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TUNDRA
 TUNDRA

Peter D. Moore

Illustrations by Richard Garratt

TUNDRA

Copyright © 2008 by Peter D. Moore

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or
retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact:

Facts On File, Inc.

An imprint of Infobase Publishing
132 West 31st Street
New York NY 10001

ISBN-10: 0-8160-5933-0
ISBN-13: 978-0-8160-5933-1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Moore, Peter D.
Tundra / Peter D. Moore; illustrations by Richard Garratt.
   p. cm.—(Ecosystem)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8160-5933-0
1. Tundra ecology—Juvenile literature. 2. Tundras—Juvenile literature. I. Garratt, Richard.
II. Title. QH541.5.T8M665 2008
577.5'86—dc22 2006038355

Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses,
associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at
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Text design by Erika K. Arroyo

Illustrations by Richard Garratt
Photo research by Elizabeth H. Oakes

Printed in the United States of America

Bang FOF 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

 To Amelia, Amanda, Madeleine, and Michael.
Your hands may be very small but in them lies the future.
FFFFF
 Contents

Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
Introduction xv
What Is Tundra? xv
Where Is the Tundra? xvi
Why Is the Tundra Important? xviii

1 F Climate of the Tundra 1

Patterns of Tundra Distribution 1
Latitude 1
Global Climate Patterns 6
Albedo 8
The Atmosphere and Climate 10
The Oceans and Climate 11
The Oceanic Conveyor Belt 13
Arctic Climate 14
A Year in the Arctic 16
Aurora 16
Antarctic Climate 17
Microclimate 18
Aspect and Microclimate 19
Humidity 20
Alpine Climate 21
Lapse Rate 22
Timberlines 22
Conclusions 26

2 F Geology of the Tundra 28

The Rock Cycle 28
Plate Tectonics 29
Tectonic History of the Tundra Lands 33
Polar Rocks 35
Alpine Rocks 36
 Snow and Ice 37
Ice Sheets, Ice Shelves, and Sea Ice 38
Nunataks 38
Ice Caps and Glaciers 40
Crevasses 44
Glacial Debris and Its Deposition 44
Sorting by Water and Wind 49
Particle Size 50
Geology and Rock Weathering 52
Acidity and pH 54
Soil Formation and Maturation 54
The Soil Profile of a Podzol 56
Periglacial Features 60
Conclusions 62

3 F Types of Tundra 64
Tundra Forms 64
Vegetation Structure 64
Polar Desert 65
Dwarf Shrub Tundra 66
Tall Shrub Tundra 71
Forest Tundra 71
Coastal Tundra 74
Tundra Wetlands 74
Antarctic Tundra 78
Alpine Tundra 79
Tropical Alpine Habitats 82
Conclusions 85

4 F The Tundra Ecosystem 86

What Is an Ecosystem? 86
Energy 87
Primary Productivity in the Tundra 88
Resource Allocation 89
Food Webs in the Tundra 91
Element Cycling in the Tundra 93
Nitrogen Fixation 97
Decomposition in the Tundra 98
Nitrification 98
Ecosystem Development and Stability 99
The Concept of Stability 100
Productivity and Population Cycles in the Tundra 101
Alpine Tundra Ecosystems 102
Conclusions 102

5 F Biology of the Tundra 104

Wrapping up in the Freezer 104
Hair 105
 Cold Stress 109
Plant Forms in the Tundra 110
Plant Life-forms 112
Biological Spectrum 113
Body Size in the Tundra 113
Color in the Tundra 115
Why Be an Evergreen? 116
Drought in the Tundra 119
Transpiration, Water Potential, and Wilt 120
Waterlogging and Oxygen Shortage 121
Reproduction and Dispersal in the Tundra 123
r- and K-selection 125
Pollination 126
Grazing in the Tundra 129
Behavioral Adaptations: Hibernation or Migration? 130
Conclusions 134

6 F Biodiversity of the Tundra 136

The Meaning of Biodiversity 136
Patterns of Biodiversity 137
Biodiversity in Succession 139
Succession 140
Microbes in the Tundra 141
Cyanobacteria 142
Tundra Lichens 143
Lichens 143
Tundra Mosses and Liverworts 145
The Tundra Soil Fauna 147
Vascular Plants in the Tundra 149
Tundra Arthropods 152
Birds of the Northern Tundra 154
Ross’s Gull 156
Alpine Tundra Birds 161
Condors 163
Birds of the Southern Tundra 164
Polar Tundra Mammals 165
Alpine Tundra Mammals 170
Conclusions 174

7 F Geological and Biological History of

the Tundra 176
Glacial History of the Earth 176
The Pleistocene Glaciations 178
Uniformitarianism 179
Radiocarbon Dating 180
Oxygen Isotopes 181
Causes of Glaciation 183
Glaciation and Sea Level Change 183
 Stratigraphy and Recent History of Tundra 186
Pollen Analysis 188
The End of the Ice Age 190
After the Ice 192
Conclusions 194

8 F People in the Tundra 196

The Emergence of Modern Humans 196
Early Tundra People and the Megafauna 197
Mammoths 198
Early Tundra Art 200
Modern Tundra People 202
Arctic Exploration 203
Antarctic Exploration 206
Alpine Tundra Exploration 208
Conclusions 209

9 F The Value of the Tundra 211

The Problem of Evaluation 211
Hunting and Trapping 212
Mineral Reserves 214
Ecotourism and Recreation 216
Tundra and the Carbon Cycle 219
Carbon Cycle and the Greenhouse Effect 220
Conclusions 221

10 F The Future of the Tundra 222

The Threat of Climate Change 222
Biological Responses to Climate Change 224
Ozone Holes 226
Pollution of the Tundra 226
History of the Ozone Holes 227
Tundra Conservation 229
Albatrosses 230
Conclusions 232

11 F General Conclusions 234

Glossary 237
Further Reading 247
Web Sites 249
Index 251
 Preface

Increasingly, scientists, environmentalists, engineers, and Forests, Revised Edition; and Wetlands, Revised Edition—
land-use planners are coming to understand the living between them span the breadth of land-based and aquatic
planet in a more interdisciplinary way. The boundaries ecosystems on Earth. Each volume considers a specific
between traditional disciplines have become blurred as global ecosystem from many viewpoints: geographical, geo-
ideas, methods, and findings from one discipline inform logical, climatic, biological, historical, and economic. Such
and influence those in another. This cross-fertilization is broad coverage is vital if people are to move closer to under-
vital if professionals are going to evaluate and tackle the standing how the various ecosystems came to be, how they
environmental challenges the world faces at the beginning are changing, and, if they are being modified in ways that
of the 21st century. seem detrimental to humankind and the wider world, what
There is also a need for the new generation of adults, might be done about it.
currently students in high schools and colleges, to appreci- Many factors are responsible for the creation of Earth’s
ate the interconnections between human actions and envi- living mosaic. Climate varies greatly between Tropics and
ronmental responses if they are going to make informed poles, depending on the input of solar energy and the move-
decisions later, whether as concerned citizens or as inter- ments of atmospheric air masses and ocean currents. The
ested professionals. Providing this balanced interdisciplin- general trend of climate from equator to poles has resulted
ary overview—for students and for general readers as well in a zoned pattern of vegetation types, together with their
as professionals requiring an introduction to Earth’s major associated animals. Climate is also strongly affected by
environments—is the main aim of the Ecosystem set of the interaction between oceans and landmasses, resulting
volumes. in ecosystem patterns from east to west across continents.
The Earth is a patchwork of environments. The equato- During the course of geological time even the distribution
rial regions have warm seas with rich assemblages of cor- of the continents has altered, so the patterns of life currently
als and marine life, while the land is covered by tall forests, found on Earth are the outcome of dynamic processes and
humid and fecund, and containing perhaps half of all Earth’s constant change. The Ecosystem set examines the great eco-
living species. Beyond are the dry tropical woodlands and systems of the world as they have developed during this long
grassland, and then the deserts, where plants and animals history of climatic change, continental wandering, and the
face the rigors of heat and drought. The grasslands and for- recent meteoric growth of human populations.
ests of the temperate zone grow because of the increasing Each of the great global ecosystems has its own story to
moisture in these higher latitudes, but grade into coniferous tell: its characteristic geographical distribution; its pattern
forests and eventually scrub tundra as the colder conditions of energy flow and nutrient cycling; its distinctive soils or
of the polar regions become increasingly severe. The com- bottom sediments, vegetation cover, and animal inhabit-
plexity of diverse landscapes and seascapes can, neverthe- ants; and its own history of interaction with humanity. The
less, be simplified by considering them as the great global books in the Ecosystem set are structured so that the differ-
ecosystems that make up our patchwork planet. Each global ent global ecosystems can be analyzed and compared, and
ecosystem, or biome, is an assemblage of plants, animals, the relevant information relating to any specific topic can be
and microbes adapted to the prevailing climate and the quickly located and extracted.
associated physical, chemical, and biological conditions. The study of global ecosystems involves an examina-
The six volumes in the set—Deserts, Revised Edition; tion of the conditions that support the planet’s diversity.
Tundra; Oceans, Revised Edition; Tropical Forests; Temperate But environmental conditions are currently changing rap-

n xi n
xii   F tundra

idly. Human beings have eroded many of the great global of the residue of Earth’s biodiversity. The starting point in
ecosystems as they have reclaimed land for agriculture and approaching these problems is to understand how the great
urban settlement and built roads that cut ecosystems into ecosystems of the world function, and how the species of
ever smaller units. The fragmentation of Earth’s ecosystems animals and plants within them interact to form stable and
is proving to be a serious problem, especially during times productive assemblages. If these great natural systems are to
of rapid climate change, itself the outcome of intensive survive, then humanity needs to develop greater respect and
industrial activities on the surface of the planet. The next concern for them, and this can best be achieved by under-
generation of ecologists will have to deal with the control standing better the remarkable properties of our patchwork
of global climate and also the conservation and protection planet. Such is the aim of the Ecosystem set.
 Acknowledgments

I should like to record my gratitude to the editorial staff during the writing of this book, together with much needed
at Facts On File for their untiring support, assistance, and critical appraisal. I must also acknowledge the contribu-
encouragement during the preparation of this book. Frank tion of many generations of students in the Life Sciences
K. Darmstadt, executive editor, has been a constant source of Department of the University of London, King’s College,
advice and information and has been meticulous in check- who have been a constant source of stimulation, critical
ing the text and coordinating the final assembling of materi- comment, and new ideas. I also acknowledge a consider-
als. My gratitude also extends to the production department. able debt to my colleagues in teaching and research at King’s
I should also like to thank Richard Garratt for his excellent College, especially those who have accompanied me on field
illustrations and Elizabeth Oakes for her perceptive selection courses and research visits to many parts of the world. Their
of photographs. Particular thanks are due to my wife, who work, together with that of countless other dedicated ecolo-
has displayed a remarkable degree of patience and support gists, underlies the science presented in this book.

