56 and 8.94)

Compute sample χ2;

fo fe fo-fe (fo-fe)2 (fo-fe) 2/fe
69 60.5 8.5 72.25 1.194
22 30.56 -8.56 73.27 2.398
9 8.94 0.06 0.0036 0
Sample χ2 = 3.592

Step 1: State Ho and Ha

Ho: The numbers of defective glasses in a box are binomially distributed
Ha: The numbers of defective glasses in a box are not binomially distributed.

63
Step 2: Form the decision rule
 = 0.05, V =  e –g-1 = 3-1-1 =1
χ2  , V = χ2 0.05, 1 = 3.84
Decision rule: reject Ho if sample χ2> 3.84.

Step 3: The computed test statistic (above) is;

Sample χ2 = 3.592

Step 4: Make a decision

Accept Ho!
Implication: The hypothesis that the distribution of the number of defective glasses in a
box is binomially distributed is true.

4.2.3.2 Goodness – of – fit test: Normal Distribution

The goodness-of-fit test for a normal distribution is similar to that of the binomial
distribution, except the fact that the expected frequencies are determined using the
normal probabilities.
x x-x
Z or Z 
x Sx
The goodness-of-fit test for normality tries to address whether the observed values of a
frequency distribution coincide with the expected values based on a normal distribution.
The assumption of normality for a sampled population is also checked by making such a
test (goodness-of-fit tests for normality).

Example:
Do the random sample data below support the hypothesis that the population of test
scores are normally distributed with  = 500 and  = 100?
Perform a goodness-of-fit test at the 10% level.

64
 Solution:
Observed
Test intervals frequency (fo) Probability fe

Less than 260 3 0.0082 1.64

260 and under 340 5 8 0.0466 9.32 10.96
340 and under 420 35 0.1571 31.42
420 and under 500 63 0.2881 57.62
500 and under 580 51 0.2881 57.62
580 and under 660 28 0.1571 31.42
660 and under 740 8 0.0466 9.32
740 or more 7 15 0.0082 1.64 10.96
200 1.00 200
Must be equal
=
Computing the expected frequencies (fe);

x   260 - 500  240

Z at x  260      2.4
 100 100

δ =100

-2.4 μ = 500

P (less than 260) = the shaded area = 0.5 – 04918 = 0.0082

Remark: by the same token, we will find the area under the normal curve and compute
the probabilities for all observations.

65
 fo fe fo-fe (fo-fe)2 (fo-fe) 2/fe
8 10.96 -2.96 8.7616 0.7994
35 31.42 3.58 12.8164 0.4079
63 57.62 5.38 28.9444 0.5023
51 57.62 -6.62 43.8244 0.7606
28 31.42 -3.42 11.6964 0.3723
15 10.96 4.04 16.3216 1.4892
Sample χ2 = 4.3317

Step 1: State Ho and Ha

Ho: The population of test scores is normally distributed.
Ha: The population of test scores is not normally distributed.

Step 2: Form the decision rule

 = 0.1, V =  e-1-g = 6-1-0 = 5

* g is zero because we made no estimation for population parameters  and  are given
straight forward.

χ2  , V = χ2 0.1, 5 = 9.24

Decision rule: reject Ho if sample χ2> 9.24

Step 3: Compute the sample χ2 = 4.3317

Step 4: Make decision

Accept Ho! Because sample χ2 < 9.24
4.3317< 9.24.

Therefore, the population of test scores is normally distributed.

66
4.2.3.3 Goodness – of – fit test: Poisson Distribution
In conducting the goodness-of-fit tests for a population assumed to have a Poisson
distribution, one uses the Poisson formula to obtain the probabilities for the exclusive
events. These probabilities in turn are used to compute the expected frequencies.
The Poisson formula, as seen in the earlier sections is:
λt
P(x) = e- (λt)x
x!
Where x = number of arrivals in t units of time
λ = average arrival rate per unit of time
t = number of units of time

Example:
When a beer bottling filling machine breaks a bottle, the machine must be shutdown,
while the broken glass in removed. The production manager at Dashen Brewery has been
using a Poisson distribution with λ = 3 shutdowns per day, on overage, to determine the
probability of 0,1,2,3 ------ shutdowns per day in a random sample of 120 operation days,
as shown in the table below. Apply  = 0.05.

Number of shutdowns Number of

in a day (x) days (fo)
0 3
1 20
2 29
3 22
4 23
5 10
6 or more 13
120

Solution:

67
Compute fe values by first obtaining the probabilities for P (0), P (1) ---- P (6 or more).
e 3 3 0
P (0) =  0.0498
0!
fe (0) = 0.0498x120= 5.976 is the expected frequency of x = 0 shutdowns. See the rest in
the table below.

Number of shutdowns Number of Probabilities fe

in a day (x) days (fo) P (x)
0 3 0.0498 5.976
1 20 0.1494 17.928
2 29 0.2240 26.880
3 22 0.2240 26.880
4 23 0.1680 20.160
5 10 0.1008 12.096
6 or more 13 0.0840 10.080
120 1.00 120
Must be equal

fe-fo (fe-fo)2/fe
-2.976 1.482
2.072 0.239
2.120 0.167
-4.880 0.886
2.840 0.400
-2.096 0.363
2.920 0.846
Sample χ2 = 4.383

Step 1: State the null and alternative hypothesis

Ho: The number of shutdowns per day is a Poisson distribution with λ = 3 per day
Ha: The number of shutdowns per day is not a Poisson distribution with λ = 3 per day

68
Step 2: Form the decision rule
V =  e-1-g = 7-1- 0 = 6
 = 0.05, χ2 0.05, 6 = 12.592
Decision rule: Reject Ho if sample χ2 > 12.592.
Step 3: Compute sample χ2
Sample χ2 = 4.383
Step 4: Make a decision
The computed sample χ2 (4.383) does not exceed the critical value at  = 0.05
(i.e. 12.592), so Ho is accepted.
Therefore, the number of shutdowns per day is a Poisson distribution with λ = 3 per day.

Unit Summary
In this unit, we analyzed discrepancies between frequencies to that we actually observe in
a random sample and frequency fe that we would expect to occur if a stated null
hypothesis Ho is true.
 The sample test statistic used is :

2 ( fo  fe) 2
 Sample χ =
fe
 The distribution of this test static is closely approximated by the mathematical
chi-square distribution with parameter ν provided each fe value is at least five.
 The χ2 distribution has a single parameter ν - degree of freedom.
 Large values of χ2 indicate significant differences between the fo and the
frequency that would be expected if Ho is true.
 A contingency table is a set of observed sample frequencies fo arranged in the
cells of a table that has r-rows and c-columns.
 Tests of assumptions made about a population are called goodness-of-fit tests.
 The hypotheses in a contingency table for independence are:
 Ho: The row and column categories are independent

69
 UNIT FIVE
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)

Unit Objectives

After a thorough study of this unit, you will be able to:

 Define F - distribution
 Understand characteristics of F – distribution
 State the assumptions of ANOVA
 Identify application of F – distribution
 Describe the steps of ANOVA test
 Conduct test of equality of more than two populations means (perform ANOVA
test).
 Compute F – distribution critical values and make decisions
 Explain and interpret the results of F – distribution tests

Unit Introduction
In the preceding unit procedures for determining whether or not two populations have
equal means or proportions were explained. However, most management problems
involve more than two populations, and decision makers want to know whether the
means of these populations are equal or not. In this unit you will learn to perform tests
for equality of two or more population means. This unit, therefore, is dedicated to our
study of F – distribution. The unit is organized in to sections as indicated below.

70
Unit Outline:
5.1.1 Introduction to ANOVA.
5.1.2 Assumptions of ANOVA test.
5.1.3 Characteristics of F – distribution.
5.2.1 Basic concepts and formulas in ANOVA test.
5.2.2 Application of F – distribution for testing the equality of more than two
population means.

Section One: Introduction to ANOVA

Section Objectives:
Up on completing this section, you will be able to:
- Define ANOVA.
- Understand basic characteristics of F - distribution.
- Identify assumptions of ANOVA test.

Section Outline:
5.1.1 Introduction to ANOVA test.
5.1.2 Assumptions of ANOVA test.
5.1.3 Characteristics of F – distribution

5.1.1 Introduction to ANOVA

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a statistical procedure for determining whether or
not the means of three or more populations are equal. The test is called analysis of
variance because in performing a test, we decide whether to accept or reject the
hypothesis of equal population means by analyzing the variation (variance) in the
sample means taken from independent populations. The probability distribution used
in this unit is the F distribution. It was named to honor Sir Ronald Fisher one of the
founders of modern day statistics. It is applied when we want to compare several
population means simultaneously. This simultaneous comparison of several
population means is called analysis of variance (ANOVA).The ANOVA test is based
on the assumption that simple random samples are drawn independently from normal

71
 distributions that have the same variance. From these assumptions, mathematicians
derived the probability distribution of the sample F statistics. The distribution has
two parameters. They are the two degrees of freedom for the sample F, v1 and v2

v1 = degrees of freedom for the numerator

v2 = degrees of freedom for the denominator
When the k samples are of the sample size n
r1  k  1
r2  k (n  1)
Where k is number of samples and
n sample size
There is a separate F distribution for each pair of degrees of freedom. The distributions
have one mode and are skewed to the right (positively skewed).

In general, the larger v1 and v2 are the smaller is the F value where the right tail almost
touches the horizontal axis. In particular, when v1 and v2 are both at least 10, less than 1
percent of the area (probability) will be in the tail to the right of F = 5.

5.1.2 Assumptions of ANOVA Test

The ANOVA test is based on the following assumptions:
a) Simple random samples are drawn independently from normally distributed
populations.
b) The populations do have the same variance (  2).

Depending on the above assumptions, the probability distribution of the sample F –

statistic is derived which is given by the following formula:

n(Variance of sample means)

Sample F 
mean of sample variances

Where; n denotes the sample size for all the independent populations.

72
5.1.3 Characteristics of F - Distribution
1. It is a continuous probability distribution and the sample F cannot be negative
since variances can never be negative.
2. A particular member of the family of F distribution is determined by two basic
parameters: the degree of freedom in the numerator (V1) and the degree of
freedom in the denominator (V2). There is a family of F- distribution for each pair
of degrees of freedom V1 and V2.
3. The curve representing an F-distribution is positively skewed. Its values range
from 0 to  +.

73
 Section Two: The ANOVA Concept and Application of F – Distribution
for Testing Equality of more than Two Population Means

Section Objectives:
Up on completing this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the concept of ANOVA.
- Know basic formulas in ANOVA test and sample F computation.
- Conduct test of equality of more than two population means.

Section Outline:
5.2 Basic concepts and formulas in ANOVA test.
5.3 Application of an F – Distribution for testing equality of more than
two population means

5.2.1 Basic Concepts and Formulas in ANOVA Test

Steps in performing the ANOVA test:
Steps 1: State the null (Ho) and alternative (Ha) hypothesis,
Ho: The K population means are equal (i.e. 1   2   3  - - - - - -   k
Ha: The K population means are not equal.

