AULA 2

FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA DA
LÍNGUA INGLESA

Prof. Robson Ribeiro

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INTRODUCTION

In our previous session, we delved into the upper section of Underhill's (2005)
phonemic chart, specifically focusing on the 20 vowels it comprises. These vowels are
divided into 12 monophthongs and eight diphthongs. Now, in this class, our attention
shifts to the lower section of the chart, encompassing the 24 consonants.
Consonants play a crucial role in delineating syllabic boundaries, demarcating
where one syllable commences and concludes. Consequently, gaining insight into the
production, manipulation, and control of consonants is indispensable for both
achieving proficient pronunciation and honing effective listening skills.

CONTEXT

In this section, our objective is to develop a more comprehensive

understanding of how consonants are generated and organized on the phonemic
chart. To facilitate this understanding, it is beneficial to keep the following questions in
mind:

• What defines a consonant?

• Is it necessary for students to accurately produce all consonants?
• What distinguishes voiced from voiceless consonants?
• What are the three variables affecting consonant production?
• Which parts of the vocal tract are engaged in consonant articulation?
• How is the organizational structure for consonants depicted on the phonemic
chart?

TOPIC 1 – CONSONANTS

In comparison to many other languages, English boasts a substantial number

of phonemes, particularly consonants, which is not particularly unusual. Various
languages worldwide exhibit varying quantities of consonants, some more, and others
fewer. Where English significantly diverges from many common languages is in its
vowel inventory. Nonetheless, the complexity of consonants lies in the remarkable
diversity that different languages can produce. When one contemplates the vocal tract
and the myriad potential positions for sound production between the lungs and the
lips, the multitude of possibilities with nuanced distinctions becomes apparent.
Indeed, in the realm of Indo-European languages, there exists a noteworthy degree of
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consonant similarity, with only a limited set of phonemes posing challenges for
language learners.

1.1 Physical definition

Traditionally, a consonant is defined by the presence of some form of

obstruction within the vocal tract that impedes the free flow of air. We will explore the
various methods by which air flow can be restricted shortly. In essence, there must be
an obstacle in place to restrict the unimpeded passage of air from the lungs to the
mouth. It's worth noting that, like the definition of vowels, there are exceptions to this
rule, making it not universally applicable.

1.2 Functional Definition

The functional definition takes a different perspective by examining the roles

that vowels and consonants play. In this view, the most significant distinction between
vowels and consonants is not how they are physically produced but rather their
distinct functions (Roach, 1991, p. 11). As we learned in the previous class, we
already possess a working definition of consonants because they either precede or
follow a vowel, often marking the beginning and/or end of a syllable.

1.3 Consonants and the Lingua Franca

The importance of students mastering the correct pronunciation of all

consonants depends on their specific language learning goals and objectives.
However, the immediate and apparent answer is that it holds great significance.
People study a language with the aim of becoming proficient and articulate speakers,
which inherently encompasses achieving excellent pronunciation of both vowels and
consonants. After all, if individuals are unable to articulate certain sounds accurately,
effective communication becomes compromised.
Nevertheless, it's crucial to bear in mind that the benchmark we uphold in this
module is Received Pronunciation (RP), or the standard British English accent. There
are numerous other varieties of English that may not feature the same array of
consonants as RP. For instance, in certain regions of Ireland, the sound /θ/, as found
in the word 'three,' does not exist. Consequently, 'three' may sound more akin to 'tree,'
with the /θ/ sound being substituted with a /t/ sound.
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 Another important consideration stems from the work of Jenkins (2000; 2007)
regarding English as a lingua franca. The argument here is that since most English
learners will use English with individuals for whom English is not their first language, it
takes on distinct characteristics compared to the English spoken in places like the UK
and the USA. This variation of English often omits features such as the /θ/ sound
because it is particularly challenging for many learners to master. If it holds true that
most learners do not need to use the most challenging aspects of pronunciation in
their interactions with others who do not use them, it allows teachers to allocate their
time and focus on more critical areas of the language.

TOPIC 2 – VARIABLE 1: VOICED AND UNVOICED

In English consonant production, there are three primary ways to modify the
sound of the desired consonant, which we will delve into in the subsequent three
sections. The first variable is whether the sound is voiced or unvoiced. It's worth
noting that you may occasionally encounter two other terms in the literature: lenis or
weak aspiration for unvoiced consonants, and fortis or strong aspiration for voiced
consonants.