n xiii n
 Introduction

The world is no longer rich in wilderness. In the course in the depths of winter when mountaintops offer recre-
of a few thousand years the human species has penetrated ational opportunities, such as skiing and snowboarding.
to all parts of the globe and has everywhere left an indel- Consequently, the tundra is a mystery to the vast majority
ible mark in the form of habitat destruction and pollution. of people, a land of ice and snow that is known only through
But of all the world’s biomes the tundra remains the closest television documentaries or adventure novels. It is not sur-
to its original, pristine condition. Tundra may be regarded prising, therefore, that there are many misconceptions about
as the last true wilderness. This book examines the struc- the tundra.
ture and the distribution of tundra ecosystems, including The tundra is cold. This is true as far as average annual
both the polar regions and the high mountain tops of the temperature is concerned, and it is certainly true with respect
world. It considers the development of the tundra during to the long, dark winters. But in summer temperatures can
the course of geological history and looks at the impact of become high, and the long summer days become favorable
people on this wild ecosystem. By understanding how the to many plants and animals. The tundra is low in biologi-
tundra has come into being and how it functions, future cal diversity. Again, this is true when compared to tropical
generations will be in a better position to protect its unique forests, but the range of creatures found in the tundra is still
features. considerable, and many of the plants and animals encoun-
Tundra is structured in a way that will make relevant tered there are found nowhere else on Earth. The tundra is
information both interesting and accessible to the student. wet in summer and snowy in winter. This is the immediate
Each chapter deals with a major feature of the tundra envi- impression of the landscape, but the actual quantity of pre-
ronment, including physical aspects, such as climate, geol- cipitation (rain and snow) is actually very low. The input of
ogy, and geography, and biological aspects, including the water from the atmosphere is similar to that of a desert, but
adaptations of organisms to extreme conditions. The stu- the low temperature and consequent low evaporation mean
dent is encouraged to integrate these living and nonliving that water or snow is often present. The tundra is a waste-
components by viewing the tundra as an interactive ecosys- land. From the point of view of human settlement and farm-
tem, operating like a delicately balanced machine. In order ing, this is clearly the case, but there are many inconspicuous
to appreciate the problems facing the tundra, the question of ways in which the tundra serves humanity. The balance of
environmental change is finally emphasized, looking at the gases in the Earth’s atmosphere and therefore global climate
possible consequences of climate change and increasing pol- are strongly affected by what goes on in the tundra. The tun-
lution in this remote and wild biome. Throughout the book dra has many hidden values.
diagrams, photographic illustrations, and explanatory side-
bars are used to ensure that the factual material is presented
with clarity and maximum impact.
The tundra regions of the world have the lowest density n What Is Tundra?
of human populations, with the possible exception of some The word tundra is derived from the Finnish language. The
deserts. It is the one biome that has resisted most attempts rounded, treeless hilltops of northern Finland are called
at agricultural exploitation and human settlement. Most tunturi, and the word has become modified to tundra. The
people, even those who spend much time in traveling the application of the word tundra has also become extended to
world, have never visited tundra habitats except perhaps cover all treeless landscapes found in generally cold places,

n xv n
xvi   F tundra

such as the regions bordering upon the polar ice or oceans, season is particularly short, the soil may not thaw out
and the summits of high mountains, even in the Tropics. completely. Only the surface layers thaw, leaving the
The absence of trees in the tundra, which is its most deeper layers of the soil permanently frozen, which is
distinctive feature when first observed, is not confined to called the permafrost. Animal life in the soil is thus con-
this biome. Deserts and grasslands have few trees because fined to the upper layers, where conditions become warm
of drought conditions that restrict plant growth. The scrub enough for active life and growth in summer. Even the
vegetation of the chaparral is maintained free of trees hardy fungi and bacteria in the soil are restricted in
because it is subject to frequent fires. But the restricting their activity, spending the winter in a dormant state
factors for tree growth in the tundra are the combination and becoming active in the summer as they decompose
of low winter temperatures and high winds that carry abra- organic remains.
sive particles of ice, blasting and destroying all growing
parts of plants that raise themselves high above the ground.
All the vegetation found in the tundra hugs the soil closely.
Cushions of moss, flat plates of lichens on rocks, small n Where Is the Tundra?
domes of herbaceous plants, and low-lying stretches of There are three main regions of the Earth that support
dwarf shrubs form the general vegetation cover of the tun- the tundra biome: the Arctic region, together with some
dra. The only trees present are hardly recognizable as such, adjacent areas outside the Arctic Circle that can be termed
being reduced to contorted, dwarf forms that lie close to subarctic; some coastal locations on the continent of
the ground. Antarctica, together with neighboring islands in the south-
Beneath this cover of vegetation lies a sheltered and ern ocean, strictly subantarctic islands; and mountain
protected zone, where pockets of air remain still and unaf- summits throughout the world where conditions at high
fected by the wind above the plant canopy. Temperatures altitude are too severe for tree growth. These regions are
rise during the day, humidity stays high, and these two fac- shown on the map.
tors favor the many insects and other small invertebrates The Arctic and Antarctic tundra regions have much in
that manage to eke out a living, hidden from the bleak tun- common and can jointly be termed polar tundra. The moun-
dra landscape. Small mammals and birds can also find a taintop tundra, on the other hand, has many distinctive cli-
home in the low cover of vegetation, feeding on leaves, ber- matic features and contains some plants and animals that
ries, and insects. Some of the birds travel great distances to are not found in the polar regions. These montane sites can
take advantage of the productivity of the tundra together be classed as alpine tundra.
with the long days of summer in the polar regions. These The two types of tundra share a generally cold climate,
extended days enable them to feed their young more effec- often with only a short summer season that is suitable
tively and produce bigger families, so a surprising number for plant growth and animal activity. They are both sub-
of birds choose to breed in the tundra. Some larger mam- jected to ice and snow in winter, much of which may
mal herbivores, including caribou and musk ox, graze on persist through the summer. Wind is an important factor
the summer productivity. Both birds and mammals in turn in both types of tundra, restricting the height to which
may form a food source for the tundra predators, gyr fal- plants are able to grow. The vegetation of both alpine
con, arctic fox, wolf, and polar bear. Together the plants and polar tundra, therefore, has a superficial similarity.
and animals form the distinctive living community of the Some plant species are found in both types of tundra,
tundra. while others are restricted to either the alpine or the polar
The landscape of the tundra is not flat and uniform. tundra.
There are many microhabitats to be found within the tun- Some mountains are found within the Arctic and
dra, including peaty wetlands in the lower regions and Antarctic Circles, while other mountains are found close
raised ridges of shingle and rock in the more elevated to the equator. The polar mountains provide a home for
locations. Craggy cliffs and high mountains are found in a similar range of plants and animals to those found in
some of the polar tundra regions, providing impressive lowland polar tundra, while the mountains of equato-
vistas with permanent snow and ice. This varied landscape rial regions usually carry a very different assemblage of
offers opportunities for a range of specialized plants and species. Polar and equatorial mountains also differ con-
animals to find a home within the variety of microhabitats siderably in their respective climates, despite the fact
on offer. that both experience a cold overall average temperature.
The soils of the tundra are also distinctive in their Daily fluctuations in temperature are much greater on
form. With the coming of winter they freeze, while in an equatorial mountain, but seasonal variation is far less.
summer they thaw once again. When temperatures in the Precipitation is usually higher on mountains than is the
tundra region are especially low, or when the summer melt case in the lowland polar regions. Mountains are also
 Introduction   F    xvii

Arctic Circle

equator

Antarctic Circle

The regions of the world in which tundra ecosystems are cific demands of their environment. When this is coupled
found. Much of Greenland and most of Antarctica are covered with the spatial isolation of mountains, which stimu-
by ice and so bear no vegetation. Tundra in regions outside lates evolutionary divergence, it is not surprising to find
the Arctic and Antarctic Circles is confined to high-altitude
that there are some very distinctive organisms found on
sites. This type of mountain tundra is called alpine tundra to
distinguish it from polar tundra. mountains, some of them very restricted in their global
distribution.
Tundra, therefore, is a globally widespread and varied
habitat. It is the product of extreme climatic conditions,
often widely separated from one another, and the inter- and it contains some organisms that are highly adapted in
vening lowlands may be impassable for animals with poor order to cope with the stress of extreme cold. In general,
dispersal ability. So the plants and animals of mountains tundra is not a rich biome; it does not contain a very high
may find themselves isolated, and this can lead to evolu- diversity of species, but it is the home of some very special-
tionary separation and development much like that found ized species that are found in no other type of habitat. The
on oceanic islands. structure, biochemistry, and behavior of tundra organisms
Mountain landscapes usually display a greater vari- have long attracted the interest of biologists and ecolo-
ety of topographical features than flatlands. High peaks gists, who are eager to discover how these creatures sur-
are interspersed with deep valleys, providing a wide range vive under such stress. The presence of whole communities
of habitats and a great variety of locations that differ in of these highly specialized creatures has made the tundra
their local climate, or microclimate. This diversity of habi- a living laboratory in which scientists can study the ways
tat and microclimate can lead to a great range of animals in which nature deals with the challenge of an extreme
and plants that have special requirements and make spe- environment.
xviii   F tundra