Steps 2: Form the decision rule,

Reject Ho if sample F> F  ,V1 ,V2
Where V1 = K-1
V2 = K (n-1)

Step 3: Compute the appropriate test statistic i.e. Sample F

2
n (Variance of smaple menas) n( S x )
Sample F = 
mean of sample variances s2

Determine sample F using the following procedures;

First: Calculate sample means ( x1 , x 2    x k ) for each random sample of size n.

74
 x
x i

Second: Calculate sample variances (S12, S22 ----- Sk2) for each sample.

 (x
2
i  x)
S 2

n 1

Third: Calculate the mean of sample variances,

2 2 2 2 2
Sk S  S 2  S3  - - -  Sk
S 
2
 1
k k

Fourth: Calculate the grand mean ( x ),

xi x1  x 2      xk
x  
k k

Fifth: Calculate the variance of sample means (i.e. s x 2)

2
Sx 
 (x 1  x) 2
k 1
2
n( s x )
Sixth: Calculate sample F =
s2

Step 4: Make a decision (accept or reject Ho)

Note: If Ho is rejected, we conclude that the population means are not equal and if Ho is
accepted we conclude that the population means are equal.

75
 5.2.2 Application of an F – Distribution for testing equality of more
than two population means

The hypotheses of the test for equality of several population means is justified by F – test.
Dear! Distance learner! Let us take the following comprehensive example so as to clarify
the use of F – distribution in testing whether the means of more than two population
means are equal or not.

Example:
Four different paints are advertised as having the same drying time. To check the
manufacturer’s claim, five samples were tested for each paint. The time in minutes until
the painting was dry enough for a second coat to be applied was recorded. The following
data were gathered.
Paint 1 Paint 2 Paint 3 Paint 4
128 144 133 150
137 133 143 142
135 142 137 135
124 146 136 140
141 130 131 153
x 133 139 136 144
S2k 47.5 50 21 54.5

Test to see whether the mean drying time for each type of paint is the same;  = 0.05.

Solution:
Compute the sample F;
First: Calculate the sample means (see above)
Second: Calculate sample variances (S12, S2 ----);
(Done-see above)
Third: Determine mean of sample variances;

76
 2 2 2 2
S  S 2  S3  S 4
S  1
2

K
47.5  50  21  54.5
  43.25
4

Fourth: Compute the grand mean ( x ) (Average of sample means)

x k x1  x 2  x 3  x 4
x 
k 4

133  139  136  144

x  138
4
Fifth: Calculate the variance of sample means;

( x k  x) 2
Sx  
2

k 1

( x1  x) 2  ( x 2  x) 2  ( x 3  x) 2  ( x 4  x) 2

4 1
(133  138) 2  (139  138) 2  (136  138) 2  (144  138) 2
3
2 66
Sx   22
3
2
n(S x ) 5(22)
sample F  2
  2.54
S 43.25

Step 1: State Ho and Ha;

Ho: The mean drying time is the same for all the paints
Ha: The mean drying time is not the same for all the paints.

Step 2: Form the decision Rule;

  0.05 V1 = K-1 = 4-1 = 3
V2 = K (n-1) * sample F- Distribution
= 4(5-1) = 16 [see statistical table in the appendix]

77
F  , V1, V2 = F 0.05, 3, 16 = 3.24

Reject Ho if sample F > 3.24

Step 3: Compute the test statistic

[Sample F = 2.54, as done above]

Step 4: Make decision

Accept Ho! Because the sample statistic (i.e. sample F) is less than the critical value
 2.54< 3.24
Implication: The four paints do have the same mean drying time.

78
Unit Summary
Analysis of variance is a statistical procedure for determining whether or not the means
of three or more populations are equal. The conditions of the ANOVA test are that the
populations are normally distributed and have equal variance.
When the samples are of the same size n, the ANOVA test statistic can be computed with
the formula

Key Formulas:
 Reject Ho if sample F> F  ,V1 ,V2 ; Where V1 = K-1; V2 = K (n-1)
2
n (Variance of smaple menas) n( S x )
 Sample F = 
mean of sample variances s2

 x
x i

2 2 2 2 2
S S  S 2  S3  - - -  Sk
S  k  1
2

k k

xi x1  x 2      xk
x  
k k

2
Sx 
 (x 1  x) 2
k 1
2
n( s x )
Sample F =
s2

79
 Area between 0 and z

0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0753
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224
0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549
0.7 0.2580 0.2611 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2995 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767
2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857
2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916
2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952
2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964
2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.4980 0.4981
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986
3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990

Student's t Table

t table with right tail probabilities

df\p 0.40 0.25 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005 0.0005

1 0.324920 1.000000 3.077684 6.313752 12.70620 31.82052 63.65674 636.6192

2 0.288675 0.816497 1.885618 2.919986 4.30265 6.96456 9.92484 31.5991

3 0.276671 0.764892 1.637744 2.353363 3.18245 4.54070 5.84091 12.9240

4 0.270722 0.740697 1.533206 2.131847 2.77645 3.74695 4.60409 8.6103

5 0.267181 0.726687 1.475884 2.015048 2.57058 3.36493 4.03214 6.8688

6 0.264835 0.717558 1.439756 1.943180 2.44691 3.14267 3.70743 5.9588

7 0.263167 0.711142 1.414924 1.894579 2.36462 2.99795 3.49948 5.4079

8 0.261921 0.706387 1.396815 1.859548 2.30600 2.89646 3.35539 5.0413

9 0.260955 0.702722 1.383029 1.833113 2.26216 2.82144 3.24984 4.7809

10 0.260185 0.699812 1.372184 1.812461 2.22814 2.76377 3.16927 4.5869

11 0.259556 0.697445 1.363430 1.795885 2.20099 2.71808 3.10581 4.4370

12 0.259033 0.695483 1.356217 1.782288 2.17881 2.68100 3.05454 4.3178

13 0.258591 0.693829 1.350171 1.770933 2.16037 2.65031 3.01228 4.2208

14 0.258213 0.692417 1.345030 1.761310 2.14479 2.62449 2.97684 4.1405

15 0.257885 0.691197 1.340606 1.753050 2.13145 2.60248 2.94671 4.0728

16 0.257599 0.690132 1.336757 1.745884 2.11991 2.58349 2.92078 4.0150

17 0.257347 0.689195 1.333379 1.739607 2.10982 2.56693 2.89823 3.9651

18 0.257123 0.688364 1.330391 1.734064 2.10092 2.55238 2.87844 3.9216

19 0.256923 0.687621 1.327728 1.729133 2.09302 2.53948 2.86093 3.8834

20 0.256743 0.686954 1.325341 1.724718 2.08596 2.52798 2.84534 3.8495

21 0.256580 0.686352 1.323188 1.720743 2.07961 2.51765 2.83136 3.8193

22 0.256432 0.685805 1.321237 1.717144 2.07387 2.50832 2.81876 3.7921

23 0.256297 0.685306 1.319460 1.713872 2.06866 2.49987 2.80734 3.7676

24 0.256173 0.684850 1.317836 1.710882 2.06390 2.49216 2.79694 3.7454

25 0.256060 0.684430 1.316345 1.708141 2.05954 2.48511 2.78744 3.7251

26 0.255955 0.684043 1.314972 1.705618 2.05553 2.47863 2.77871 3.7066

27 0.255858 0.683685 1.313703 1.703288 2.05183 2.47266 2.77068 3.6896

28 0.255768 0.683353 1.312527 1.701131 2.04841 2.46714 2.76326 3.6739

29 0.255684 0.683044 1.311434 1.699127 2.04523 2.46202 2.75639 3.6594

30 0.255605 0.682756 1.310415 1.697261 2.04227 2.45726 2.75000 3.6460

inf 0.253347 0.674490 1.281552 1.644854 1.95996 2.32635 2.57583 3.2905

 Chi-Square Table

Right tail areas for the Chi-square Distribution

df\a
.995 .990 .975 .950 .900 .750 .500 .250 .100 .050 .025 .010 .005
rea

1 0.00004 0.00016 0.00098 0.00393 0.01579 0.10153 0.45494 1.32330 2.70554 3.84146 5.02389 6.63490 7.87944

2 0.01003 0.02010 0.05064 0.10259 0.21072 0.57536 1.38629 2.77259 4.60517 5.99146 7.37776 9.21034 10.59663

3 0.07172 0.11483 0.21580 0.35185 0.58437 1.21253 2.36597 4.10834 6.25139 7.81473 9.34840 11.34487 12.83816

4 0.20699 0.29711 0.48442 0.71072 1.06362 1.92256 3.35669 5.38527 7.77944 9.48773 11.14329 13.27670 14.86026

5 0.41174 0.55430 0.83121 1.14548 1.61031 2.67460 4.35146 6.62568 9.23636 11.07050 12.83250 15.08627 16.74960

6 0.67573 0.87209 1.23734 1.63538 2.20413 3.45460 5.34812 7.84080 10.64464 12.59159 14.44938 16.81189 18.54758

7 0.98926 1.23904 1.68987 2.16735 2.83311 4.25485 6.34581 9.03715 12.01704 14.06714 16.01276 18.47531 20.27774

8 1.34441 1.64650 2.17973 2.73264 3.48954 5.07064 7.34412 10.21885 13.36157 15.50731 17.53455 20.09024 21.95495

9 1.73493 2.08790 2.70039 3.32511 4.16816 5.89883 8.34283 11.38875 14.68366 16.91898 19.02277 21.66599 23.58935

10 2.15586 2.55821 3.24697 3.94030 4.86518 6.73720 9.34182 12.54886 15.98718 18.30704 20.48318 23.20925 25.18818

11 2.60322 3.05348 3.81575 4.57481 5.57778 7.58414 10.34100 13.70069 17.27501 19.67514 21.92005 24.72497 26.75685

12 3.07382 3.57057 4.40379 5.22603 6.30380 8.43842 11.34032 14.84540 18.54935 21.02607 23.33666 26.21697 28.29952

13 3.56503 4.10692 5.00875 5.89186 7.04150 9.29907 12.33976 15.98391 19.81193 22.36203 24.73560 27.68825 29.81947

14 4.07467 4.66043 5.62873 6.57063 7.78953 10.16531 13.33927 17.11693 21.06414 23.68479 26.11895 29.14124 31.31935

15 4.60092 5.22935 6.26214 7.26094 8.54676 11.03654 14.33886 18.24509 22.30713 24.99579 27.48839 30.57791 32.80132

16 5.14221 5.81221 6.90766 7.96165 9.31224 11.91222 15.33850 19.36886 23.54183 26.29623 28.84535 31.99993 34.26719

17 5.69722 6.40776 7.56419 8.67176 10.08519 12.79193 16.33818 20.48868 24.76904 27.58711 30.19101 33.40866 35.71847

18 6.26480 7.01491 8.23075 9.39046 10.86494 13.67529 17.33790 21.60489 25.98942 28.86930 31.52638 34.80531 37.15645
19 6.84397 7.63273 8.90652 10.11701 11.65091 14.56200 18.33765 22.71781 27.20357 30.14353 32.85233 36.19087 38.58226

20 7.43384 8.26040 9.59078 10.85081 12.44261 15.45177 19.33743 23.82769 28.41198 31.41043 34.16961 37.56623 39.99685