2.1 Noticing the Difference

We will now attempt to perceive the distinction between voiced and unvoiced
sounds. It is crucial to both experience and articulate this difference to understand
what is transpiring within the vocal tract. This is a valuable exercise that can be
undertaken with students to illustrate what they should be aiming for. Be mindful that
this activity involves making sounds, so choose a location where you won't feel self-
conscious or disrupt others.
We will work with two distinct sounds. The first sound is /s/, akin to the hiss of a
snake and found at the beginning of words like 'sing' or 'sue.' The second sound is /z/,
resembling the hum of a mosquito, found at the beginning of words like 'zoo' and 'zip.'
Locate your larynx on your throat. As depicted in the diagram below, the larynx
covers the vocal cords. Now, place two fingers on the larynx and produce the /s/
sound. After a few seconds, cease and produce the /z/ sound.
Hopefully, you've observed two key points. If you're having difficulty discerning
the difference, try the following exercise again, this time with your hands covering
your ears.

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 The first observation is that there is little to no distinction inside the mouth
when producing these two sounds. The positions of the tongue, teeth, and the overall
mouth shape are (more or less) the same.

The second observation is the sensation of vibration when making the /z/
sound, whereas there is no vibration for the /s/ sound. The /z/ sound is described as
"voiced" because it involves the use of the vocal cords, or the voice box, to produce
sound. Conversely, the /s/ sound is termed "voiceless" because it does not rely on the
vocal cords for production.
We can repeat this experiment with other sounds, such as the /p/ and /b/
sounds. The /p/ sound is found at the beginning of words like 'pig' or 'pink,' while the
'b' sound occurs at the start of words like 'big' or 'bank.' Again, when we produce the
/p/ sound and then the /b/ sound, we should notice that the positions inside the mouth
remain largely the same. There should be minimal change in the positioning of the
lips, tongue, or mouth shape.
Now, try to locate a piece of paper and place it in front of your mouth. If you
can't find any paper, use your hand, though it's easier to observe with a piece of
paper. Attempt to make the /p/ sound and blow on the paper to make it move. Then,
repeat the same with the /b/ sound. If done correctly, you should observe that the
paper moves significantly with the /p/ sound but hardly moves at all with the /b/ sound.
The reason behind this difference lies in the nature of the sounds themselves.
The /p/ sound is considered "voiceless," which means it does not involve the use of
the vocal cords. Consequently, no energy from our breath is directed into the vocal
cords, allowing it to escape through the mouth. In contrast, the /b/ sound is "voiced"
and utilizes all the energy from our breath within the vocal cords, leaving nothing to
move the piece of paper.

2.2 Significance

Students often find exercises like this engaging because they are unique and
captivating. Nevertheless, there is a substantial educational aspect to raising
students' awareness of the disparities between voiced and unvoiced consonants. It
can significantly aid in the correct pronunciation of words, particularly in addressing
the potential confusion between the /s/ and /z/ sounds in English, both of which can
be represented by the letter 's.' For instance, a rule for students is that the letter 's'
represents a /z/ voiced sound when it follows a vowel, a voiced consonant, or another

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's,' as seen in words like 'she's,' 'moves,' or 'was.' However, the letter 's' represents a
/s/ sound when it follows an unvoiced consonant, as demonstrated in words like 'hats'
or 'tops.' This awareness helps students make accurate distinctions in their
pronunciation.

TOPIC 3 – VARIABLE 2: MANNER OF ARTICULATION

The manner of articulation pertains to how airflow is constrained within the

vocal tract. There are eight distinct ways in which airflow can be restricted,
encompassing plosives, affricates, fricatives, nasal sounds, fortis fricatives, laterals,
frictionless continuants, and semi-vowels.