nWhy Is be the case, but changing conditions in the Arctic and

Antarctic may provide an early warning of what might be

the Tundra Important? expected elsewhere. There are many questions that need to
be answered about the role of the polar regions in global
It is evident that the tundra has much interest for scien- climate change, and this work is advancing rapidly. One of
tists, whether geographers who study the topography of these questions concerns the development of the so-called
ice-created landforms, biologists who examine cold tol- ozone hole, in which changes in atmospheric composition,
erance among plants and animals, or soil scientists who particularly in the gas ozone, can lead to potentially dan-
investigate the effect of freeze-thaw cycles on soil structure. gerous rays reaching the surface of the Earth. Knowledge
But the tundra is also important to people who may not be of this phenomenon has improved greatly in recent years.
directly involved in scientific investigations. In the future Remedial actions seem to be having some effect, although
the importance of the tundra may well become increas- there are considerable year-to-year variations and there
ingly appreciated as the many valuable features of this remain many unanswered questions.
biome become more widely known. This book is designed Tundra is one of Earth’s few remaining wilderness areas,
to assist in this process. and a consequence of this is that there is very little pollu-
The highly adapted plants and animals of the tundra tion resulting from human activities. But even here pesti-
contain within their cells genetic information that deter- cides manage to penetrate. The persistent pesticide DDT, for
mines their hardiness. There are genes, for example, that example, has been found in the flesh of Antarctic penguins,
provide plants with the ability to resist freezing or to which provides a salutary warning of just how widely dis-
survive even when cells become frozen. There are genes persed are the chemicals people introduce into their envi-
within polar bears that enable them to live a healthy and ronment. The relative purity of the tundra ecosystems makes
vigorous life despite the fact that their diet (mainly seals) them particularly useful in monitoring the movement of
contains extremely high levels of fat. Understanding how pesticides and their continued presence in the global envi-
either of these two biochemical systems operates could be ronment.
of great value in agriculture and human medicine, respec- The tundra is becoming increasingly accessible to peo-
tively. The animals and plants of the tundra, therefore, ple as tourism develops and the popularity of adventure
can be regarded as an enormous untapped resource of holidays and ecotourism grows. Undisturbed habitats will
information that may one day enable people to improve be increasingly exposed to stress from people, whether they
their lives. come to admire the scenery and wildlife or to exploit the
During the history of the Earth the tundra has expe- mineral reserves found in many tundra areas. Antarctica is
rienced changing fortunes. There have been long periods currently protected by international treaty, but the increas-
when this biome has been absent or found only on moun- ing scarcity of oil reserves and the continued demand for
taintops. There have also been times when the tundra has minerals will undoubtedly bring increased demand for
spread and expanded over continents, the ice ages. It is vital exploitation even in this last wilderness.
that the climatic mechanisms underlying these changes be It is this combination of potentials and problems that
understood. There is an apparent pattern to these events makes the tundra a biome that demands attention. Despite
that requires detailed study so that the future behavior of the its wide geographical distribution, the tundra has proved
tundra under ever-changing conditions can be predicted. hard to explore and understand. The severe conditions that
Geologists collect evidence for past changes in the distribu- make the tundra so distinctive have also made exploration
tion of tundra in order to detect patterns and understand and scientific research particularly difficult. There is much
the processes involved in these global climatic changes. that is yet to be discovered about the tundra, but such dis-
At the present day the climate of the polar regions covery depends upon our appreciating and understand-
appears to be changing more rapidly than that of other ing what is currently known about this remote and unique
parts of the world. It is not yet understood why this should biome. This is the task of the current book.
 1
Climate of the Tundra

The tundra biome, unlike most other biomes, is not

restricted to one particular region of the Earth or to any Latitude
distinct zones north and south of the equator. The reason
The Earth is a sphere that rotates around an axis. This
for this, as explained in the introduction, is that the tundra
axis passes from the North Pole through the center
is found both in polar regions and at high altitudes on the
world’s mountains, where it survives above the level of forest of the Earth to the South Pole. The equator is an
growth. Mountains are scattered around the world, so tun- imaginary line that passes around the Earth and is
dra ecosystems may occur even in the Tropics, close to the equidistant from both poles. In cross section, there-
equator, as long as the mountain is high enough. In order to fore, the equator forms a right angle to the Earth’s
discover what factors control the formation of tundra, it is axis, as shown in the map on page 2. The equator
necessary to analyze in detail the precise distribution of this is regarded as having an angle of zero degrees (0°),
biome. which means that the angle of the North Pole is 90°N
and the South Pole is 90°S. Between these extremes
it is possible to denote the position north or south

nPatterns of of any point on the Earth’s surface by reference to

the angle at which it lies in relation to the equator.

tundra distribution This is called its latitude. Lines of latitude run around
the Earth north and south of the equator, ranging
The map on page xvii shows the broad pattern of tundra dis- from 0° to 90°. Those with high values (close to the
tribution over the Earth’s land surface. As explained in the poles) are termed the high latitudes, and those close
introduction, there are two types of tundra present on this to the equator have low values and are called low
map: One is the polar tundra, restricted to the high latitudes
latitudes. Polar tundra is found in the high latitudes.
(see sidebar), and the other is the alpine tundra, found only
These lines are, of course, purely conceptual but are
on mountains but that can occur in any latitude, both high
an important means of defining any location on the
and low, depending simply on the presence of mountains.
surface of the Earth. A second coordinate is required
Polar tundra is found mainly in the Northern
to fix a precise position, and this is given by its lon-
Hemisphere, in the region called the Arctic. The word Arctic
gitude. Lines of longitude run from pole to pole over
refers to the northern constellation of stars called the Great
Bear (Arktos is Greek for “bear”). The northern distribu- the Earth’s surface and are numbered from 0° to
tion limit of the tundra, as shown in the diagram on page 359°, with the base line (0°) running through Green-
3, is defined by the Arctic Ocean, and the presence of an wich in London, England. This choice of the zero line
ice sheet over Greenland also restricts its occurrence on of longitude is a consequence of history, but it has
that large island. To the south it is bordered by the boreal proved convenient because the 180° line (the Inter-
forest, or taiga, where coniferous trees and birches become national Date Line) runs through the Pacific Ocean
the dominant feature of the landscape. The Arctic tundra rather than over land surface, where changing
covers approximately 29,000 square miles (7.5 million ha), date with location on either side of a line would be
which represents 5.5 percent of the total land surface of the extremely confusing for the local inhabitants.
Earth. It is divided into three blocks: North America with

n 1 n
 F tundra
Eco-Tundra-002.eps
North Pole
90°N

66°23’N
Arctic Circle
60°N

30°N

tropic of Cancer 23°28’N

equator 0°N

tropic of Capricorn 23°28’S

30°S

Antarctic Circle 60°S

66°23’S
90°S
© Infobase Publishing South Pole

11,000 square miles (2.8 million ha), Eurasia with 10,000 Latitude is measured as the angle at the center of the Earth for
square miles (2.6 million ha), and Greenland and Iceland each location on the surface, taking the equator as 0° and the
with 8,000 square miles (2.1 million ha). poles as 90° north and south. The latitudes of the tropics of
Cancer and Capricorn together with the Arctic and Antarctic
Much of Alaska is covered by tundra, extending through
Circles are shown.
the Aleutian Islands, which form a chain out into the North
Pacific Ocean. The northern part of Canada has a tundra
cover running from the Northwest Territories around the Greenland is free from a permanent cover of ice, leaving lit-
southern shore of Hudson Bay and into northern Quebec tle room for tundra, but the more southerly island of Iceland
and Labrador. Extending out into the Arctic Ocean are in the North Atlantic Ocean has a covering of tundra. The
numerous islands, including Baffin Island and Ellesmere mainland of Europe has only a fringe of polar tundra in the
Island, all clothed with tundra. Only the coastal fringe of north of Scandinavia, mainly in northern Norway, but the
 Climate of the Tundra F 

ice-free areas of the islands of Svalbard in the Arctic Ocean lying off that coast. It also covers the eastern parts of Siberia,
bear tundra. This biome is also found along the fringe of the where the tundra reaches the Bering Sea, separating Russia
Arctic Ocean in northern Russia, together with the islands from Alaska. Effectively, the polar tundra forms a circle
around the Arctic Ocean; it has a circumpolar distribution.
Polar tundra is also found in the Southern Hemisphere
The Arctic tundra regions showing the extent of the Arctic
but is much less abundant. The main difference in the polar
polar tundra and the position of the magnetic North Pole.
Greenland is covered by an ice sheet, so tundra vegetation
regions of the Southern Hemisphere is the presence of a
occurs only around its coasts. Much of the Arctic Ocean is continental landmass, Antarctica. Unlike the North Pole,
covered by permanent sea ice, which extends yet farther as which is situated over the Arctic Ocean, the South Pole lies
fragmented pack ice, especially in winter. within the landmass. The main effect of the presence of this

Eco-Tundra-003.eps

Aleutian Islands Bering Sea

Ellesmere Island

limit of drift ice

permanent pack ice
Arctic Ocean

North Pole

Novaya Zemlya
Hudson Bay

Baffin Island

Svalbard

extent of tundra

Greenland Iceland

© Infobase Publishing
 F tundra

continent is the development of an ice sheet, similar to that

of Greenland in the Northern Hemisphere, but much big-
ger. The ice sheet covers almost all Antarctica, so there is
virtually no vegetation present except for small areas where
rocks emerge from the ice along the coastal fringe (see illus-
tration). On the western side of Antarctica, as shown on the
map below, lies a peninsula of land that stretches up toward

(below) Antarctica, showing the location of the magnetic South

Pole. The entire continent, except for a few coastal areas and
islands, is covered by the world’s largest ice sheet. This ice rests
upon bedrock in many areas, but in some regions the ice rests
upon the ocean floor (shown here in gray). There are three ice
shelves, extensions of the ice sheet as floating layers over ocean
(above) The edge of an ice sheet, where the ice cliff meets
bays (shown here in white). The confluence of the three oceans
floating pack ice (University of Kiel Institute of Polar Ecology)
forms the Southern Ocean, which surrounds Antarctica.