21 8.03365 8.89720 10.28290 11.59131 13.23960 16.34438 20.33723 24.93478 29.61509 32.67057 35.47888 38.93217 41.40106

22 8.64272 9.54249 10.98232 12.33801 14.04149 17.23962 21.33704 26.03927 30.81328 33.92444 36.78071 40.28936 42.79565

23 9.26042 10.19572 11.68855 13.09051 14.84796 18.13730 22.33688 27.14134 32.00690 35.17246 38.07563 41.63840 44.18128

24 9.88623 10.85636 12.40115 13.84843 15.65868 19.03725 23.33673 28.24115 33.19624 36.41503 39.36408 42.97982 45.55851

25 10.51965 11.52398 13.11972 14.61141 16.47341 19.93934 24.33659 29.33885 34.38159 37.65248 40.64647 44.31410 46.92789

26 11.16024 12.19815 13.84390 15.37916 17.29188 20.84343 25.33646 30.43457 35.56317 38.88514 41.92317 45.64168 48.28988

27 11.80759 12.87850 14.57338 16.15140 18.11390 21.74940 26.33634 31.52841 36.74122 40.11327 43.19451 46.96294 49.64492

28 12.46134 13.56471 15.30786 16.92788 18.93924 22.65716 27.33623 32.62049 37.91592 41.33714 44.46079 48.27824 50.99338

29 13.12115 14.25645 16.04707 17.70837 19.76774 23.56659 28.33613 33.71091 39.08747 42.55697 45.72229 49.58788 52.33562

30 13.78672 14.95346 16.79077 18.49266 20.59923 24.47761 29.33603 34.79974 40.25602 43.77297 46.97924 50.89218 53.67196
F Distribution Tables

F Table for alpha=.10.

df2/df1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 24 30 40

1 39.86346 49.50000 53.59324 55.83296 57.24008 58.20442 58.90595 59.43898 59.85759 60.19498 60.70521 61.22034 61.74029 62.00205 62.26497 62.52905

2 8.52632 9.00000 9.16179 9.24342 9.29263 9.32553 9.34908 9.36677 9.38054 9.39157 9.40813 9.42471 9.44131 9.44962 9.45793 9.46624

3 5.53832 5.46238 5.39077 5.34264 5.30916 5.28473 5.26619 5.25167 5.24000 5.23041 5.21562 5.20031 5.18448 5.17636 5.16811 5.15972

4 4.54477 4.32456 4.19086 4.10725 4.05058 4.00975 3.97897 3.95494 3.93567 3.91988 3.89553 3.87036 3.84434 3.83099 3.81742 3.80361

5 4.06042 3.77972 3.61948 3.52020 3.45298 3.40451 3.36790 3.33928 3.31628 3.29740 3.26824 3.23801 3.20665 3.19052 3.17408 3.15732

6 3.77595 3.46330 3.28876 3.18076 3.10751 3.05455 3.01446 2.98304 2.95774 2.93693 2.90472 2.87122 2.83634 2.81834 2.79996 2.78117

7 3.58943 3.25744 3.07407 2.96053 2.88334 2.82739 2.78493 2.75158 2.72468 2.70251 2.66811 2.63223 2.59473 2.57533 2.55546 2.53510

8 3.45792 3.11312 2.92380 2.80643 2.72645 2.66833 2.62413 2.58935 2.56124 2.53804 2.50196 2.46422 2.42464 2.40410 2.38302 2.36136

9 3.36030 3.00645 2.81286 2.69268 2.61061 2.55086 2.50531 2.46941 2.44034 2.41632 2.37888 2.33962 2.29832 2.27683 2.25472 2.23196

10 3.28502 2.92447 2.72767 2.60534 2.52164 2.46058 2.41397 2.37715 2.34731 2.32260 2.28405 2.24351 2.20074 2.17843 2.15543 2.13169

11 3.22520 2.85951 2.66023 2.53619 2.45118 2.38907 2.34157 2.30400 2.27350 2.24823 2.20873 2.16709 2.12305 2.10001 2.07621 2.05161

12 3.17655 2.80680 2.60552 2.48010 2.39402 2.33102 2.28278 2.24457 2.21352 2.18776 2.14744 2.10485 2.05968 2.03599 2.01149 1.98610

13 3.13621 2.76317 2.56027 2.43371 2.34672 2.28298 2.23410 2.19535 2.16382 2.13763 2.09659 2.05316 2.00698 1.98272 1.95757 1.93147

14 3.10221 2.72647 2.52222 2.39469 2.30694 2.24256 2.19313 2.15390 2.12195 2.09540 2.05371 2.00953 1.96245 1.93766 1.91193 1.88516

15 3.07319 2.69517 2.48979 2.36143 2.27302 2.20808 2.15818 2.11853 2.08621 2.05932 2.01707 1.97222 1.92431 1.89904 1.87277 1.84539

16 3.04811 2.66817 2.46181 2.33274 2.24376 2.17833 2.12800 2.08798 2.05533 2.02815 1.98539 1.93992 1.89127 1.86556 1.83879 1.81084

17 3.02623 2.64464 2.43743 2.30775 2.21825 2.15239 2.10169 2.06134 2.02839 2.00094 1.95772 1.91169 1.86236 1.83624 1.80901 1.78053

18 3.00698 2.62395 2.41601 2.28577 2.19583 2.12958 2.07854 2.03789 2.00467 1.97698 1.93334 1.88681 1.83685 1.81035 1.78269 1.75371

19 2.98990 2.60561 2.39702 2.26630 2.17596 2.10936 2.05802 2.01710 1.98364 1.95573 1.91170 1.86471 1.81416 1.78731 1.75924 1.72979
20 2.97465 2.58925 2.38009 2.24893 2.15823 2.09132 2.03970 1.99853 1.96485 1.93674 1.89236 1.84494 1.79384 1.76667 1.73822 1.70833

21 2.96096 2.57457 2.36489 2.23334 2.14231 2.07512 2.02325 1.98186 1.94797 1.91967 1.87497 1.82715 1.77555 1.74807 1.71927 1.68896

22 2.94858 2.56131 2.35117 2.21927 2.12794 2.06050 2.00840 1.96680 1.93273 1.90425 1.85925 1.81106 1.75899 1.73122 1.70208 1.67138

23 2.93736 2.54929 2.33873 2.20651 2.11491 2.04723 1.99492 1.95312 1.91888 1.89025 1.84497 1.79643 1.74392 1.71588 1.68643 1.65535

24 2.92712 2.53833 2.32739 2.19488 2.10303 2.03513 1.98263 1.94066 1.90625 1.87748 1.83194 1.78308 1.73015 1.70185 1.67210 1.64067

25 2.91774 2.52831 2.31702 2.18424 2.09216 2.02406 1.97138 1.92925 1.89469 1.86578 1.82000 1.77083 1.71752 1.68898 1.65895 1.62718

26 2.90913 2.51910 2.30749 2.17447 2.08218 2.01389 1.96104 1.91876 1.88407 1.85503 1.80902 1.75957 1.70589 1.67712 1.64682 1.61472

27 2.90119 2.51061 2.29871 2.16546 2.07298 2.00452 1.95151 1.90909 1.87427 1.84511 1.79889 1.74917 1.69514 1.66616 1.63560 1.60320

28 2.89385 2.50276 2.29060 2.15714 2.06447 1.99585 1.94270 1.90014 1.86520 1.83593 1.78951 1.73954 1.68519 1.65600 1.62519 1.59250

29 2.88703 2.49548 2.28307 2.14941 2.05658 1.98781 1.93452 1.89184 1.85679 1.82741 1.78081 1.73060 1.67593 1.64655 1.61551 1.58253

30 2.88069 2.48872 2.27607 2.14223 2.04925 1.98033 1.92692 1.88412 1.84896 1.81949 1.77270 1.72227 1.66731 1.63774 1.60648 1.57323

40 2.83535 2.44037 2.22609 2.09095 1.99682 1.92688 1.87252 1.82886 1.79290 1.76269 1.71456 1.66241 1.60515 1.57411 1.54108 1.50562

60 2.79107 2.39325 2.17741 2.04099 1.94571 1.87472 1.81939 1.77483 1.73802 1.70701 1.65743 1.60337 1.54349 1.51072 1.47554 1.43734

120 2.74781 2.34734 2.12999 1.99230 1.89587 1.82381 1.76748 1.72196 1.68425 1.65238 1.60120 1.54500 1.48207 1.44723 1.40938 1.36760

inf 2.70554 2.30259 2.08380 1.94486 1.84727 1.77411 1.71672 1.67020 1.63152 1.59872 1.54578 1.48714 1.42060 1.38318 1.34187 1.29513
Table for alpha=.05.

df2/
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 24 30 40 60 120 INF
df1

161.4 199.5 215.7 224.5 230.1 233.9 236.7 238.8 240.5 241.8 243.9 245.9 248.0 249.0 250.0 251.1 252.1 253.2 254.3
1
476 000 073 832 619 860 684 827 433 817 060 499 131 518 951 432 957 529 144

18.51 19.00 19.16 19.24 19.29 19.32 19.35 19.37 19.38 19.39 19.41 19.42 19.44 19.45 19.46 19.47 19.47 19.48 19.49
2
28 00 43 68 64 95 32 10 48 59 25 91 58 41 24 07 91 74 57

10.12 9.552 9.276 9.117 9.013 8.940 8.886 8.845 8.812 8.785 8.744 8.702 8.660 8.638 8.616 8.594 8.572 8.549 8.526
3
80 1 6 2 5 6 7 2 3 5 6 9 2 5 6 4 0 4 4

7.708 6.944 6.591 6.388 6.256 6.163 6.094 6.041 5.998 5.964 5.911 5.857 5.802 5.774 5.745 5.717 5.687 5.658 5.628
4
6 3 4 2 1 1 2 0 8 4 7 8 5 4 9 0 7 1 1

6.607 5.786 5.409 5.192 5.050 4.950 4.875 4.818 4.772 4.735 4.677 4.618 4.558 4.527 4.495 4.463 4.431 4.398 4.365
5
9 1 5 2 3 3 9 3 5 1 7 8 1 2 7 8 4 5 0

5.987 5.143 4.757 4.533 4.387 4.283 4.206 4.146 4.099 4.060 3.999 3.938 3.874 3.841 3.808 3.774 3.739 3.704 3.668
6
4 3 1 7 4 9 7 8 0 0 9 1 2 5 2 3 8 7 9

5.591 4.737 4.346 4.120 3.971 3.866 3.787 3.725 3.676 3.636 3.574 3.510 3.444 3.410 3.375 3.340 3.304 3.267 3.229
7
4 4 8 3 5 0 0 7 7 5 7 7 5 5 8 4 3 4 8

5.317 4.459 4.066 3.837 3.687 3.580 3.500 3.438 3.388 3.347 3.283 3.218 3.150 3.115 3.079 3.042 3.005 2.966 2.927
8
7 0 2 9 5 6 5 1 1 2 9 4 3 2 4 8 3 9 6

5.117 4.256 3.862 3.633 3.481 3.373 3.292 3.229 3.178 3.137 3.072 3.006 2.936 2.900 2.863 2.825 2.787 2.747 2.706
9
4 5 5 1 7 8 7 6 9 3 9 1 5 5 7 9 2 5 7