3.1 Plosives

In English, one of the most prevalent methods of obstructing airflow in the

vocal tract is known as a plosive. As the term implies, this category involves a
complete cessation of airflow for a brief period, allowing pressure to accumulate. This
pressure is then discharged in a small, explosive burst, hence the name "plosive."
In the preceding section, we explored how the /p/ and /b/ sounds are
generated by bringing the lips together and subsequently employing either a voiced or
unvoiced sound. The action of bringing the lips together halts all airflow before
releasing pressure to produce the respective /p/ or /b/ sound. English features four
additional plosive sounds:

• /t/, encountered at the beginning of words like 'two' and 'tan.'

• /d/, present in words such as 'dig' and 'down.'
• /k/, found in words like 'king' and 'clown.'
• /g/, as in words such as 'go' and 'guest.'

3.2 Fricatives

The largest group of consonants in English belongs to the category of

fricatives. These sounds are generated by creating a degree of friction within the
vocal tract. Unlike plosives, where airflow is completely halted, fricatives involve a
partial restriction of airflow. Since these sounds are produced through friction rather
than the release of pressure, they can be prolonged and sustained as long as the
speaker has enough breath.

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 When we initially examined voiced and unvoiced sounds, we discussed the /s/
and /z/ phonemes. It was noted that these phonemes are produced in the same
location within the mouth, with the primary distinction being that /s/ is unvoiced and /z/
is voiced. Both are generated by the tongue moving toward, but not entirely touching,
the roof of the mouth, known as the alveolar ridge, just behind the teeth.
RP English includes six other fricatives:

• /f/, which is unvoiced, found in words like 'for' and 'physics.'

• /v/, which is voiced, found in words like 'vase' and 'vine.'
• /θ/, which is unvoiced, present in words like 'three' and 'thatch.'
• /ð/, which is voiced, encountered in words like 'the' and 'those.'
• /ʃ/, which is unvoiced, can be found in words like 'she' and 'show.'
• /ʒ/, which is voiced, is present in words like 'television' and 'pleasure.' In both of
these words, the /ʒ/ sound is represented by the letter 's.' It's uncommon to
have the /ʒ/ sound at the beginning of a word in English, but there are a few
examples of borrowed words from French, such as 'genre' or 'gigolo.'

3.3 Affricates

An affricate is a combination of two distinct sounds. Unlike diphthongs, which

glide from one sound to another, affricates blend two sounds together. This is evident
from the symbols used to represent them: /tʃ/ and /dʒ/. The first sound is a blend of
the unvoiced plosive /t/ and the unvoiced fricative /ʃ/. It can be found in words like
'chain' and 'church.' The second sound is a blend of the voiced /d/ and /ʒ/ and can be
found in words like 'joke' and 'general.'

3.4 Nasal Sounds

RP English comprises only three nasal sounds. Nasal sounds occur when
airflow is completely restricted through the mouth, forcing it to exit through the nose.
All of these nasal sounds are voiced:

• /m/, found in words like 'mouse' and 'mine.'

• /n/, present in words like 'no' and 'never.'
• /ŋ/, which is never found at the beginning of a word. It is most commonly
associated with the 'ng' letter combination, appearing as the final sound in
words like 'shopping' and 'living.' Notably, this sound is not /g/ nor is it followed

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 by a vowel. It's a common misconception that words like 'shopping' end with a
/g/, and many English learners, irrespective of their native language, tend to
add a vowel at the end.

Distinguishing between these three nasal sounds, particularly /m/ and /n/, can
be challenging, even for native speakers and learners alike. Typically, it is the context
provided by other sounds and words that aids in determining whether it is /m/, /n/, or
/ŋ/.

3.5 Lateral

The lateral sound is represented by the symbol /l/. To produce this sound, the
tongue partially obstructs the flow of air through the mouth by making contact with the
postalveolar region. The only path for the air to pass through the mouth is around the
sides, or laterally, of the tongue.
This phoneme possesses two distinct qualities, both of which are voiced. When
the phoneme precedes a vowel, it is referred to as a "clear /l/" and can be found in
words like 'love' and 'laugh.' However, when it follows the vowel, it is known as a "dark
/l/" and can be found in words like 'goal' and 'girl.'