Eco-Tundra-005.eps
0°
AT L A N T I C O C E A N

Antarctic peninsula
Weddell Sea

Ronne Ice Shelf

Amery Ice Shelf

Transantarctic Mountains

90°W South Pole 90°E

Lesser Antarctica
PACIF

Greater Antarctica
IC O
CEA

EAN
N

OC

Ross Ice Shelf

AN
DI
IN

bedrock above sea level

regions where ice rests on the ocean floor
ice shelves – floating extensions of the ice sheet
© Infobase Publishing 180°
 Climate of the Tundra F 

An alpine meadow in Switzerland shows the colorful flowers wherever mountains are high enough to result in restricted
for which such habitats are famous. (Peter D. Moore) forest growth. When conditions become too cold or wind
strengths too high for the survival of trees, tundra is able to
thrive. Precisely how high a mountain needs to be in order
to provide the right conditions for tundra varies with lati-
South America. This is called the Antarctic Peninsula, and tude.
this, together with a number of islands lying off its coast, is The mountain ranges of the world are shown in the map
referred to as Maritime Antarctica. This region extends far- on page xvii. As can be seen, they are quite widely scattered,
ther north than most of the Antarctic landmass and so pen- but where mountains occur they often form groups or long
etrates into relatively lower latitudes. Maritime Antactica chains. The reasons for this will be investigated later (see
is also surrounded by the sea, and these two factors, lower “Tectonic History of the Tundra Lands,” pages 33–35). In
latitude and oceanic conditions, result in a slightly warmer North and South America the main mountain systems lie on
climate, reducing ice cover and permitting the develop- the western sides of the continents and form roughly north-
ment of tundra vegetation. Most of the very limited tundra south running ridges. The mountain ranges of Alaska and
found in the Southern Hemisphere lies within the Maritime the Mackenzie Mountains of Canada merge in the south-
Antarctic. ern part of their range to create the Rocky Mountains, the
The polar tundra is thus restricted overall to the higher spine of western North America. The Cascade Mountains of
latitudes. Most tundra in the Northern Hemisphere lies Washington and Oregon and the Sierra Nevada of California
north of 70°N latitude. In the Southern Hemisphere the are essentially coastal branches and parallel systems along-
effect of the Antarctic ice sheet chills the southern ocean. side the main Rocky Mountain ridge. The range continues
Tundra is found on islands as far north as 55°S, but its limit south into Mexico as the Sierra Madre, which run through
is still clearly associated with relatively high latitude. This Central America and eventually link up with the Andes
is not the case for alpine tundra. Alpine tundra is found Mountains that line the west coast of South America. At
 F tundra

the southern tip of that continent the Andes pass through the edge of the Ross Ice Shelf and the Ross Sea. In areas such
Patagonia and end in the extremity of Tierra del Fuego, as these, the polar and alpine tundras meet and are indistin-
where the alpine tundra and polar tundra meet. guishable from one another.
In Europe an extensive mountain chain runs approxi-
mately from northeast to southwest on the western fringe of
Scandinavia, mainly in Norway. The mountains of Scotland
in the British Isles are a southerly outlier of this system. n Global Climate Patterns
The remaining mountain chains of Europe are east-west in Understanding the distribution pattern of tundra demands
their orientation, a fact that has had considerable implica- a close study of climate patterns over the Earth. Why are the
tions for the biogeography of that continent (see “Glacial Arctic and Antarctic colder than the Tropics? And why is
History of the Earth,” pages 176–178). In the west of Europe, tundra found at lower latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere
the Pyrenees Mountains separate France from the Iberian than in the Northern Hemisphere? To answer these ques-
Peninsula (Spain and Portugal). To the north of Italy lie tions, it is necessary to consider the distribution of energy
the Alps, where the highest mountains in Europe are found around the Earth, and this requires information about the
(see illustration on page 5). Farther east, the Carpathian movements of air masses in the atmosphere and water
Mountains form a crescent on the western fringes of the masses in the oceans.
Black Sea. The first point to examine is the way in which energy
North Africa also has a mountain range, the Atlas arrives at the surface of the planet. Energy on Earth ulti-
Mountains, that lie in an east-west arrangement, running mately comes almost entirely from the Sun. There are some
through Morocco and Algeria. The remaining African exceptions to this statement: The hot interior of the Earth
mountains are concentrated in the eastern regions, running releases some geothermal energy, natural radioactive decay
south from the Ethiopian highlands. The Great Rift Valley also produces some energy, and the gravitational pull of the
systems of Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Congo are rich Moon creates tidal energy. But the vast bulk of the energy
in high mountains, many of them volcanic, whose chains arriving on Earth is in the form of solar radiant energy.
run across the equator. In southern Africa the Drakensberg Energy comes in a variety of forms, which physicists dif-
Mountains lie along the eastern side of the continent. ferentiate in terms of wavelength. Light itself, for example,
In Asia the north-south running Ural Mountains sepa- consists of a spectrum of energy of different wavelengths,
rate this continent from Europe and extend from the Arctic from the very short violet end to the longer-wavelength
toward the Caspian Sea. It is in Asia that the highest moun- red end. This accounts only for the visible forms of energy;
tain in the world, Mount Everest (29,029 feet; 8,848 m) is there are many shorter-wavelength forms, such as ultra-
located, set within the Himalayas. This massive mountain violet and even shorter gamma rays, and also longer-wave-
block runs from Afghanistan in the west, where the moun- length forms, such as infrared, heat energy that can be felt
tains are called the Hindu Kush, through northern Pakistan, but not seen. The Sun emits energy over a very broad spec-
India, Tibet, and Nepal, ending in eastern China. They trum, but most of the solar radiation that reaches the sur-
extend northward around the Gobi Desert into Mongolia. In face of the Earth lies between 0.000001 and 0.00016 inches
eastern Russia lie the Altai Mountains, the Sayan Mountains, (0.00000025 and 0.0004 cm). Such minute numbers are dif-
and the Transbaikalian Mountains, reaching over 11,000 ficult to work with, so the measurements used by scientists
feet (3,400 m). Australia is not rich in high mountains but are metric, and the wavelength is expressed in micrometers
has the north-south orientated Great Dividing Range along (1 μm = 1 millionth of a meter). The Earth receives energy
its eastern coast. mainly in the 0.2 μm to 4.0 μm wavebands. The Earth’s
Alpine tundra is, therefore, much more widely dispersed atmosphere does not absorb energy within this range, so
than polar tundra, but separating the two is not always pos- it passes directly to the surface of the planet. Shorter wave-
sible because some high mountains lie within or adjacent to lengths, however, such as some ultraviolet radiation, are
the polar regions. In North America, for example, the Brooks absorbed by certain components of the atmosphere (see
Range of mountains lies along the southern edge of the polar “Ozone Holes,” page 226). In addition, dust in the atmo-
tundra in Alaska, and the Laurentian Mountains are situated sphere together with cloud cover can result in the absorp-
within the polar tundra of Labrador. In Europe the moun- tion or reflection of the some of the incoming energy.
tains of Norway merge with polar tundra at their northern When solar energy strikes the surface of the Earth,
extremity, as do the Ural Mountains of Asia. In eastern Asia much of it is likely to be absorbed. An object placed in sun-
the mountains of Siberia also merge with the tundra of the light becomes warm as a result of the absorption of energy,
Arctic. Antarctica has a ridge of mountains running along and as its temperature rises it radiates some energy back
the length of the Antarctic Peninsula and extending around into the atmosphere. In a similar way a land surface heated
 Climate of the Tundra F 
Eco-Tundra-007.eps

short wavelength
solar radiation space penetration

radiation to space

atmosphere
absorption

absorption radiation to Earth

surface heating
penetration
long wavelength
Earth heat radiation

© Infobase Publishing

The greenhouse effect. Solar energy arriving at the Earth’s water vapor, carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, and several
atmosphere consists mainly of short wavelength radiation. others, which have become known as greenhouse gases. It is
Some of this is reflected, a little is absorbed by the atmosphere, called the greenhouse effect because the entire Earth system
but much of the energy passes through to the Earth’s surface.
is acting like an enormous greenhouse. Light passes through
Here it heats the land and water, and energy is then radiated
back in the form of long wavelength heat. Some of the glass panes of a greenhouse without being absorbed to any
radiated heat penetrates the atmosphere and is lost to space, great extent by the glass. The glass does not itself become
but much is absorbed by the atmosphere, which then radiates hot. When light strikes the soil within the greenhouse it
heat in all directions, including some back to Earth. Certain causes the soil to become hot, and the reradiated heat does
gases in the atmosphere, the so-called greenhouse gases, not pass out through the glass roof because long-wave heat
are particularly efficient at trapping heat and act as a thermal
energy does not easily penetrate glass but remains within
blanket around the Earth.
the greenhouse, warming the air it contains. Without the
greenhouse effect the Earth would rapidly cool as soon as
the Sun set in the evening. Nights would become unbearably
by sunlight radiates heat energy, and heat energy has a lon- cold, and life on the planet would be much more difficult.
ger wavelength than light energy. Some of the heat energy As will be discussed later (see sidebar “Carbon Cycle and
radiated by land surfaces is taken up by the atmosphere, the Greenhouse Effect,” page 220), changes in the intensity
because the atmosphere is less transparent to longer-wave- of the greenhouse effect in the atmosphere have a profound
length heat than it is to light. By absorbing the reradiated influence on global climate.
heat energy in this way, the atmosphere acts like a ther- There is a complication in this process because the
mal blanket around the Earth, retaining heat that would amount of energy absorbed by a surface varies. A black
otherwise be rapidly lost, as shown in the diagram above. surface absorbs sunlight and becomes heated much more
This absorption, known as the greenhouse effect, is due to effectively than a white surface, and a dull, matte surface
the presence of certain gases in the atmosphere, including absorbs more efficiently than a shiny surface. The efficiency
8 F tundra

of a surface in absorbing light and becoming heated in the twice a year, when the length of day and night is equal
process is dependent on how much of the incoming energy over the whole planet. The Earth’s tilt on its axis of 23.5°,
is reflected, and the reflectivity of a surface is expressed as its however, means that this situation is not maintained. The
albedo (see sidebar below). Sun is overhead at the tropic of Cancer (66.5°N) during
As can be seen from the figures in the sidebar, differ- the Northern Hemisphere summer and at the tropic of
ent types of land surfaces and vegetation have a strong effect Capricorn (66.5°S) during the Southern Hemisphere sum-
on how much of the Sun’s energy is absorbed. The figures mer. Throughout the year, however, the angle of the Sun
for the surface of water also show that albedo depends quite within the low-latitude Tropics is high when compared
strongly on the angle of the Sun. These aquatic data apply with that of the higher latitudes. In the polar regions the
to a water body with a calm and smooth surface. Waves can angle of the Sun above the horizon is never high. This dif-
create very complex patterns of reflection. These variations ference in the solar angle between the poles and the Tropics
in albedo, depending on the nature of the surface, have an means that energy is spread over a wide area in the high
important impact on the world’s climate. Oceans and land latitudes, whereas it is concentrated in a smaller area in
surfaces, forests and deserts, ice sheets and wetlands all have the low latitudes. The heating potential of radiation in the
different capacities to absorb and reflect incoming radiation, polar regions is thus lower than that found in the Tropics,
which influences the degree to which they become warm in as shown in the diagram on page 9.
the sunshine and also the way they radiate heat back into the Seasonal differences in day length are also more pro-
atmosphere. nounced in the high latitudes. In the Tropics there is some
The angle at which radiation strikes the Earth’s sur- variation in day length depending on the position of the
face also influences absorption and reflection. The dia- overhead Sun at noon, but the variation is very small. Days
gram shows the way in which the Earth’s curvature results are roughly equal to nights in their length at all times of the
in energy being received at different angles depending year. At higher latitudes, however, there are increasingly wide
on latitude. The Sun is overhead at noon at the equator disparities in day length with season. At 60°N (the latitude