4.964 4.102 3.708 3.478 3.325 3.217 3.135 3.071 3.020 2.978 2.913 2.845 2.774 2.737 2.699 2.660 2.621 2.580 2.537
10
6 8 3 0 8 2 5 7 4 2 0 0 0 2 6 9 1 1 9

4.844 3.982 3.587 3.356 3.203 3.094 3.012 2.948 2.896 2.853 2.787 2.718 2.646 2.609 2.570 2.530 2.490 2.448 2.404
11
3 3 4 7 9 6 3 0 2 6 6 6 4 0 5 9 1 0 5

4.747 3.885 3.490 3.259 3.105 2.996 2.913 2.848 2.796 2.753 2.686 2.616 2.543 2.505 2.466 2.425 2.384 2.341 2.296
12
2 3 3 2 9 1 4 6 4 4 6 9 6 5 3 9 2 0 2
 4.667 3.805 3.410 3.179 3.025 2.915 2.832 2.766 2.714 2.671 2.603 2.533 2.458 2.420 2.380 2.339 2.296 2.252 2.206
13
2 6 5 1 4 3 1 9 4 0 7 1 9 2 3 2 6 4 4

4.600 3.738 3.343 3.112 2.958 2.847 2.764 2.698 2.645 2.602 2.534 2.463 2.387 2.348 2.308 2.266 2.222 2.177 2.130
14
1 9 9 2 2 7 2 7 8 2 2 0 9 7 2 4 9 8 7

4.543 3.682 3.287 3.055 2.901 2.790 2.706 2.640 2.587 2.543 2.475 2.403 2.327 2.287 2.246 2.204 2.160 2.114 2.065
15
1 3 4 6 3 5 6 8 6 7 3 4 5 8 8 3 1 1 8

4.494 3.633 3.238 3.006 2.852 2.741 2.657 2.591 2.537 2.493 2.424 2.352 2.275 2.235 2.193 2.150 2.105 2.058 2.009
16
0 7 9 9 4 3 2 1 7 5 7 2 6 4 8 7 8 9 6

4.451 3.591 3.196 2.964 2.810 2.698 2.614 2.548 2.494 2.449 2.380 2.307 2.230 2.189 2.147 2.104 2.058 2.010 1.960
17
3 5 8 7 0 7 3 0 3 9 7 7 4 8 7 0 4 7 4

4.413 3.554 3.159 2.927 2.772 2.661 2.576 2.510 2.456 2.411 2.342 2.268 2.190 2.149 2.107 2.062 2.016 1.968 1.916
18
9 6 9 7 9 3 7 2 3 7 1 6 6 7 1 9 6 1 8

4.380 3.521 3.127 2.895 2.740 2.628 2.543 2.476 2.422 2.377 2.308 2.234 2.155 2.114 2.071 2.026 1.979 1.930 1.878
19
7 9 4 1 1 3 5 8 7 9 0 1 5 1 2 4 5 2 0

4.351 3.492 3.098 2.866 2.710 2.599 2.514 2.447 2.392 2.347 2.277 2.203 2.124 2.082 2.039 1.993 1.946 1.896 1.843
20
2 8 4 1 9 0 0 1 8 9 6 3 2 5 1 8 4 3 2

4.324 3.466 3.072 2.840 2.684 2.572 2.487 2.420 2.366 2.321 2.250 2.175 2.096 2.054 2.010 1.964 1.916 1.865 1.811
21
8 8 5 1 8 7 6 5 0 0 4 7 0 0 2 5 5 7 7

4.300 3.443 3.049 2.816 2.661 2.549 2.463 2.396 2.341 2.296 2.225 2.150 2.070 2.028 1.984 1.938 1.889 1.838 1.783
22
9 4 1 7 3 1 8 5 9 7 8 8 7 3 2 0 4 0 1

4.279 3.422 3.028 2.795 2.640 2.527 2.442 2.374 2.320 2.274 2.203 2.128 2.047 2.005 1.960 1.913 1.864 1.812 1.757
23
3 1 0 5 0 7 2 8 1 7 6 2 6 0 5 9 8 8 0

4.259 3.402 3.008 2.776 2.620 2.508 2.422 2.355 2.300 2.254 2.183 2.107 2.026 1.983 1.939 1.892 1.842 1.789 1.733
24
7 8 8 3 7 2 6 1 2 7 4 7 7 8 0 0 4 6 0

4.241 3.385 2.991 2.758 2.603 2.490 2.404 2.337 2.282 2.236 2.164 2.088 2.007 1.964 1.919 1.871 1.821 1.768 1.711
25
7 2 2 7 0 4 7 1 1 5 9 9 5 3 2 8 7 4 0

4.225 3.369 2.975 2.742 2.586 2.474 2.388 2.320 2.265 2.219 2.147 2.071 1.989 1.946 1.901 1.853 1.802 1.748 1.690
26
2 0 2 6 8 1 3 5 5 7 9 6 8 4 0 3 7 8 6

27 4.210 3.354 2.960 2.727 2.571 2.459 2.373 2.305 2.250 2.204 2.132 2.055 1.973 1.929 1.884 1.836 1.785 1.730 1.671
 0 1 4 8 9 1 2 3 1 3 3 8 6 9 2 1 1 6 7

4.196 3.340 2.946 2.714 2.558 2.445 2.359 2.291 2.236 2.190 2.117 2.041 1.958 1.914 1.868 1.820 1.768 1.713 1.654
28
0 4 7 1 1 3 3 3 0 0 9 1 6 7 7 3 9 8 1

4.183 3.327 2.934 2.701 2.545 2.432 2.346 2.278 2.222 2.176 2.104 2.027 1.944 1.900 1.854 1.805 1.753 1.698 1.637
29
0 7 0 4 4 4 3 3 9 8 5 5 6 5 3 5 7 1 6

4.170 3.315 2.922 2.689 2.533 2.420 2.334 2.266 2.210 2.164 2.092 2.014 1.931 1.887 1.840 1.791 1.739 1.683 1.622
30
9 8 3 6 6 5 3 2 7 6 1 8 7 4 9 8 6 5 3

4.084 3.231 2.838 2.606 2.449 2.335 2.249 2.180 2.124 2.077 2.003 1.924 1.838 1.792 1.744 1.692 1.637 1.576 1.508
40
7 7 7 0 5 9 0 2 0 2 5 5 9 9 4 8 3 6 9

4.001 3.150 2.758 2.525 2.368 2.254 2.166 2.097 2.040 1.992 1.917 1.836 1.748 1.700 1.649 1.594 1.534 1.467 1.389
60
2 4 1 2 3 1 5 0 1 6 4 4 0 1 1 3 3 3 3

3.920 3.071 2.680 2.447 2.289 2.175 2.086 2.016 1.958 1.910 1.833 1.750 1.658 1.608 1.554 1.495 1.429 1.351 1.253
120
1 8 2 2 9 0 8 4 8 5 7 5 7 4 3 2 0 9 9

3.841 2.995 2.604 2.371 2.214 2.098 2.009 1.938 1.879 1.830 1.752 1.666 1.570 1.517 1.459 1.394 1.318 1.221 1.000
inf
5 7 9 9 1 6 6 4 9 7 2 4 5 3 1 0 0 4 0
F Table for alpha=.025.

df2/
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 24 30 40 60 120 INF
df1

647.7 799.5 864.1 899.5 921.8 937.1 948.2 956.6 963.2 968.6 976.7 984.8 993.1 997.2 1001. 1005. 1009. 1014. 1018.
1
890 000 630 833 479 111 169 562 846 274 079 668 028 492 414 598 800 020 258

38.50 39.00 39.16 39.24 39.29 39.33 39.35 39.37 39.38 39.39 39.41 39.43 39.44 39.45 39.46 39.47 39.48 39.49 39.49
2
63 00 55 84 82 15 52 30 69 80 46 13 79 62 5 3 1 0 8

17.44 16.04 15.43 15.10 14.88 14.73 14.62 14.53 14.47 14.41 14.33 14.25 14.16 14.12 14.08 14.03 13.99 13.94 13.90
3
34 41 92 10 48 47 44 99 31 89 66 27 74 41 1 7 2 7 2

12.21 10.64 9.979 9.604 9.364 9.197 9.074 8.979 8.904 8.843 8.751 8.656 8.559 8.510
4 8.461 8.411 8.360 8.309 8.257
79 91 2 5 5 3 1 6 7 9 2 5 9 9

10.00 8.433 7.763 7.387 7.146 6.977 6.853 6.757 6.681 6.619 6.524 6.427 6.328 6.278
5 6.227 6.175 6.123 6.069 6.015
70 6 6 9 4 7 1 2 1 2 5 7 6 0

8.813 7.259 6.598 6.227 5.987 5.819 5.695 5.599 5.523 5.461 5.366 5.268 5.168 5.117
6 5.065 5.012 4.959 4.904 4.849
1 9 8 2 6 8 5 6 4 3 2 7 4 2

8.072 6.541 5.889 5.522 5.285 5.118 4.994 4.899 4.823 4.761 4.665 4.567 4.466 4.415
7 4.362 4.309 4.254 4.199 4.142
7 5 8 6 2 6 9 3 2 1 8 8 7 0

7.570 6.059 5.416 5.052 4.817 4.651 4.528 4.433 4.357 4.295 4.199 4.101 3.999 3.947
8 3.894 3.840 3.784 3.728 3.670
9 5 0 6 3 7 6 3 2 1 7 2 5 2

7.209 5.714 5.078 4.718 4.484 4.319 4.197 4.102 4.026 3.963 3.868 3.769 3.666 3.614
9 3.560 3.505 3.449 3.392 3.333
3 7 1 1 4 7 0 0 0 9 2 4 9 2

6.936 5.456 4.825 4.468 4.236 4.072 3.949 3.854 3.779 3.716 3.620 3.521 3.418 3.365
10 3.311 3.255 3.198 3.140 3.080
7 4 6 3 1 1 8 9 0 8 9 7 5 4

6.724 5.255 4.630 4.275 4.044 3.880 3.758 3.663 3.587 3.525 3.429 3.329 3.226 3.172
11 3.118 3.061 3.004 2.944 2.883
1 9 0 1 0 7 6 8 9 7 6 9 1 5

6.553 5.095 4.474 4.121 3.891 3.728 3.606 3.511 3.435 3.373 3.277 3.177 3.072 3.018
12 2.963 2.906 2.848 2.787 2.725
8 9 2 2 1 3 5 8 8 6 3 2 8 7

6.414 4.965 4.347 3.995 3.766 3.604 3.482 3.388 3.312 3.249 3.153 3.052 2.947 2.893
13 2.837 2.780 2.720 2.659 2.595
3 3 2 9 7 3 7 0 0 7 2 7 7 2
 6.297 4.856 4.241 3.891 3.663 3.501 3.379 3.285 3.209 3.146 3.050 2.949 2.843 2.788
14 2.732 2.674 2.614 2.552 2.487
9 7 7 9 4 4 9 3 3 9 2 3 7 8