3.6 Frictionless Continuant

The phoneme represented by the symbol /r/ can be found in words like 'red'
and 'round.' In producing this sound, the tip of the tongue curls upward, nearly
touching the post-alveolar area but leaving a space to enable unrestricted airflow,
hence the term "frictionless." It is termed a "continuant" because the sound can be
prolonged for as long as the speaker has breath.
In RP English, this sound is always voiced. In many varieties of English, it can
also be found after the vowel, before consonants, or in silence. These varieties, such
as American or Irish English, are termed "rhotic." RP, however, is a non-rhotic variety
of English, so the /r/ sound never occurs after a vowel, before consonants, or in
silence.

3.7 Semi-vowels

The final category of consonants in this section is the semi-vowel. RP English

features two semi-vowels: /w/ and /j/. In many languages, these phonemes are

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treated as vowels, but in English, they function as consonants because they
consistently appear before a vowel. Both semi-vowels are voiced, akin to true vowels.

• The /w/ sound can be found in words like 'woman' and 'when.'
• The /j/ sound can be found in words like 'yes' and 'uniform.' Detecting the
presence of the /j/ sound in RP can be challenging because it rarely
corresponds to a specific letter. For instance, in the word 'uniform,' there might
be a temptation to consider the initial sound as a vowel, particularly /u:/.

However, the fact that the initial sound is actually /j/ explains why we do not
use the article 'an' before 'uniform.' Instead, we use 'a uniform.' Similar examples
include 'university' and 'usual.'

TOPIC 4 – VARIABLE 3: PLACE OF ARTICULATION

In this section, we will examine where each sound is produced within the vocal
tract. We will begin at the front of the mouth and progress toward the back, ranging
from the lips (labial position) to the velar position. The majority of places of articulation
can be visualized in the diagram below. The sole exception is /h/, which we will
address towards the conclusion of this section.

Figure 1 – Speech diagram

Crédito: mmutlu/Shutterstock.

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4.1 Bilabial

Towards the front of the mouth, there are four sounds produced using both lips.
The /p/ and /b/ phonemes are generated by bringing the two lips together and
subsequently releasing the pressure that builds up between them.
The /m/ phoneme is produced by closing the lips and allowing the sound to exit
through the nose.
The /w/ phoneme does not involve complete closure of the lips since it is a
semi-vowel. However, the lips play a role in shaping the sound due to the position
they assume before pronouncing the following vowel.

4.2 Labial-Dental

There are two labio-dental sounds: /f/ and /v/. These sounds are produced by
bringing the bottom lip up until it touches the top teeth. As air flows between the lip
and teeth, the resulting friction generates the sound.

4.3 Dental

The two dental sounds are /θ/ and /ð/. They are created when the tip of the
tongue moves upward to touch the upper teeth. The friction generated as air flows
between the teeth and the tongue produces these sounds.

4.4 Alveolar

Five phonemes are produced in the alveolar region of the mouth:

• Both /t/ and /d/ are produced by the tongue touching the roof of the mouth,
blocking airflow. When the pressure is released, these sounds are produced.
• Both /s/ and /z/ are produced when the tongue touches the roof of the mouth
but allows airflow with some friction. These sounds are generated during this
process.
• The /n/ sound is produced by the tongue touching the roof of the mouth and
directing airflow through the nose.
• The /l/ sound is created when the tip of the tongue touches the roof of the
mouth, leaving space on both sides for airflow around the tongue.

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4.5 Post-Alveolar

The /r/ phoneme is the only sound produced in the post-alveolar region, just
behind the alveolar region. As discussed in the previous section, the tip of the tongue
curls upward, almost touching the roof of the mouth, while the rest of the tongue moves
toward the bottom of the mouth.

4.6 Palato-Alveolar

Four sounds are produced in the palato-alveolar region. The /tʃ/ and /dʒ/
phonemes are generated by moving the tip of the tongue forward, creating a blockage
in airflow with the tongue's blade, which is then released with friction just behind the
alveolar ridge, where it meets the hard palate of the mouth.

• The /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ sounds are similar but do not completely block airflow and rely
mainly on friction to produce the sound.

4.7 Palatal

The /j/ sound is produced when the back of the tongue rises towards the hard
palate part of the mouth. Since it's a semi-vowel, the tongue does not completely
block the airflow through the mouth.

4.8 Velar

The velar region refers to the softer part of the roof of the mouth toward the
back. Three sounds are produced here:

• The /k/ and /g/ phonemes occur when the back of the tongue rises to block
airflow, and when the pressure is released, the sound is produced.
• The /ŋ/ sound is produced when the back of the tongue blocks airflow through
the mouth, and instead of releasing the pressure, the air is directed through the
nose.