Albedo
When light falls upon a surface, some of the energy is of the light that falls upon it, which is why mirrors are usu-
reflected and some is absorbed. The absorbed energy is ally cold to the touch. The angle at which light falls upon
converted into heat and results in a rise in the temperature a surface also affects the proportion of light absorbed and
of the absorbing surface. What proportion of the light is reflected; light arriving vertically is reflected less than light
absorbed and what proportion reflected varies with the arriving from a low angle.
nature of the surface. A dark-colored surface absorbs a Scientists express the degree of reflectivity of a
greater proportion of the light energy and reflects less than surface as its albedo. It is stated as the amount of light
a light-colored surface; it therefore becomes warmer more reflected divided by the total incident light. In order of
rapidly. A dull, matte-textured surface absorbs energy efficiency of reflectivity, the following list gives examples
more effectively than a shiny one. A mirror reflects most of the albedo of various surfaces.

surFacE ProPorTion rEFlEcTEd alBEdo

Snow 75 to 95% 0.75–0.95
Sand 35 to 45% 0.35–0.45
Concrete 17 to 27% 0.17–0.27
Deciduous forest canopy 10 to 20% 0.10–0.20
Road surface 5 to 17% 0.05–0.17
Coniferous forest canopy 5 to 15% 0.05–0.15
Water (overhead Sun) 5% 0.05
Water (low Sun) 100% 1.00
Overall average for Earth 39% 0.39
 Climate of the Tundra F 
Eco-Tundra-008.eps

Northern Hemisphere summer

North Pole North Pole

South Pole South Pole

© Infobase Publishing Southern Hemisphere summer

(above) Light from the Sun arrives at the Earth as parallel at high latitude. There are two means by which the Earth’s
beams, but the light heats different extents of surface area energy can be redistributed in this way, the atmosphere and
depending upon the angle at which it arrives. Polar regions the oceans.
receive less intense energy than the tropical areas. The tilt of
the Earth upon its axis means that the position of the overhead
noonday Sun varies with season.
(below) The circulation of the atmosphere occurs in a series of
cells, creating areas of low pressure near the equator and in
the region of the polar fronts, and areas of high pressure close
to the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn and at the North and
of Anchorage, Alaska, the southern tip of Greenland, and South Poles.
Oslo, Norway) the days of summer are extremely long, while Eco-Tundra-009.eps
the days of winter are extremely short. Beyond the Arctic
ITCZ = Intertropical Convergence Zone
Circle (66.5°N), there is at least one day in the year when the
Sun does not set. This difference in summer and winter day tropic of Cancer high
length results in a strong seasonal difference in temperature low polar front
in the high latitudes. The length of the summer season also
becomes shorter close to the poles. Within 450 miles (725
km) of the North Pole, for example, at Cape Morris Jessup in North Pole
northern Greenland (about 84°N), the length of time when
conditions are suitable for plant growth may be as little as high
three or four weeks.
When the three factors of solar angle, area of energy dis-
persal, and seasonal differences are put together, it is evident
equator
that the polar regions will have a smaller input of energy per
unit area of Earth’s surface than the Tropics. Lower energy
low ITCZ
levels result in lower temperatures overall, which means that
snowfall and persistent snow cover become more likely in
the high latitudes, and this has a feedback effect on albedo,
resulting in even more of the incoming energy being lost by
reflection.
The average temperature at the equator is 79°F (26°C), high
which varies very little with season, while at 80°N the January
South Pole
average is –22°F (–30°C) and the July average is 37°F (5°C).
At this high latitude the Earth is actually losing more energy
than it is receiving, so the Arctic can be regarded as an energy
sink. But the Arctic is not becoming colder year by year, so the tropic of Capricorn low polar front
energy it loses must be replaced by energy from other parts high
of the planet. There must be energy movement from areas with
© Infobase Publishing
an abundant supply, such as the Tropics, to the energy sinks
10 F tundra

n The Atmosphere and Climate surface. These belts are where the world’s deserts are mainly
found.
Heating in the Tropics and cooling at the poles results in a The hot, dry air of the desert belts may be deflected back
global energy imbalance, and this in turn gives rise to atmo- toward the equator, or they may travel toward the poles. If
spheric turbulence. Warm air has a lower density than cold they take the latter route, then these air masses meet cold,
air, so there is a tendency for cool, dense air to move toward polar air moving in the opposite direction. Where the two
the equator, pushing the warm, low-density air upward. Air air masses collide they create a boundary zone, called the
masses approach the equatorial regions from both north and polar front, and this region is characterized by unstable
south of the equator, creating an intertropical convergence weather conditions. The precise position of the polar front
zone where the two air masses meet. The warm, moisture- is very variable in space and time, but the mix of air masses
laden air rises and cools in the process (see sidebar “Lapse results in the cyclonic depressions and accompanying pre-
Rate,” page 22). Cooler air is less able to hold moisture, so cipitation typical of latitudes roughly between 40° and 60°
water condenses into raindrops, and the equatorial regions north and south of the equator. The polar front is also asso-
receive high levels of precipitation, resulting in the develop- ciated with a strong wind, the jet stream, which moves from
ment of the tropical rain forests. In the upper atmosphere, west to east at an altitude of around 35,000 feet (10,000 m)
around 10 miles (16 km) above the ground, the air that has at the boundary between the lower part of the atmosphere,
been forced upward moves out toward the poles, as shown
in the diagram on page 9, and since the air has now cooled
and become denser, it falls toward the Earth’s surface once
The atmosphere is divided into a series of layers, becoming
more, creating a high pressure belt between about 25° and less dense with altitude. The lights of the aurora occur in the
30° north and south of the equator. These falling air masses thermosphere, between 60 and 260 miles (100 and 420 km)
have lost their moisture over the equatorial regions, so they above the Earth’s surface. This is the layer of the atmosphere in
cause dry conditions when they arrive back at the Earth’s which satellites orbit the Earth.

Eco-Tundra-010.eps

400
600
satellite Exosphere

300
space shuttle
400
rocket

200
aurora
200
Thermosphere

100

balloon 100
meteors
40 airliner Mesosphere
Mt. Everest 5.5 miles (8.8 km) 50
20 Stratosphere
10 20
5 Troposphere 10
miles km
© Infobase Publishing
 Climate of the Tundra F 11

the troposphere, and the upper part of the atmosphere, the latitude. In the region where the Southern Ocean meets the
stratosphere. This boundary, as shown in the diagram on page South Pacific, however, the southern polar front is located
10, is called the tropopause. The jet stream causes cyclones along latitude 60°S, as shown in the diagram on page 17.
(low-pressure systems) and anticyclones (high-pressure sys- Some of the air forced upward in the turbulent regions
tems) to move around the world in an easterly direction. The around the polar fronts moves on toward the poles at high
latitude of the polar front and the jet stream varies with the altitude. Here the air becomes very cold and dense, so it
season. In summer in North America the polar front and begins to lose altitude, and its descent creates another high
jet stream lie roughly along the Canadian border, dipping pressure zone over the poles, as shown in the diagram on
south to Washington, D.C., in the east. In winter it runs page 9. As in the high-pressure zone of the outer Tropics and
approximately from Los Angeles through northern Texas to sub-Tropics, the outcome is the production of low-precipi-
South Carolina. tation, desert conditions. But in the polar regions the lack
In the Southern Hemisphere the polar front encircles of precipitation does not result in drought at the surface of
Antarctica and lies within the Southern Ocean. For much of the Earth because the very low temperature at ground level
its length, where the Southern Ocean meets the South Atlantic restricts the degree of evaporation taking place, so water
Ocean and the Indian Ocean, it lies approximately along 50°S may accumulate over low-lying parts of the landscape even
though water input from the atmosphere is very restricted.
The oceanic currents play an important part in the
redistribution of energy around the world. In the North
Atlantic warm tropical waters from the Caribbean move up
the western edge of Europe and enter the Arctic Ocean. This
n The Oceans and Climate
penetration of warmth into the Arctic is much less strong in The atmosphere is not the only determinant of global pat-
the Pacific, so the north coast of Alaska is much colder than terns of climate; the oceans also have a profound influence.
the north of Scandinavia. Water has certain physical properties that affect climate. A

Eco-Tundra-011.eps

N. Equatorial C. California C. Equatorial Equatorial Japan C.

Counter C.

N. Atlantic C.

Gulf Stream

Guinea C.
S. Equatorial C.

S. Equatorial C.

warm currents
Humboldt C. Falkland C. Brazil C. Benguela C. Agulhas C. cool currents
© Infobase Publishing
12 F tundra
Eco-Tundra-012.eps

warm, less salty currents at surface

cold, deeper salty currents
© Infobase Publishing

The global circulation of the Earth’s oceanic waters is called Archangel, at a latitude of 65°N in western Russia, lies on
the oceanic conveyor belt. Warm, low-salinity, and low-density the edge of the Barents Sea and has an average annual tem-
water moves along the surface of the ocean. On arrival in the perature of 33°F (0.4°C) and an average temperature for its
North Atlantic Ocean the water cools and forms a deep-water coldest month of 5°F (–15°C). But in the continental east
current that flows in the opposite direction.
of Russia, Verkhoyansk, in Siberia, which lies on the same
latitude, has an average annual temperature of 3°F (–16°C),
and the average for its coldest month is as low as –58°F
sample of water both gains and loses heat more slowly than (–50°C). The oceanic regions of Russia are kept warmer by
an equivalent weight of rock. Areas of land surrounded by the proximity of the sea. Oceanic regions also receive more
water are, therefore, protected to some extent from extreme precipitation because the sea is a source of atmospheric
variations in temperature; land close to the ocean is kept moisture. Thus, Archangel receives 18 inches (47 cm), while
cool in summer and relatively warm in winter. The proxim- Verkhoyansk has only five inches (13 cm) of precipitation
ity of the sea, therefore, has a considerable influence on the each year.
climate of a region. A site close to the sea is said to have an The oceans also act as channels for the redistribution of
oceanic climate, whereas one situated far from the ocean’s energy around the world. Surface water moves around and
influence has a continental climate. For example, the city of between the great oceans in the form of currents, as shown
 Climate of the tundra F 1