6.199 4.765 4.152 3.804 3.576 3.414 3.293 3.198 3.122 3.060 2.963 2.862 2.755 2.700
15 2.644 2.585 2.524 2.461 2.395
5 0 8 3 4 7 4 7 7 2 3 1 9 6

6.115 4.686 4.076 3.729 3.502 3.340 3.219 3.124 3.048 2.986 2.889 2.787 2.680 2.625
16 2.568 2.509 2.447 2.383 2.316
1 7 8 4 1 6 4 8 8 2 0 5 8 2

6.042 4.618 4.011 3.664 3.437 3.276 3.155 3.061 2.984 2.922 2.824 2.723 2.615 2.559
17 2.502 2.442 2.380 2.315 2.247
0 9 2 8 9 7 6 0 9 2 9 0 8 8

5.978 4.559 3.953 3.608 3.382 3.220 3.099 3.005 2.929 2.866 2.768 2.666 2.559 2.502
18 2.445 2.384 2.321 2.256 2.187
1 7 9 3 0 9 9 3 1 4 9 7 0 7

5.921 4.507 3.903 3.558 3.332 3.171 3.050 2.956 2.880 2.817 2.719 2.617 2.508 2.452
19 2.394 2.333 2.270 2.203 2.133
6 5 4 7 7 8 9 3 1 2 6 1 9 3

5.871 4.461 3.858 3.514 3.289 3.128 3.007 2.912 2.836 2.773 2.675 2.573 2.464 2.407
20 2.349 2.287 2.223 2.156 2.085
5 3 7 7 1 3 4 8 5 7 8 1 5 6

5.826 4.419 3.818 3.475 3.250 3.089 2.968 2.874 2.797 2.734 2.636 2.533 2.424 2.367
21 2.308 2.246 2.182 2.114 2.042
6 9 8 4 1 5 6 0 7 8 8 8 7 5

5.786 4.382 3.782 3.440 3.215 3.054 2.933 2.839 2.762 2.699 2.601 2.498 2.389 2.331
22 2.272 2.210 2.145 2.076 2.003
3 8 9 1 1 6 8 2 8 8 7 4 0 5

5.749 4.349 3.750 3.408 3.183 3.023 2.902 2.807 2.731 2.668 2.569 2.466 2.356 2.298
23 2.239 2.176 2.111 2.041 1.968
8 2 5 3 5 2 3 7 3 2 9 5 7 9

5.716 4.318 3.721 3.379 3.154 2.994 2.873 2.779 2.702 2.639 2.541 2.437 2.327 2.269
24 2.209 2.146 2.080 2.010 1.935
6 7 1 4 8 6 8 1 7 6 1 4 3 3

5.686 4.290 3.694 3.353 3.128 2.968 2.847 2.753 2.676 2.613 2.514 2.411 2.300 2.242
25 2.182 2.118 2.052 1.981 1.906
4 9 3 0 7 5 8 1 6 5 9 0 5 2

5.658 4.265 3.669 3.328 3.104 2.944 2.824 2.729 2.652 2.589 2.490 2.386 2.275 2.217
26 2.157 2.093 2.026 1.954 1.878
6 5 7 9 8 7 0 3 8 6 8 7 9 4

5.633 4.242 3.647 3.306 3.082 2.922 2.802 2.707 2.630 2.567 2.468 2.364 2.253 2.194
27 2.133 2.069 2.002 1.930 1.853
1 1 2 7 8 8 1 4 9 6 8 4 3 6

28 5.609 4.220 3.626 3.286 3.062 2.902 2.782 2.687 2.610 2.547 2.448 2.343 2.232 2.173 2.112 2.048 1.980 1.907 1.829
 6 5 4 3 6 7 0 2 6 3 4 8 4 5

5.587 4.200 3.607 3.267 3.043 2.884 2.763 2.668 2.591 2.528 2.429 2.324 2.213 2.154
29 2.092 2.028 1.959 1.886 1.807
8 6 2 4 8 0 3 6 9 6 5 8 1 0

5.567 4.182 3.589 3.249 3.026 2.866 2.746 2.651 2.574 2.511 2.412 2.307 2.195 2.135
30 2.074 2.009 1.940 1.866 1.787
5 1 4 9 5 7 0 3 6 2 0 2 2 9

5.423 4.051 3.463 3.126 2.903 2.744 2.623 2.528 2.451 2.388 2.288 2.181 2.067 2.006
40 1.943 1.875 1.803 1.724 1.637
9 0 3 1 7 4 8 9 9 2 2 9 7 9

5.285 3.925 3.342 3.007 2.786 2.627 2.506 2.411 2.334 2.270 2.169 2.061 1.944 1.881
60 1.815 1.744 1.667 1.581 1.482
6 3 5 7 3 4 8 7 4 2 2 3 5 7

5.152 3.804 3.226 2.894 2.674 2.515 2.394 2.299 2.221 2.157 2.054 1.945 1.824 1.759
120 1.690 1.614 1.530 1.433 1.310
3 6 9 3 0 4 8 4 7 0 8 0 9 7

5.023 3.688 3.116 2.785 2.566 2.408 2.287 2.191 2.113 2.048 1.944 1.832 1.708 1.640
inf 1.566 1.484 1.388 1.268 1.000
9 9 1 8 5 2 5 8 6 3 7 6 5 2

F Table for alpha=.01.

df2/
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 24 30 40 60 120 INF
df1

4052. 4999. 5403. 5624. 5763. 5858. 5928. 5981. 6022. 6055. 6106. 6157. 6208. 6234. 6260. 6286. 6313. 6339. 6365.
1
181 500 352 583 650 986 356 070 473 847 321 285 730 631 649 782 030 391 864

98.50 99.00 99.16 99.24 99.29 99.33 99.35 99.37 99.38 99.39 99.41 99.43 99.44 99.45 99.46 99.47 99.48 99.49 99.49
2
3 0 6 9 9 3 6 4 8 9 6 3 9 8 6 4 2 1 9

34.11 30.81 29.45 28.71 28.23 27.91 27.67 27.48 27.34 27.22 27.05 26.87 26.69 26.59 26.50 26.41 26.31 26.22 26.12
3
6 7 7 0 7 1 2 9 5 9 2 2 0 8 5 1 6 1 5

21.19 18.00 16.69 15.97 15.52 15.20 14.97 14.79 14.65 14.54 14.37 14.19 14.02 13.92 13.83 13.74 13.65 13.55 13.46
4
8 0 4 7 2 7 6 9 9 6 4 8 0 9 8 5 2 8 3

16.25 13.27 12.06 11.39 10.96 10.67 10.45 10.28 10.15 10.05
5 9.888 9.722 9.553 9.466 9.379 9.291 9.202 9.112 9.020
8 4 0 2 7 2 6 9 8 1
 13.74 10.92
6 9.780 9.148 8.746 8.466 8.260 8.102 7.976 7.874 7.718 7.559 7.396 7.313 7.229 7.143 7.057 6.969 6.880
5 5

12.24
7 9.547 8.451 7.847 7.460 7.191 6.993 6.840 6.719 6.620 6.469 6.314 6.155 6.074 5.992 5.908 5.824 5.737 5.650
6

11.25
8 8.649 7.591 7.006 6.632 6.371 6.178 6.029 5.911 5.814 5.667 5.515 5.359 5.279 5.198 5.116 5.032 4.946 4.859
9

10.56
9 8.022 6.992 6.422 6.057 5.802 5.613 5.467 5.351 5.257 5.111 4.962 4.808 4.729 4.649 4.567 4.483 4.398 4.311
1

10.04
10 7.559 6.552 5.994 5.636 5.386 5.200 5.057 4.942 4.849 4.706 4.558 4.405 4.327 4.247 4.165 4.082 3.996 3.909
4

11 9.646 7.206 6.217 5.668 5.316 5.069 4.886 4.744 4.632 4.539 4.397 4.251 4.099 4.021 3.941 3.860 3.776 3.690 3.602

12 9.330 6.927 5.953 5.412 5.064 4.821 4.640 4.499 4.388 4.296 4.155 4.010 3.858 3.780 3.701 3.619 3.535 3.449 3.361

13 9.074 6.701 5.739 5.205 4.862 4.620 4.441 4.302 4.191 4.100 3.960 3.815 3.665 3.587 3.507 3.425 3.341 3.255 3.165

14 8.862 6.515 5.564 5.035 4.695 4.456 4.278 4.140 4.030 3.939 3.800 3.656 3.505 3.427 3.348 3.266 3.181 3.094 3.004

15 8.683 6.359 5.417 4.893 4.556 4.318 4.142 4.004 3.895 3.805 3.666 3.522 3.372 3.294 3.214 3.132 3.047 2.959 2.868

16 8.531 6.226 5.292 4.773 4.437 4.202 4.026 3.890 3.780 3.691 3.553 3.409 3.259 3.181 3.101 3.018 2.933 2.845 2.753

17 8.400 6.112 5.185 4.669 4.336 4.102 3.927 3.791 3.682 3.593 3.455 3.312 3.162 3.084 3.003 2.920 2.835 2.746 2.653

18 8.285 6.013 5.092 4.579 4.248 4.015 3.841 3.705 3.597 3.508 3.371 3.227 3.077 2.999 2.919 2.835 2.749 2.660 2.566

19 8.185 5.926 5.010 4.500 4.171 3.939 3.765 3.631 3.523 3.434 3.297 3.153 3.003 2.925 2.844 2.761 2.674 2.584 2.489

20 8.096 5.849 4.938 4.431 4.103 3.871 3.699 3.564 3.457 3.368 3.231 3.088 2.938 2.859 2.778 2.695 2.608 2.517 2.421

21 8.017 5.780 4.874 4.369 4.042 3.812 3.640 3.506 3.398 3.310 3.173 3.030 2.880 2.801 2.720 2.636 2.548 2.457 2.360

22 7.945 5.719 4.817 4.313 3.988 3.758 3.587 3.453 3.346 3.258 3.121 2.978 2.827 2.749 2.667 2.583 2.495 2.403 2.305

23 7.881 5.664 4.765 4.264 3.939 3.710 3.539 3.406 3.299 3.211 3.074 2.931 2.781 2.702 2.620 2.535 2.447 2.354 2.256

24 7.823 5.614 4.718 4.218 3.895 3.667 3.496 3.363 3.256 3.168 3.032 2.889 2.738 2.659 2.577 2.492 2.403 2.310 2.211

25 7.770 5.568 4.675 4.177 3.855 3.627 3.457 3.324 3.217 3.129 2.993 2.850 2.699 2.620 2.538 2.453 2.364 2.270 2.169
26 7.721 5.526 4.637 4.140 3.818 3.591 3.421 3.288 3.182 3.094 2.958 2.815 2.664 2.585 2.503 2.417 2.327 2.233 2.131

27 7.677 5.488 4.601 4.106 3.785 3.558 3.388 3.256 3.149 3.062 2.926 2.783 2.632 2.552 2.470 2.384 2.294 2.198 2.097

28 7.636 5.453 4.568 4.074 3.754 3.528 3.358 3.226 3.120 3.032 2.896 2.753 2.602 2.522 2.440 2.354 2.263 2.167 2.064

29 7.598 5.420 4.538 4.045 3.725 3.499 3.330 3.198 3.092 3.005 2.868 2.726 2.574 2.495 2.412 2.325 2.234 2.138 2.034

30 7.562 5.390 4.510 4.018 3.699 3.473 3.304 3.173 3.067 2.979 2.843 2.700 2.549 2.469 2.386 2.299 2.208 2.111 2.006

40 7.314 5.179 4.313 3.828 3.514 3.291 3.124 2.993 2.888 2.801 2.665 2.522 2.369 2.288 2.203 2.114 2.019 1.917 1.805

60 7.077 4.977 4.126 3.649 3.339 3.119 2.953 2.823 2.718 2.632 2.496 2.352 2.198 2.115 2.028 1.936 1.836 1.726 1.601

120 6.851 4.787 3.949 3.480 3.174 2.956 2.792 2.663 2.559 2.472 2.336 2.192 2.035 1.950 1.860 1.763 1.656 1.533 1.381

inf 6.635 4.605 3.782 3.319 3.017 2.802 2.639 2.511 2.407 2.321 2.185 2.039 1.878 1.791 1.696 1.592 1.473 1.325 1.000
 Cumulative Poisson Distribution Table
Table shows cumulative probability functions of Poisson Distribution with various α. Exam-
ple: to find the probability P(X ≤ 3) where X has a Poisson Distribution with α = 2, look
in row 4 and column 4 to find P(X ≤ 3)=0.8571 where X is Poisson(2).