4.9 Onset

The final phoneme is /h/. This sound lacks a specific place of articulation
because, as mentioned earlier, its sound quality is influenced by the following vowel.
It is called an "onset" because its place of articulation occurs at the start, or onset, of
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the vowel.

THEME 5 – THE CONSONANTS ON THE CHART

In this final section, we will focus on the phonemic chart and examine how
each of the consonants is positioned within it. By doing so, we will explore the
organization of consonants and provide a comprehensive description of how each
one is produced. As a reminder, the table below displays only the consonants from
the chart.

Figure 2 – Second chart

5.1 The Top Row

Regarding the top row of the chart, the place of articulation moves from the
front of the mouth to the back. This means that the /p/ and /b/ sounds are positioned
at the front of the mouth (bilabial), while the /k/ and /g/ sounds are located toward the
back of the mouth (velar).
It's important to note that all the consonants in this row come in pairs of
unvoiced and voiced sounds. The manner and place of articulation for /p/ and /b/ are
the same; the distinction lies in the fact that /p/ is unvoiced, while /b/ is voiced. This
pattern holds true for the remaining consonants in this row, with the unvoiced
consonant preceding its voiced counterpart.
Additionally, six of the consonants in this row (/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, and /g/) are
classified as plosives, while the remaining two (/tʃ/ and /dʒ/) are affricates. In
linguistics, affricates are considered subcategories of plosives, so their placement in
this row aligns with the organizational logic.
The complete description of the first row is as follows:

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Table 1 – Top row

5.2 The Middle Row

The middle row consists entirely of fricatives, where sounds are produced
through friction at various points in the vocal tract. Similar to the top row, the
phonemes in this row are organized in terms of their place of articulation, starting at
the front of the mouth and progressing backward. Additionally, like the top row, the
phonemes in this row are paired, with the first phoneme being unvoiced and the
second being voiced.
The complete description of the second row is as follows:

Table 2 – Middle row

5.3 The Bottom Row

The bottom row lacks the same neat organization as the top two rows due to
the greater variety of manner of articulation. The first three phonemes in this row are
the nasal sounds, which progress from the front to the back of the mouth: /m/ is at the
front, /n/ is slightly further back, and /ŋ/ is at the back. Following these, there is /h/,
which we've mentioned has no specific place of articulation, followed by /l/ and /r/.
The last two sounds are semi-vowels, with the /w/ sound produced at the front of the
mouth and the /j/ sound being produced further back in the mouth.

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 The complete description of the bottom row is as follows:

Table 3 – Bottom row

CONCLUSION

With the vocabulary and knowledge provided in this lesson, we now have the
tools to describe all of the possible variables in consonant production. While it's not
necessary for students to know all of this vocabulary in detail, it can be immensely
helpful in explaining the shape of the mouth and the position of the tongue when
teaching pronunciation. Diagrams, like the ones included in this lesson, can be
valuable tools for visually demonstrating how to produce these sounds. This approach
is more effective than merely asking students to listen and repeat.
Furthermore, the phonemic chart serves as a valuable resource for both
educators and students. It can be used to illustrate specific phonemes and serve as a
memory aid for understanding how consonants are organized within the mouth.

MANDATORY READING
Practical approach texts
VOICED and unvoiced consonants. British Council, 2008. Available
in: <https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/teaching-resources/teaching-
secondary/activities/beginner-a1/voiced-and-unvoiced-consonants>. Retrieved at:
Sep. 26, 2023.

Further knowledge
SARIÇOBAN, A. Teaching problematic consonants in English to young learners.
Procedia, v. 2, i. 2, p. 943-947, 2010. Available
in: <https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042810001710>.
Retrieved at: Oct. 25, 2023.

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REFERENCES

JENKINS, J. English as a Lingua Franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2007.

JENKINS, J. The Phonology of English as an International Language: New

models, new norms, new goals. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.

ROACH, P. English Phonetics and Phonology: A practical course. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1991.

UNDERHILL, A. Sound Foundations: Learning and teaching pronunciation. Oxford:

Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 2005.

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