de Coriolis (1792–1843) in 1835 and has come to be called

The Oceanic Conveyor Belt the Coriolis effect. In the North Pacific Ocean and the North
Atlantic Ocean there are west-east currents bringing warm
In addition to the surface currents in the oceans (see tropical water into the higher latitudes, but in the Atlantic
the diagram on page 11), which are driven mainly Ocean there is a gap between Iceland and the British Isles
by winds in the atmosphere, there is a global circu- that allows the continued movement of warm water (called
lation of waters driven by the changing density of the Gulf Stream) north past Scandinavia and into the Arctic
seawater, as shown in the accompanying diagram Ocean. The penetration of warm water into the Arctic Ocean
on page 12. The surface water of the oceans tends is far less from the Pacific basin. The northeast-directed
to be warmer, less salty, and hence less dense than waters in the Pacific either circulate around southern Alaska
the deep water. When these warm surface waters and return south or pass down the west coast of California
move into the high latitudes, they give up some of and Mexico and back into the Tropics.
their heat to their surroundings and consequently The difference in oceanic circulation patterns in the
cool, become denser, and sink. This chilling of sur- Atlantic and Pacific Oceans has a very considerable impact
face water occurs most strongly in the North Atlan- on the climate of the tundra. The penetration of warm water
tic Ocean, where the warm tropical surface waters from the North Atlantic into the Arctic Ocean results in
of the Gulf Stream pass northward between Iceland mild and ice-free conditions persisting through the sum-
and the British Isles and meet the cold waters of the mer months around the northern coast of Scandinavia. On
Arctic Ocean. As the warm waters lose their heat to the north coast of Alaska at the same latitude of 70°N, on
the waters of the Arctic Ocean, they cool, sink, and the other hand, there is little direct injection of warm water
begin to make their way back south through the into the adjacent part of the Arctic Ocean, and conditions
Atlantic and eventually into the Southern Ocean remain very cold even in summer. Even here, however,
surrounding Antarctica. Passing eastward into the there is some effect from the input of warm water into the
Arctic Ocean. The Gulf Stream that enters the Arctic Ocean
Pacific Ocean, these cold, deep waters eventually
between Iceland and Scandinavia initiates a circulation of
surface either in the Indian Ocean or in the North
waters around the North Pole in an anticlockwise direction
Pacific. There they become warm and drift westward
when viewed from above. This movement, combined with
once more around the Cape of Good Hope in South
the increased energy input of the summer months, ensures
Africa and into the Atlantic to begin their circulation
that pack ice around the coastal regions of the Arctic Ocean
over again.
partially breaks up during the summer. The center of the
This thermohaline circulation of water through Arctic Ocean, however, is permanently covered by pack ice.
the oceans of the world plays an important part Oceanic circulation occurs in deep water as well as at
in the redistribution of energy between the Trop- the surface. There is a global movement of water around the
ics and the high latitudes, particularly the North Earth that is driven by changes in the density of seawater,
Atlantic. These movements of water have strongly itself a product of salinity and temperature. Warm water
influenced world climate in the past. A failure in the with relatively low levels of salt is less dense than cold water
North Atlantic system 12,000 years ago temporarily with higher salt concentrations. As water moves around the
plunged the Earth into an ice age. world it changes in its temperature and its salinity. This cir-
culation pattern is called thermohaline circulation (thermo-
refers to the water temperature, and -haline relates to its
saltiness), or the oceanic conveyor belt. The overall pattern
in the diagram on page 11. In general the pattern follows of global thermohaline circulation is shown in the diagram
that of the winds and is driven by them. In the Southern on page 12 and is explained in the sidebar at left.
Hemisphere the main surface circulatory pattern of the The thermohaline circulation of water in the oceans is
oceans is in the form of anticlockwise motions, whereas in an important means of exchanging energy between differ-
the Northern Hemisphere the movements are clockwise. ent parts of the world. Without this energy exchange there
The reason for this is the spin of the Earth on its axis. Any would be a much stronger gradient of temperature between
free moving object in the Northern Hemisphere, whether the Tropics and the poles. There have been times in the Earth’s
in the oceans or in the atmosphere, tends to be deflected to history when this conveyor belt has slowed down or even
the right, hence motions become clockwise. In the Southern ceased altogether in certain parts of its cycle, and this has led
Hemisphere free objects are deflected to the left, so the to severe climatic change. When the conveyor belt faltered
motions become anticlockwise in direction. This tendency around 12,700 years ago in the North Atlantic, for example,
was first described by a French engineer, Gaspard Gustave the Earth began to move into a new ice age. The normal cir-
14 F tundra
Eco-Tundra-013.eps
culation pattern was restored within a few centuries, however,
and the climate began to warm once again (see “The End of polar desert (High Arctic)
the Ice Age,” pages 190–192). This illustrates the critical role remainder of High Arctic
played by oceanic circulation in controlling the climate of the Low Arctic
entire Earth.

n Arctic Climate North Pole

Both the Arctic and the Antarctic lie in positions where
they receive low energy input from the Sun yet still radi-
ate heat back into space. They lose energy faster than they
gain it, so they are energy sinks. The circulation of the
atmosphere and the oceans, however, restores some of the
balance so that these high latitude regions are not becom-
ing constantly colder over long periods of time. The Arctic
consists of an ocean almost completely surrounded by
land, whereas the Antarctic consists of a large continental
land mass, so the climates of the Arctic and Antarctic dif- © Infobase Publishing
fer. The Arctic Ocean receives a sufficient input of warm
water from the Gulf Stream of the North Atlantic Ocean to
The Arctic tundra can be divided into the High Arctic and the
ensure that some ice-free conditions exist in summer even
Low Arctic. The High Arctic consists mainly of polar desert,
as far north as 80°N. This means that communities of liv- ice, and lands with low, sparse vegetation. The Low Arctic
ing things can survive even at high latitudes in the Arctic. has a more complete vegetation cover but no true trees. The
The word Arctic is used in a number of different ways. southern boundary of the Low Arctic is formed by the northern
In common speech it is often used in a very general sense to limit of tree growth, and this corresponds closely to the 50°F
describe very cold conditions, “arctic conditions.” It is used (10°C) July mean isotherm (not shown on the diagram).
by biogeographers to describe certain types of distribution
patterns, called arctic-alpine, applied to organisms that are
found in both polar and alpine tundra sites. More specifi-
cally, the word Arctic can refer to all parts of the Earth lying
beyond the Arctic Circle (66.5°N). Climatologists, however, together with the seas around Greenland and Iceland and
define the Arctic as those regions around the North Pole the Norwegian Sea that joins the Atlantic Ocean to the
where the mean temperature of the warmest month does Arctic Ocean.
not exceed 50°F (10°C) and the mean temperature of the The Arctic can be subdivided on the basis of its climate
coldest month is below freezing. The region that falls within into the High Arctic and the Low Arctic. The High Arctic
this definition of Arctic coincides closely with the tundra consists of numerous islands lying in the maritime Arctic.
biome in these northern regions. These climatic conditions These include the Svalbard, northern Novaya Zemlya, Franz
also define the timberline, the northern limit of tree growth. Joseph Land, Severnaya Zemlya, the Canadian Queen
South of this line some climatologists define a further zone, Elizabeth Islands and Ellesmere Island, and the north-
the subarctic. This region has a climate in which a maximum ern part of Greenland. The climate of the High Arctic is
of four months in the year has a mean monthly temperature extremely cold. The mean monthly temperature lies below
exceeding 50°F (10°C), and the mean temperature of the freezing for at least nine months of the year. The snow-free
coldest month is below freezing. In this climate tree growth summer period lasts usually less than six weeks, so the effec-
is possible, so the subarctic bears taiga, or boreal forest veg- tive growing period for plants does not exceed two months.
etation, rather than tundra. Many land areas that lie north All except the surface one to three feet (20 cm to 1 m) of
of the Arctic Circle are subarctic rather than Arctic in their the soil remains frozen throughout the year. Even at a depth
climate and bear coniferous forest vegetation, as shown in of 100 feet (30 m) the temperature is permanently below
the diagram on this page. 14°F (–10°C). This is called the permafrost (see the map on
Some northern areas of ocean can also be regarded as page 58). The High Arctic is sometimes referred to as polar
subarctic rather than Arctic in their climate. These include desert or polar semidesert because of the very low level of
the northern Bering Sea and Bering Strait, through which precipitation in the high pressure conditions at these high
the Arctic Ocean communicates with the Pacific Ocean, latitudes (see page 9). Precipitation is mainly in the form
 Climate of the Tundra F 15