α
x 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0 0.6065 0.3679 0.2231 0.1353 0.0821 0.0498 0.0302 0.0183 0.0111 0.0067
1 0.9098 0.7358 0.5578 0.4060 0.2873 0.1991 0.1359 0.0916 0.0611 0.0404
2 0.9856 0.9197 0.8088 0.6767 0.5438 0.4232 0.3208 0.2381 0.1736 0.1247
3 0.9982 0.9810 0.9344 0.8571 0.7576 0.6472 0.5366 0.4335 0.3423 0.2650
4 0.9998 0.9963 0.9814 0.9473 0.8912 0.8153 0.7254 0.6288 0.5321 0.4405
5 1.0000 0.9994 0.9955 0.9834 0.9580 0.9161 0.8576 0.7851 0.7029 0.6160
6 1.0000 0.9999 0.9991 0.9955 0.9858 0.9665 0.9347 0.8893 0.8311 0.7622
7 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9989 0.9958 0.9881 0.9733 0.9489 0.9134 0.8666
8 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9989 0.9962 0.9901 0.9786 0.9597 0.9319
9 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9997 0.9989 0.9967 0.9919 0.9829 0.9682
10 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997 0.9990 0.9972 0.9933 0.9863
11 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997 0.9991 0.9976 0.9945
12 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997 0.9992 0.9980
13 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997 0.9993
14 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998
15 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999
16 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
 α
x 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
0 0.0041 0.0025 0.0015 0.0009 0.0006 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 0.0001 0.0000
1 0.0266 0.0174 0.0113 0.0073 0.0047 0.0030 0.0019 0.0012 0.0008 0.0005
23 0.0884 0.0620 0.0430 0.0296 0.0203 0.0138 0.0093 0.0062 0.0042 0.0028
3 0.2017 0.1512 0.1118 0.0818 0.0591 0.0424 0.0301 0.0212 0.0149 0.0103
4 0.3575 0.2851 0.2237 0.1730 0.1321 0.0996 0.0744 0.0550 0.0403 0.0293
5 0.5289 0.4457 0.3690 0.3007 0.2414 0.1912 0.1496 0.1157 0.0885 0.0671
6 0.6860 0.6063 0.5265 0.4497 0.3782 0.3134 0.2562 0.2068 0.1649 0.1301
7 0.8095 0.7440 0.6728 0.5987 0.5246 0.4530 0.3856 0.3239 0.2687 0.2202
8 0.8944 0.8472 0.7916 0.7291 0.6620 0.5925 0.5231 0.4557 0.3918 0.3328
9 0.9462 0.9161 0.8774 0.8305 0.7764 0.7166 0.6530 0.5874 0.5218 0.4579
10 0.9747 0.9574 0.9332 0.9015 0.8622 0.8159 0.7634 0.7060 0.6453 0.5830
11 0.9890 0.9799 0.9661 0.9467 0.9208 0.8881 0.8487 0.8030 0.7520 0.6968
12 0.9955 0.9912 0.9840 0.9730 0.9573 0.9362 0.9091 0.8758 0.8364 0.7916
13 0.9983 0.9964 0.9929 0.9872 0.9784 0.9658 0.9486 0.9261 0.8981 0.8645
14 0.9994 0.9986 0.9970 0.9943 0.9897 0.9827 0.9726 0.9585 0.9400 0.9165
15 0.9998 0.9995 0.9988 0.9976 0.9954 0.9918 0.9862 0.9780 0.9665 0.9513
16 0.9999 0.9998 0.9996 0.9990 0.9980 0.9963 0.9934 0.9889 0.9823 0.9730
17 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9996 0.9992 0.9984 0.9970 0.9947 0.9911 0.9857
18 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9999 0.9997 0.9993 0.9987 0.9976 0.9957 0.9928
19 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997 0.9995 0.9989 0.9980 0.9965
20 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9996 0.9991 0.9984
21 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9996 0.9993
22 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9999 0.9997
23 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9999
24 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
 (Continued)

α
x 10.5 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15
0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.0018 0.0012 0.0008 0.0005 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0000
3 0.0071 0.0049 0.0034 0.0023 0.0016 0.0011 0.0007 0.0005 0.0003 0.0002
4 0.0211 0.0151 0.0107 0.0076 0.0053 0.0037 0.0026 0.0018 0.0012 0.0009
5 0.0504 0.0375 0.0277 0.0203 0.0148 0.0107 0.0077 0.0055 0.0039 0.0028
6 0.1016 0.0786 0.0603 0.0458 0.0346 0.0259 0.0193 0.0142 0.0105 0.0076
7 0.1785 0.1432 0.1137 0.0895 0.0698 0.0540 0.0415 0.0316 0.0239 0.0180
8 0.2794 0.2320 0.1906 0.1550 0.1249 0.0998 0.0790 0.0621 0.0484 0.0374
9 0.3971 0.3405 0.2888 0.2424 0.2014 0.1658 0.1353 0.1094 0.0878 0.0699
10 0.5207 0.4599 0.4017 0.3472 0.2971 0.2517 0.2112 0.1757 0.1449 0.1185
11 0.6387 0.5793 0.5198 0.4616 0.4058 0.3532 0.3045 0.2600 0.2201 0.1848
12 0.7420 0.6887 0.6329 0.5760 0.5190 0.4631 0.4093 0.3585 0.3111 0.2676
13 0.8253 0.7813 0.7330 0.6815 0.6278 0.5730 0.5182 0.4644 0.4125 0.3632
14 0.8879 0.8540 0.8153 0.7720 0.7250 0.6751 0.6233 0.5704 0.5176 0.4657
15 0.9317 0.9074 0.8783 0.8444 0.8060 0.7636 0.7178 0.6694 0.6192 0.5681
16 0.9604 0.9441 0.9236 0.8987 0.8693 0.8355 0.7975 0.7559 0.7112 0.6641
17 0.9781 0.9678 0.9542 0.9370 0.9158 0.8905 0.8609 0.8272 0.7897 0.7489
18 0.9885 0.9823 0.9738 0.9626 0.9481 0.9302 0.9084 0.8826 0.8530 0.8195
19 0.9942 0.9907 0.9857 0.9787 0.9694 0.9573 0.9421 0.9235 0.9012 0.8752
20 0.9972 0.9953 0.9925 0.9884 0.9827 0.9750 0.9649 0.9521 0.9362 0.9170
21 0.9987 0.9977 0.9962 0.9939 0.9906 0.9859 0.9796 0.9712 0.9604 0.9469
22 0.9994 0.9990 0.9982 0.9970 0.9951 0.9924 0.9885 0.9833 0.9763 0.9673
23 0.9998 0.9995 0.9992 0.9985 0.9975 0.9960 0.9938 0.9907 0.9863 0.9805
24 0.9999 0.9998 0.9996 0.9993 0.9988 0.9980 0.9968 0.9950 0.9924 0.9888
25 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9997 0.9994 0.9990 0.9984 0.9974 0.9959 0.9938
26 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9999 0.9997 0.9995 0.9992 0.9987 0.9979 0.9967
27 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998 0.9996 0.9994 0.9989 0.9983
28 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9997 0.9995 0.9991
29 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998 0.9996
30 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998
31 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999
32 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
 This table computes the probability of obtaining x successes in n trials of
Binomial Probability Distribution a binomial experiment with probability of success p .
p
n x 0.01 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95
2 0 0.9801 0.9025 0.8100 0.7225 0.6400 0.5625 0.4900 0.4225 0.3600 0.3025 0.2500 0.2025 0.1600 0.1225 0.0900 0.0625 0.0400 0.0225 0.0100 0.0025
1 0.0198 0.0950 0.1800 0.2550 0.3200 0.3750 0.4200 0.4550 0.4800 0.4950 0.5000 0.4950 0.4800 0.4550 0.4200 0.3750 0.3200 0.2550 0.1800 0.0950
2 0.0001 0.0025 0.0100 0.0225 0.0400 0.0625 0.0900 0.1225 0.1600 0.2025 0.2500 0.3025 0.3600 0.4225 0.4900 0.5625 0.6400 0.7225 0.8100 0.9025
3 0 0.9703 0.8574 0.7290 0.6141 0.5120 0.4219 0.3430 0.2746 0.2160 0.1664 0.1250 0.0911 0.0640 0.0429 0.0270 0.0156 0.0080 0.0034 0.0010 0.0001
1 0.0294 0.1354 0.2430 0.3251 0.3840 0.4219 0.4410 0.4436 0.4320 0.4084 0.3750 0.3341 0.2880 0.2389 0.1890 0.1406 0.0960 0.0574 0.0270 0.0071
2 0.0003 0.0071 0.0270 0.0574 0.0960 0.1406 0.1890 0.2389 0.2880 0.3341 0.3750 0.4084 0.4320 0.4436 0.4410 0.4219 0.3840 0.3251 0.2430 0.1354
3 0.0000 0.0001 0.0010 0.0034 0.0080 0.0156 0.0270 0.0429 0.0640 0.0911 0.1250 0.1664 0.2160 0.2746 0.3430 0.4219 0.5120 0.6141 0.7290 0.8574
4 0 0.9606 0.8145 0.6561 0.5220 0.4096 0.3164 0.2401 0.1785 0.1296 0.0915 0.0625 0.0410 0.0256 0.0150 0.0081 0.0039 0.0016 0.0005 0.0001 0.0000
1 0.0388 0.1715 0.2916 0.3685 0.4096 0.4219 0.4116 0.3845 0.3456 0.2995 0.2500 0.2005 0.1536 0.1115 0.0756 0.0469 0.0256 0.0115 0.0036 0.0005
2 0.0006 0.0135 0.0486 0.0975 0.1536 0.2109 0.2646 0.3105 0.3456 0.3675 0.3750 0.3675 0.3456 0.3105 0.2646 0.2109 0.1536 0.0975 0.0486 0.0135
3 0.0000 0.0005 0.0036 0.0115 0.0256 0.0469 0.0756 0.1115 0.1536 0.2005 0.2500 0.2995 0.3456 0.3845 0.4116 0.4219 0.4096 0.3685 0.2916 0.1715
4 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0005 0.0016 0.0039 0.0081 0.0150 0.0256 0.0410 0.0625 0.0915 0.1296 0.1785 0.2401 0.3164 0.4096 0.5220 0.6561 0.8145
5 0 0.9510 0.7738 0.5905 0.4437 0.3277 0.2373 0.1681 0.1160 0.0778 0.0503 0.0313 0.0185 0.0102 0.0053 0.0024 0.0010 0.0003 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.0480 0.2036 0.3281 0.3915 0.4096 0.3955 0.3602 0.3124 0.2592 0.2059 0.1563 0.1128 0.0768 0.0488 0.0284 0.0146 0.0064 0.0022 0.0005 0.0000
2 0.0010 0.0214 0.0729 0.1382 0.2048 0.2637 0.3087 0.3364 0.3456 0.3369 0.3125 0.2757 0.2304 0.1811 0.1323 0.0879 0.0512 0.0244 0.0081 0.0011
3 0.0000 0.0011 0.0081 0.0244 0.0512 0.0879 0.1323 0.1811 0.2304 0.2757 0.3125 0.3369 0.3456 0.3364 0.3087 0.2637 0.2048 0.1382 0.0729 0.0214
4 0.0000 0.0000 0.0005 0.0022 0.0064 0.0146 0.0284 0.0488 0.0768 0.1128 0.1563 0.2059 0.2592 0.3124 0.3602 0.3955 0.4096 0.3915 0.3281 0.2036
5 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0003 0.0010 0.0024 0.0053 0.0102 0.0185 0.0313 0.0503 0.0778 0.1160 0.1681 0.2373 0.3277 0.4437 0.5905 0.7738
6 0 0.9415 0.7351 0.5314 0.3771 0.2621 0.1780 0.1176 0.0754 0.0467 0.0277 0.0156 0.0083 0.0041 0.0018 0.0007 0.0002 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.0571 0.2321 0.3543 0.3993 0.3932 0.3560 0.3025 0.2437 0.1866 0.1359 0.0938 0.0609 0.0369 0.0205 0.0102 0.0044 0.0015 0.0004 0.0001 0.0000
2 0.0014 0.0305 0.0984 0.1762 0.2458 0.2966 0.3241 0.3280 0.3110 0.2780 0.2344 0.1861 0.1382 0.0951 0.0595 0.0330 0.0154 0.0055 0.0012 0.0001
3 0.0000 0.0021 0.0146 0.0415 0.0819 0.1318 0.1852 0.2355 0.2765 0.3032 0.3125 0.3032 0.2765 0.2355 0.1852 0.1318 0.0819 0.0415 0.0146 0.0021
4 0.0000 0.0001 0.0012 0.0055 0.0154 0.0330 0.0595 0.0951 0.1382 0.1861 0.2344 0.2780 0.3110 0.3280 0.3241 0.2966 0.2458 0.1762 0.0984 0.0305
5 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0004 0.0015 0.0044 0.0102 0.0205 0.0369 0.0609 0.0938 0.1359 0.1866 0.2437 0.3025 0.3560 0.3932 0.3993 0.3543 0.2321
6 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0002 0.0007 0.0018 0.0041 0.0083 0.0156 0.0277 0.0467 0.0754 0.1176 0.1780 0.2621 0.3771 0.5314 0.7351
7 0 0.9321 0.6983 0.4783 0.3206 0.2097 0.1335 0.0824 0.0490 0.0280 0.0152 0.0078 0.0037 0.0016 0.0006 0.0002 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.0659 0.2573 0.3720 0.3960 0.3670 0.3115 0.2471 0.1848 0.1306 0.0872 0.0547 0.0320 0.0172 0.0084 0.0036 0.0013 0.0004 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.0020 0.0406 0.1240 0.2097 0.2753 0.3115 0.3177 0.2985 0.2613 0.2140 0.1641 0.1172 0.0774 0.0466 0.0250 0.0115 0.0043 0.0012 0.0002 0.0000
3 0.0000 0.0036 0.0230 0.0617 0.1147 0.1730 0.2269 0.2679 0.2903 0.2918 0.2734 0.2388 0.1935 0.1442 0.0972 0.0577 0.0287 0.0109 0.0026 0.0002
4 0.0000 0.0002 0.0026 0.0109 0.0287 0.0577 0.0972 0.1442 0.1935 0.2388 0.2734 0.2918 0.2903 0.2679 0.2269 0.1730 0.1147 0.0617 0.0230 0.0036
5 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.0012 0.0043 0.0115 0.0250 0.0466 0.0774 0.1172 0.1641 0.2140 0.2613 0.2985 0.3177 0.3115 0.2753 0.2097 0.1240 0.0406
6 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0004 0.0013 0.0036 0.0084 0.0172 0.0320 0.0547 0.0872 0.1306 0.1848 0.2471 0.3115 0.3670 0.3960 0.3720 0.2573
7 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0002 0.0006 0.0016 0.0037 0.0078 0.0152 0.0280 0.0490 0.0824 0.1335 0.2097 0.3206 0.4783 0.6983
 p
n x 0.01 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95
8 0 0.9227 0.6634 0.4305 0.2725 0.1678 0.1001 0.0576 0.0319 0.0168 0.0084 0.0039 0.0017 0.0007 0.0002 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.0746 0.2793 0.3826 0.3847 0.3355 0.2670 0.1977 0.1373 0.0896 0.0548 0.0313 0.0164 0.0079 0.0033 0.0012 0.0004 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.0026 0.0515 0.1488 0.2376 0.2936 0.3115 0.2965 0.2587 0.2090 0.1569 0.1094 0.0703 0.0413 0.0217 0.0100 0.0038 0.0011 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000
3 0.0001 0.0054 0.0331 0.0839 0.1468 0.2076 0.2541 0.2786 0.2787 0.2568 0.2188 0.1719 0.1239 0.0808 0.0467 0.0231 0.0092 0.0026 0.0004 0.0000
4 0.0000 0.0004 0.0046 0.0185 0.0459 0.0865 0.1361 0.1875 0.2322 0.2627 0.2734 0.2627 0.2322 0.1875 0.1361 0.0865 0.0459 0.0185 0.0046 0.0004
5 0.0000 0.0000 0.0004 0.0026 0.0092 0.0231 0.0467 0.0808 0.1239 0.1719 0.2188 0.2568 0.2787 0.2786 0.2541 0.2076 0.1468 0.0839 0.0331 0.0054
6 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.0011 0.0038 0.0100 0.0217 0.0413 0.0703 0.1094 0.1569 0.2090 0.2587 0.2965 0.3115 0.2936 0.2376 0.1488 0.0515
7 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0004 0.0012 0.0033 0.0079 0.0164 0.0313 0.0548 0.0896 0.1373 0.1977 0.2670 0.3355 0.3847 0.3826 0.2793
8 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0002 0.0007 0.0017 0.0039 0.0084 0.0168 0.0319 0.0576 0.1001 0.1678 0.2725 0.4305 0.6634
9 0 0.9135 0.6302 0.3874 0.2316 0.1342 0.0751 0.0404 0.0207 0.0101 0.0046 0.0020 0.0008 0.0003 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.0830 0.2985 0.3874 0.3679 0.3020 0.2253 0.1556 0.1004 0.0605 0.0339 0.0176 0.0083 0.0035 0.0013 0.0004 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.0034 0.0629 0.1722 0.2597 0.3020 0.3003 0.2668 0.2162 0.1612 0.1110 0.0703 0.0407 0.0212 0.0098 0.0039 0.0012 0.0003 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
3 0.0001 0.0077 0.0446 0.1069 0.1762 0.2336 0.2668 0.2716 0.2508 0.2119 0.1641 0.1160 0.0743 0.0424 0.0210 0.0087 0.0028 0.0006 0.0001 0.0000
4 0.0000 0.0006 0.0074 0.0283 0.0661 0.1168 0.1715 0.2194 0.2508 0.2600 0.2461 0.2128 0.1672 0.1181 0.0735 0.0389 0.0165 0.0050 0.0008 0.0000
5 0.0000 0.0000 0.0008 0.0050 0.0165 0.0389 0.0735 0.1181 0.1672 0.2128 0.2461 0.2600 0.2508 0.2194 0.1715 0.1168 0.0661 0.0283 0.0074 0.0006
6 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0006 0.0028 0.0087 0.0210 0.0424 0.0743 0.1160 0.1641 0.2119 0.2508 0.2716 0.2668 0.2336 0.1762 0.1069 0.0446 0.0077
7 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0003 0.0012 0.0039 0.0098 0.0212 0.0407 0.0703 0.1110 0.1612 0.2162 0.2668 0.3003 0.3020 0.2597 0.1722 0.0629
8 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0004 0.0013 0.0035 0.0083 0.0176 0.0339 0.0605 0.1004 0.1556 0.2253 0.3020 0.3679 0.3874 0.2985
9 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0003 0.0008 0.0020 0.0046 0.0101 0.0207 0.0404 0.0751 0.1342 0.2316 0.3874 0.6302