of snow in the High Arctic and may amount to only about lack of snow means that vegetation is quickly able to take
four inches (10 cm) per year. The most northerly parts of advantage of rising light levels and increasing day length in
Arctic Canada have only two inches (5 cm) of precipitation the spring and begin its growth more rapidly. Early growth
per year. The very cold conditions, however, mean that the then attracts grazing animals, so the shallow snow cover has
evaporation rate is very low, so drought is experienced only extensive implications for the ecology of the tundra.
where there is very good soil drainage, such as on sand and The wind is itself an important climatic factor in polar
shingle ridges. tundra. High winds are frequent, and these bring with them
Where there is permanent ice cover, as in the case of the a wind chill effect. Wind constantly removes the warm layer
Greenland ice sheet, the climate is even more severe, with of air around an object or an organism, so heat energy is
the mean monthly temperature remaining below freezing taken from the object faster than in still air. From the point
throughout the year. Under such conditions there is no veg- of view of a living organism, the conditions feel much colder
etation. The shiny white surface of the ice has a very high when there is a wind blowing. Human beings subjected to
albedo, so almost all of the incident energy is reflected and a wind of 50 feet per second (15 m/sec) in air at 32°F (0°C)
very little is absorbed. The middle of the Greenland ice sheet experience the same degree of cold that they would in still
has a mean annual temperature of –18°F (–28°C), and even air at 14°F (–10°C). So conditions in the tundra are even
in summer the temperature rarely rises above freezing. Ice more unpleasant for living creatures than is apparent simply
sheets are maintained by the arrival of new material in the from the temperature data. An additional factor that makes
form of snowfall, replacing any loss from melting. In the things even worse is the way in which ice crystals are often
case of the center of the Greenland ice sheet, however, pre- suspended in the moving air, acting as an abrasive agent in
cipitation is very low. The ice mass survives because wast- the wind. Very few plants can survive exposure to ice-laden
age by melting is also extremely slow. Precipitation is higher winds that can strip the surface cells from a leaf.
only where the ice sheet lies close to the sea and the climate Although overall temperatures are low, and the grow-
is more oceanic. ing season is short in the Arctic, this does not mean that
The Low Arctic consists of the remaining regions of conditions are eternally cold. There are occasions when the
the tundra, mainly the northern parts of Siberia, Alaska, air temperature can be quite high. In the Taymyr Peninsula
Canada, coastal Greenland, and Iceland. The Low Arctic in the north of Siberia, for example, July temperatures often
has a climate that is cold but not quite as extreme as that of exceed 68°F (20°C) during the day, and temperatures as high
the High Arctic. The mean monthly temperature is below as 84°F (29°C) have been recorded. But the temperature is
freezing for between seven and nine months of the year, and strongly affected by local conditions of topography (see
the snow-free period is between three and four months in “Microclimate,” pages 18–21), and this means that the sum-
length. This means that plants may be able to grow for as mer climate is very variable over relatively short distances.
long as five months during the summer. As in the case of the This has a considerable effect on vegetation. The climate
High Arctic, the soil remains permanently frozen below the also depends on the distance to the ocean, especially if it is
surface layer, with the temperature at 100 feet (30 m) below influenced by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream (see “The
the surface remaining at about 25°F (–4°C). Precipitation is Oceans and Climate,” pages 11–14). The cooling effect of
generally still extremely low, at about eight inches (20 cm) the ocean during the summer is also an important factor in
per annum, but the ground is generally wet during the sum- determining the climate of the tundra. If the summer tem-
mer because of the low evaporation rate. In particularly oce- perature rises far enough, then trees can survive and tun-
anic regions, such as the coastal tundra around the Bering dra vegetation is lost. This is why all polar tundra habitats
Sea, precipitation may be as high as 30 inches (76 cm). lie relatively close to the sea, because the more continental
One result of the low precipitation in the Arctic tundra climates found deep within land masses have high summer
is that snow cover is generally thin. Vegetation is low-lying temperatures and become clothed with forest. High moun-
and uniform, so this does not influence the shallow covering tain tops are an exception, of course, but the lowland tundra
of snow. Wind speeds, on the other hand, can be very high, of the polar regions is almost always found within 300 miles
and this can lead to drifting and the development of deeper (500 km) of the sea or other large body of water.
snow patches in the lee of rocks and promontories. The So the polar tundra is oceanic in its distribution, and
shallow snow cover has important implications for the tem- the proximity of the ocean keeps summer temperatures cool
perature of the soil and the penetration of frost. Snow acts and winter temperatures less intensely cold than those at
as an insulating blanket over the surface of soil, so a poor locations deeper in the continental interiors. The seasonal
covering of snow leads to deeper frost penetration. This, in variation in temperature, therefore, is smaller than that
turn, may lead to the development of distinctive features in found in the continental regions of the subarctic lands. In
the topography, such as the ice mounds of palsa mires (see such locations the summer temperatures are higher (leading
“Tundra Wetlands,” pages 74–78). On the other hand, the to the development of forests), but the winter temperatures
1 F tundra

ies so greatly between summer and winter. All places north

A Year in the Arctic of the Arctic Circle have at least one 24-hour day during
the summer and at least one 24-hour night in the winter.
An observer in the coastal region of the Arctic tun-
At the North Pole the Sun rises for six months and then
dra, whether in Alaska, Baffin Island, southern Green-
sets for six months. But the angle of the Sun in the sky is
land, or coastal Siberia, would find great changes in always low, and this, when combined with the short sum-
the landscape during the course of a year. At the mer night, results in relatively little variation in temperature
March equinox (when the midday Sun is overhead during the course of a tundra summer day. In the case of a
at the equator), day and night in the Arctic are equal 24-hour day, the midnight Sun lies low upon the horizon,
in length, the Sun spending 12 hours above the gradually becoming elevated to its maximum height at noon
horizon. The temperature, however, is very cold, not but still failing to reach a high angle. The temperature thus
rising above freezing all day. Pack ice persists over rises and falls through the day with the Sun’s angle but varies
the ocean, covered in a thin blanket of snow. During relatively little. Similarly, in winter the Sun may rise a little
April the midday Sun is sufficiently strong to melt way above the horizon around midday and then set again
the snow in places. Between May and June the pack before the temperature has been strongly influenced by its
ice begins to break up, and the Sun no longer dips presence (see sidebar). So both in summer and winter the
below the horizon at night. Some days are cloudless diurnal fluctuation in temperature in the Arctic tundra is
and bright, while others are overcast, the cloud cover relatively small. As will be seen, this is in marked contrast to
bringing light flurries of snow or sleet. By August the alpine tundra climate.
the weather can be quite warm, and a fine drizzle of
rain occasionally falls. But by the end of September
the frosts have returned, and the sunlight is becom-
ing shorter in duration and noticeably less strong.
n aurora
One of the most impressive sights in the Arctic tundra night
In October ice begins to form over the ocean, and
is the aurora borealis, or northern lights. An observer sees
soon the pack ice cover is complete once more. The
curtains and patches of light swirling across the sky in a
ground by November is hard and frozen, and much
range of colors, mainly green and red. Sometimes there are
of the year’s snow arrives at this time of year. In the
explosive bursts of light that twist and pulsate, and these
middle of winter the skies are often clear and starry, periods of intense activity can last for an hour or more. The
lit by the flashing lights of the aurora borealis. The auroral displays take place in a vast oval ring about 5,000
cold is not as intense as that experienced in the miles (8,000 km) in diameter, centered upon the magnetic
winters of the continental interiors, such as south- pole. From the ground only a small part of the total display
ern Canada or central Siberia, but the persistence of is visible, perhaps just a 435-mile (700-km) section of the
cold, dark conditions for several months, with hardly entire ring. The ring extends farthest from the pole on the
a glimpse of the Sun, can be depressing. Storms may night side of the planet, reaching as far south as latitude
occur, bringing high winds and sometimes driving 67°. On the day side the aurora is situated at about latitude
light snow or ice crystals, and these are most fre- 75°. Particularly strong displays can sometimes be seen as
quent in the tundra regions around the North Atlan- far south as the northern United States and England.
tic and the Bering Sea. The observer who persists in The light itself is generated at great heights above the
a vigil through the long Arctic winter is undoubtedly Earth in a region of the atmosphere known as the thermo-
relieved by the coming of spring and the short sum- sphere, at between 60 and 250 miles (100 to 400 km). This is
mer season once more. the kind of altitude where satellites orbit the Earth (see page
10). The aurora is named after the Roman goddess of the
dawn, and it occurs in both the Northern and the Southern
Hemispheres. In the Arctic it is called the aurora borealis,
and in the Antarctic, the aurora australis. Boreas is Greek for
are even lower than those found in the tundra. The “Cold the “north wind,” and Auster is Latin for “south wind.”
Pole” of the world is located at Verkhoyansk, in Siberia, well The aurora is caused by charged particles emitted by
south of the Arctic, within the taiga biome. The winter tem- the Sun. The outer region of the Sun, the corona, is so hot
perature there may fall as low as –90°F (–67.8°C), but the that it constantly emits gases containing these charged par-
summer temperature can be as high as 100°F (37°C). ticles, mainly protons and electrons. The stream, called the
Seasonal climatic variation in the Arctic tundra is thus solar wind, passes into space at a great velocity of around
less than might be expected, given that the length of day var- 187 miles per second (300 km/sec). When the solar wind
 Another Random Document on
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rectitude, without self-concentration, would be a foundation without
a structure. “A man must endeavour to keep constant watch over his
thoughts, for our whole existence depends upon our thinking,”[228]
was one of the noble maxims of Buddhism. It is to its credit as a
religion that it recognised that only a small part of our real life can
be expressed in words and deeds, that the true sphere of morality
and human temptation was within, and that it instructed men to
keep the heart with all diligence, for out of it are the issues of life.
Buddha seems to have felt, and to have in part at least expressed,
the contrast and conflict between the seen and the unseen in our
life. He recognised, it is true, no soul, and the warfare between the
flesh and the spirit was not found in his philosophy, but he had to
account for the antagonism which every one feels between our
animality and our humanity, between what is pressing or dragging us
down, and what in us struggles to be free. The mental and moral
qualities were of far more value than the physical; the invisible was
of more consequence, because more real, than the visible. The
“mindful and thoughtful man” was the man who “looked within and
not without,” and so Buddha’s insistence upon the “noble
earnestness of meditation” as indispensable to deliverance is a grand
testimony to the truth, which no philosophy of materialism can
falsify, that we are far more concerned with what we think and feel
and imagine than with what we touch and we taste, and that our
thoughts and feelings go far more into the weaving of our character
than do our words and works.
It is alleged that in Pali literature the word for meditation (samadhi),
by which alone inner purity can be attained, bears to the word for
“uprightness” the same relation as that which faith in the New
Testament bears to works.[229] By uprightness, delusion is cleared
away, and by pondering constantly the five principal kinds of
meditations—Love, Pity, Joy, the Impurity of the Body, and the state
of Serene Indifference to what men think bad or good—the man was
supposed to be redeemed from all attachment.[230] It is very pathetic
to note this approach toward and yet rebound from the Christian
conception of the function of faith: for faith is the victory that
overcometh the world, with its lust of the flesh, its lust of the eye,
and its pride of life. It is that too which, because it looks to the
unseen and eternal, quenches all sordid or inordinate cleaving to life,
which is the root of so much evil and the cause of so much suffering.
The apostles, instructed of Christ, have taught us that God’s precious
gift of life is ours to use: that to keep it, to will to save and to find it,
as if it were an end and not a means, is to miss and to lose it; while
to use it, be willing to lose it for some higher good, is to keep it unto
life eternal. Now Buddha had a glimpse of this truth, that lust of
existence was the root of bitterness in humanity. He condemned as
heresies the worldly lust which says, “Let us eat and drink, for to-
morrow we die,” and the lust of other-worldliness which dreams that
the life beyond will yield as good, or better pleasures than this one;
[231]
but the two last of his five principal meditations show how far
apart and far short of the victory of faith was his idea of the victory
of samadhi. The apostles’ aim was to get rid of lust; but his aim was
to get rid of life. The apostles mortified the members which are upon
the earth, anger, wrath, malice, evil concupiscence, and
covetousness, just that the higher life, the life hid with Christ in God,
might grow and brighten; but Buddha, in “cleansing himself from all
impurity, little by little, moment by moment, piece by piece,”[232]
sought to escape from the last shadow of personal existence into the
blessedness of absolute unconsciousness, if not of utter extinction.
For this seems clearly revealed in the last or highest stage to which
the paths of uprightness and meditation were supposed to conduct,
that of enlightenment (panna) or spiritual abstraction, alleged to be
equivalent to prayer in other religions. The highest Christian
conception of prayer is that of communion with God; the highest
Buddhist conception of panna is of a state of clairvoyance or ecstatic
insight in which “men hear with clear and heavenly ear, surpassing
that of men,” and “comprehend by their own hearts the hearts of
other men,” and “recall their own various states in former
existences,” and “see with pure and heavenly vision the procession
of other beings as they pass from life to life.”[233] Buddha evidently
was believed by his disciples to have possessed this power, and
probably his own long fasting and severe austerities, practised in the
beginning of his career, acting upon a highly nervous system, made
him a believer in the reality of this perfect insight and ecstasy of
contemplation, and that it might be acquired by all who were
sufficiently persevering in pursuit of Arhatship.[234] It must be
observed, however, that he does not appear to have regarded this as
an experience to be enjoyed by the Arhat in perpetuity; on the
contrary, it was the condition preceding final and eternal deliverance,
and so it may be taken as the Buddhist conception of Euthanasia.
The Christian in the highest and supreme moment of life aspires, if
conscious, after the beatific vision. It is no Brahmanic absorption
into the absolute that he desires, but likeness to and communion
with God. The consciousness of personality was never more intense,
the conviction was never stronger that he has been divinely created
and trained as a separate character. By long and prayerful use of the
means of grace he has sought to bring, and to keep himself under
the control of the Holy Spirit; and he hopes that the next change will
completely free him from every trace of “sensuality, delusion, and
ignorance,” and purge away from the soul the last taint of
selfishness. By long and sore experiences he has learned that
selfishness is the evil root whence spring all the suffering and sorrow
that poison life. He can therefore understand and sympathise with
the Buddhist anathema upon “individuality,” if by that is meant the
endeavour to abstract our life from the solidarity of humanity, to use
it for our own ends, and to grudge what of it God uses for the rest
of His family. This is the Christian conception of the cause of death
and all its woe, and from this a Christian saint ever prays and
struggles to be free; but it is not from “individuality” in this sense
that the Buddhist Arhat seeks deliverance. He is bent upon the very
thing from which the Christian is anxious to escape. He wants to
isolate and withdraw his portion of life from the sum of humanity, to
abstract himself from the mass, to save his own soul; and now that
he nears the goal, his whole energies are directed, not to purify and
strengthen and ennoble the personal self for better service, by
minding what is pure and lovely, and by striving unceasingly after
what is right and true, but by crushing out every feeling into apathy,
every thought into vacuity, so as to get rid of personality, identity,
and the very faintest germ of life.[235]
And this is the goal of a race that has extended not only over the
whole range of the present, but over that of many existences; this is
the victory which crowns a fight that has continued throughout
untold ages. Truly there is something very pathetic in the conception
of a struggle after sainthood so prolonged, by one who, now a god,
now an animal, now a man, has never lost sight of his mark, and
has ever pressed onwards to it.[236] Probably we may have something
to learn from it, by way of correcting the idea that true moral and
spiritual excellence, perfection, saintliness, is the growth of a single
life; but when the goal is understood in its bare reality, as implying
not destruction of selfishness, but extinction of being, surely the
reproachful question is justified, “To what purpose is this waste?”
After millennia of transformation the nebula has formed into a star,
and just at the point when it can illumine an immensity, it disappears
for ever from the firmament. Unreckonable energy and thought have
been expended upon the production of a man, and just when he has
reached the highest point of perfection, and is most serviceable to
the universe, he becomes of less value than a vapour that vanishes
away. Truly