10 0 0.9044 0.5987 0.3487 0.1969 0.1074 0.0563 0.0282 0.0135 0.0060 0.0025 0.0010 0.0003 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.0914 0.3151 0.3874 0.3474 0.2684 0.1877 0.1211 0.0725 0.0403 0.0207 0.0098 0.0042 0.0016 0.0005 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.0042 0.0746 0.1937 0.2759 0.3020 0.2816 0.2335 0.1757 0.1209 0.0763 0.0439 0.0229 0.0106 0.0043 0.0014 0.0004 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
3 0.0001 0.0105 0.0574 0.1298 0.2013 0.2503 0.2668 0.2522 0.2150 0.1665 0.1172 0.0746 0.0425 0.0212 0.0090 0.0031 0.0008 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000
4 0.0000 0.0010 0.0112 0.0401 0.0881 0.1460 0.2001 0.2377 0.2508 0.2384 0.2051 0.1596 0.1115 0.0689 0.0368 0.0162 0.0055 0.0012 0.0001 0.0000
5 0.0000 0.0001 0.0015 0.0085 0.0264 0.0584 0.1029 0.1536 0.2007 0.2340 0.2461 0.2340 0.2007 0.1536 0.1029 0.0584 0.0264 0.0085 0.0015 0.0001
6 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0012 0.0055 0.0162 0.0368 0.0689 0.1115 0.1596 0.2051 0.2384 0.2508 0.2377 0.2001 0.1460 0.0881 0.0401 0.0112 0.0010
7 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0008 0.0031 0.0090 0.0212 0.0425 0.0746 0.1172 0.1665 0.2150 0.2522 0.2668 0.2503 0.2013 0.1298 0.0574 0.0105
8 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0004 0.0014 0.0043 0.0106 0.0229 0.0439 0.0763 0.1209 0.1757 0.2335 0.2816 0.3020 0.2759 0.1937 0.0746
9 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0005 0.0016 0.0042 0.0098 0.0207 0.0403 0.0725 0.1211 0.1877 0.2684 0.3474 0.3874 0.3151
10 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0003 0.0010 0.0025 0.0060 0.0135 0.0282 0.0563 0.1074 0.1969 0.3487 0.5987
 p
n x 0.01 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95
11 0 0.8953 0.5688 0.3138 0.1673 0.0859 0.0422 0.0198 0.0088 0.0036 0.0014 0.0005 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.0995 0.3293 0.3835 0.3248 0.2362 0.1549 0.0932 0.0518 0.0266 0.0125 0.0054 0.0021 0.0007 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.0050 0.0867 0.2131 0.2866 0.2953 0.2581 0.1998 0.1395 0.0887 0.0513 0.0269 0.0126 0.0052 0.0018 0.0005 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
3 0.0002 0.0137 0.0710 0.1517 0.2215 0.2581 0.2568 0.2254 0.1774 0.1259 0.0806 0.0462 0.0234 0.0102 0.0037 0.0011 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
4 0.0000 0.0014 0.0158 0.0536 0.1107 0.1721 0.2201 0.2428 0.2365 0.2060 0.1611 0.1128 0.0701 0.0379 0.0173 0.0064 0.0017 0.0003 0.0000 0.0000
5 0.0000 0.0001 0.0025 0.0132 0.0388 0.0803 0.1321 0.1830 0.2207 0.2360 0.2256 0.1931 0.1471 0.0985 0.0566 0.0268 0.0097 0.0023 0.0003 0.0000
6 0.0000 0.0000 0.0003 0.0023 0.0097 0.0268 0.0566 0.0985 0.1471 0.1931 0.2256 0.2360 0.2207 0.1830 0.1321 0.0803 0.0388 0.0132 0.0025 0.0001
7 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0003 0.0017 0.0064 0.0173 0.0379 0.0701 0.1128 0.1611 0.2060 0.2365 0.2428 0.2201 0.1721 0.1107 0.0536 0.0158 0.0014
8 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.0011 0.0037 0.0102 0.0234 0.0462 0.0806 0.1259 0.1774 0.2254 0.2568 0.2581 0.2215 0.1517 0.0710 0.0137
9 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0005 0.0018 0.0052 0.0126 0.0269 0.0513 0.0887 0.1395 0.1998 0.2581 0.2953 0.2866 0.2131 0.0867
10 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.0007 0.0021 0.0054 0.0125 0.0266 0.0518 0.0932 0.1549 0.2362 0.3248 0.3835 0.3293
11 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.0005 0.0014 0.0036 0.0088 0.0198 0.0422 0.0859 0.1673 0.3138 0.5688
12 0 0.8864 0.5404 0.2824 0.1422 0.0687 0.0317 0.0138 0.0057 0.0022 0.0008 0.0002 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.1074 0.3413 0.3766 0.3012 0.2062 0.1267 0.0712 0.0368 0.0174 0.0075 0.0029 0.0010 0.0003 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.0060 0.0988 0.2301 0.2924 0.2835 0.2323 0.1678 0.1088 0.0639 0.0339 0.0161 0.0068 0.0025 0.0008 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
3 0.0002 0.0173 0.0852 0.1720 0.2362 0.2581 0.2397 0.1954 0.1419 0.0923 0.0537 0.0277 0.0125 0.0048 0.0015 0.0004 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
4 0.0000 0.0021 0.0213 0.0683 0.1329 0.1936 0.2311 0.2367 0.2128 0.1700 0.1208 0.0762 0.0420 0.0199 0.0078 0.0024 0.0005 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000
5 0.0000 0.0002 0.0038 0.0193 0.0532 0.1032 0.1585 0.2039 0.2270 0.2225 0.1934 0.1489 0.1009 0.0591 0.0291 0.0115 0.0033 0.0006 0.0000 0.0000
6 0.0000 0.0000 0.0005 0.0040 0.0155 0.0401 0.0792 0.1281 0.1766 0.2124 0.2256 0.2124 0.1766 0.1281 0.0792 0.0401 0.0155 0.0040 0.0005 0.0000
7 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0006 0.0033 0.0115 0.0291 0.0591 0.1009 0.1489 0.1934 0.2225 0.2270 0.2039 0.1585 0.1032 0.0532 0.0193 0.0038 0.0002
8 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0005 0.0024 0.0078 0.0199 0.0420 0.0762 0.1208 0.1700 0.2128 0.2367 0.2311 0.1936 0.1329 0.0683 0.0213 0.0021
9 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0004 0.0015 0.0048 0.0125 0.0277 0.0537 0.0923 0.1419 0.1954 0.2397 0.2581 0.2362 0.1720 0.0852 0.0173
10 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.0008 0.0025 0.0068 0.0161 0.0339 0.0639 0.1088 0.1678 0.2323 0.2835 0.2924 0.2301 0.0988
11 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0003 0.0010 0.0029 0.0075 0.0174 0.0368 0.0712 0.1267 0.2062 0.3012 0.3766 0.3413
12 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0002 0.0008 0.0022 0.0057 0.0138 0.0317 0.0687 0.1422 0.2824 0.5404
 p
n x 0.01 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95
15 0 0.8601 0.4633 0.2059 0.0874 0.0352 0.0134 0.0047 0.0016 0.0005 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.1303 0.3658 0.3432 0.2312 0.1319 0.0668 0.0305 0.0126 0.0047 0.0016 0.0005 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.0092 0.1348 0.2669 0.2856 0.2309 0.1559 0.0916 0.0476 0.0219 0.0090 0.0032 0.0010 0.0003 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
3 0.0004 0.0307 0.1285 0.2184 0.2501 0.2252 0.1700 0.1110 0.0634 0.0318 0.0139 0.0052 0.0016 0.0004 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
4 0.0000 0.0049 0.0428 0.1156 0.1876 0.2252 0.2186 0.1792 0.1268 0.0780 0.0417 0.0191 0.0074 0.0024 0.0006 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
5 0.0000 0.0006 0.0105 0.0449 0.1032 0.1651 0.2061 0.2123 0.1859 0.1404 0.0916 0.0515 0.0245 0.0096 0.0030 0.0007 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
6 0.0000 0.0000 0.0019 0.0132 0.0430 0.0917 0.1472 0.1906 0.2066 0.1914 0.1527 0.1048 0.0612 0.0298 0.0116 0.0034 0.0007 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000
7 0.0000 0.0000 0.0003 0.0030 0.0138 0.0393 0.0811 0.1319 0.1771 0.2013 0.1964 0.1647 0.1181 0.0710 0.0348 0.0131 0.0035 0.0005 0.0000 0.0000
8 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0005 0.0035 0.0131 0.0348 0.0710 0.1181 0.1647 0.1964 0.2013 0.1771 0.1319 0.0811 0.0393 0.0138 0.0030 0.0003 0.0000
9 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0007 0.0034 0.0116 0.0298 0.0612 0.1048 0.1527 0.1914 0.2066 0.1906 0.1472 0.0917 0.0430 0.0132 0.0019 0.0000
10 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0007 0.0030 0.0096 0.0245 0.0515 0.0916 0.1404 0.1859 0.2123 0.2061 0.1651 0.1032 0.0449 0.0105 0.0006
11 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0006 0.0024 0.0074 0.0191 0.0417 0.0780 0.1268 0.1792 0.2186 0.2252 0.1876 0.1156 0.0428 0.0049
12 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0004 0.0016 0.0052 0.0139 0.0318 0.0634 0.1110 0.1700 0.2252 0.2501 0.2184 0.1285 0.0307
13 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0003 0.0010 0.0032 0.0090 0.0219 0.0476 0.0916 0.1559 0.2309 0.2856 0.2669 0.1348
14 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0005 0.0016 0.0047 0.0126 0.0305 0.0668 0.1319 0.2312 0.3432 0.3658
15 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0005 0.0016 0.0047 0.0134 0.0352 0.0874 0.2059 0.4633
20 0 0.8179 0.3585 0.1216 0.0388 0.0115 0.0032 0.0008 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.1652 0.3774 0.2702 0.1368 0.0576 0.0211 0.0068 0.0020 0.0005 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.0159 0.1887 0.2852 0.2293 0.1369 0.0669 0.0278 0.0100 0.0031 0.0008 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
3 0.0010 0.0596 0.1901 0.2428 0.2054 0.1339 0.0716 0.0323 0.0123 0.0040 0.0011 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
4 0.0000 0.0133 0.0898 0.1821 0.2182 0.1897 0.1304 0.0738 0.0350 0.0139 0.0046 0.0013 0.0003 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
5 0.0000 0.0022 0.0319 0.1028 0.1746 0.2023 0.1789 0.1272 0.0746 0.0365 0.0148 0.0049 0.0013 0.0003 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
6 0.0000 0.0003 0.0089 0.0454 0.1091 0.1686 0.1916 0.1712 0.1244 0.0746 0.0370 0.0150 0.0049 0.0012 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
7 0.0000 0.0000 0.0020 0.0160 0.0545 0.1124 0.1643 0.1844 0.1659 0.1221 0.0739 0.0366 0.0146 0.0045 0.0010 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
8 0.0000 0.0000 0.0004 0.0046 0.0222 0.0609 0.1144 0.1614 0.1797 0.1623 0.1201 0.0727 0.0355 0.0136 0.0039 0.0008 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
9 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0011 0.0074 0.0271 0.0654 0.1158 0.1597 0.1771 0.1602 0.1185 0.0710 0.0336 0.0120 0.0030 0.0005 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
10 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.0020 0.0099 0.0308 0.0686 0.1171 0.1593 0.1762 0.1593 0.1171 0.0686 0.0308 0.0099 0.0020 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000
11 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0005 0.0030 0.0120 0.0336 0.0710 0.1185 0.1602 0.1771 0.1597 0.1158 0.0654 0.0271 0.0074 0.0011 0.0001 0.0000
12 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0008 0.0039 0.0136 0.0355 0.0727 0.1201 0.1623 0.1797 0.1614 0.1144 0.0609 0.0222 0.0046 0.0004 0.0000
13 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.0010 0.0045 0.0146 0.0366 0.0739 0.1221 0.1659 0.1844 0.1643 0.1124 0.0545 0.0160 0.0020 0.0000
14 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.0012 0.0049 0.0150 0.0370 0.0746 0.1244 0.1712 0.1916 0.1686 0.1091 0.0454 0.0089 0.0003
15 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0003 0.0013 0.0049 0.0148 0.0365 0.0746 0.1272 0.1789 0.2023 0.1746 0.1028 0.0319 0.0022
16 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0003 0.0013 0.0046 0.0139 0.0350 0.0738 0.1304 0.1897 0.2182 0.1821 0.0898 0.0133
17 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.0011 0.0040 0.0123 0.0323 0.0716 0.1339 0.2054 0.2428 0.1901 0.0596
18 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.0008 0.0031 0.0100 0.0278 0.0669 0.1369 0.2293 0.2852 0.1887
19 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0005 0.0020 0.0068 0.0211 0.0576 0.1368 0.2702 0.3774
20 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.0008 0.0032 0.0115 0.0388 0.1216 0.3585