“the crown of our life as it closes

Is darkness; the fruit thereof dust,”

and man walketh in a vain show, he disquieteth himself in vain, if

Buddha’s way be the only path of deliverance from evil, and Nirvana
his only goal.
And so while we ought to be profoundly thankful for the intellectual
culture and moral earnestness that made Buddha, in spite of himself,
the reformer of Eastern Asia, it is manifest that even his best
doctrines represent very partial and one-sided truths, “dwelt upon
with morbid intensity, to the exclusion of every fact which might
have modified them.”[237] His fundamental error was his wild attempt
to explain the life of man independently of Divine control, and to
guide man safely through the perils and temptations of existence by
an ethical system founded on no appeal to an eternal principle of
goodness without, but solely to self-interest. The result, which has
been to identify the nature of man with that of the animals,[238]
surely shows conclusively that religion and morality can never be
dissociated without damage to both. A religion without morality must
degrade. A system of morality apart from religion will never upraise.
Religion is for man simply indispensable. Deity is a necessity to him,
and deity he must have, though he finds his god in a tree or makes
it out of a stone. Man lives by faith, faith in his higher self, faith in a
higher than himself, who alone can explain the conflict between his
actual condition and the ideals which he conceives. The modern
Buddhist assumes that “religion is the science of man, not the
revelation of God, and he considers that comprehensions of deity are
of far less consequence than just ideas of a man’s own self,”[239] but
how can a man have a just idea of himself apart from some idea of
God? According to his idea of God will be his estimate of himself.
Buddhism, by ignoring God and preaching morality, has certainly
failed to make its adherents moral, and it has imparted to what is
noble in their morality the melancholy of despair.[240]
Ignoring God, it could only form, or could not emancipate itself from,
a false conception of man, as part of a material system of things;
but man, though considerably involved in a material system, never
can be interpreted by it. On the contrary, nature can only be
interpreted or properly understood in man as the lower in the higher.
Man is an antagonist of nature; he is for ever condemning its ways,
coming into collision with its laws, refusing to live its life. Out of this
collision emerges his religion, while his morality originates in the
conflict between his own sense of duty and its life of animal instinct.
[241]
To conform to nature, he must become a brute, but he has in
him ideals and capacities transcending it, and by exercising these
capacities in pursuit of his ideals he finds his life. Buddha confessed
to an ideal, and wrought hard to realise it, but alas for humanity
when it finds no higher than self to reverence! Buddha’s theories of
self-culture and self-deliverance reduced to practice have proved
most miserable failures. It could not be otherwise; no man is likely
to move the ship in which he sits by puffing away at the sails, or to
lift himself out of the mire by simply pulling away at his boots; and
no philosophy of self-culture, self-control, or self-rescue, can
succeed, which ignores or refuses to acknowledge man’s instinct of
worship. What he most needs is not law, not a system of morality,
not even an example or model to copy, but inspiration. He knows
already enough to condemn himself, and he has examples which,
though far from perfect, quite suffice to confound him. The
command to be perfect mocks him as truly as a command to see
would mock a man stone-blind. What he does want is a powerful
moral energy within him, for lack of which he has to confess that he
cannot do the good he would, but is ever doing the evil which he
would not. His real wretchedness is not his suffering and death, not
even his ignorance, as Buddha thought, but the continual and
seemingly ineffectual struggle between the animal and the man, the
flesh and the spirit. And Buddhism was powerless to help him here.
It lacked the steady support of the sense of duty to the highest and
best, the inspiration that comes from the faith that the highest and
best is for us, and is with us, and in us. Belief in God, as Bacon
reminds us, is “essential to the consciousness of our nobility and
dignity, for certainly man is of kin to the beasts by his body, and if
he be not of kin to God by his spirit, he is a base and ignoble
creature.” So Buddhism in unduly exalting man to the level of deity
has in reality degraded him. It has indeed lifted wild races out of
barbarism, but it has failed to civilise them. It has certainly not
destroyed ignorance, and the worship of intelligence has not tended
to its development and diffusion among the peoples whom it has
swayed. Judged even by an ordinary standard, the monks of either
Southern or Northern Buddhism are rarely found to be enlightened
men, while the vast portion of the peoples among whom these
monks are found are about the most ignorant of all. And just as
certainly has it failed to make men free; for religion is the guarantee
of freedom. “Where there is no place left in human thought for deity,
there will soon be none found for human liberty.”[242] The basis of
individual right is the recognition of a divine and purely moral
government of man. If there be no higher than the highest man
regarding us, we have only the right to live under the power of the
strongest, and the reign of terror must succeed to that of order and
law. The history of Buddhism and the miserable governments
associated with it are telling comments upon and confirmation of the
truth that belief in God is necessary to secure the rights of man.[243]
The progress of the human race will ever be in proportion to the
strength of its conviction that it is governed and considered and
sustained by a Power of infinite goodness ever making for
righteousness. Such a conviction means inspiration, stimulating
endurance and hope, and resolute struggle with evil in all its forms.
In it is implied the assurance that resistance can never be in vain,
that failure at the very worst is only partial success, and that all
things work together for good. The time for this gospel had not
come when Buddha called upon the people of India to “save
themselves from this condition of wretchedness,” and the result of
his mighty and benevolent efforts shows convincingly how urgent in
human nature is the demand for a Faith which will not only enlighten
but enliven, which, recognising fully not only the sufferings but the
whole necessities of man, and creating strong discontent with the
world as we find it, and even disgust of human life as it is, will
quicken in us persevering and deathless efforts to reform the one
and to improve the other. Such a faith it is our privilege and awful
responsibility to communicate. Our religion is higher than our grasp,
for it is always above us. Alas! in too many cases it is higher than
our aim, for we are too inclined to let it slip, and drift on the tides of
things as they are; but mankind will never be satisfied with a lower.
“Après l’invention du blé ils ne veulent pas encore vivre du gland.”
“We needs must love the highest when we see it,” and we needs
must strive to become like the highest when we love it. The gospel
preaches consolation and hope to a suffering world, and promises
grace upon grace to every endeavour to heal and amend its
condition. Christ purifies and improves the life which we have by
destroying only what is evil, and by preserving and training and
ennobling all that is truly natural. Inexorably He demands the
extinction of selfishness in all its forms, and He will not even permit
us in our prayers to think and ask for ourselves. He reminds us that
God is our Father in heaven, and what He gives is for all His family.
Sternly He denounces as sinful the attempt to secure our own
happiness here or in a better world hereafter; but He offers the
heaven and Nirvana which He found in assuming the burdens of
others, and in bearing their cross. So He assures us that it is worth
our while to live, even in a world groaning and travailing with
suffering, and that it will be worth our while, even in agony if we
must, to die. It is indeed a very evil world, but as long as we draw
our inspiration from Him we can live in it not only without damage
but with great profit. When we offer ourselves in His strength for its
salvation we will be saved from its sins. In the times of our deepest
distress we will have the peace which He left us, and when most
severely beset and cast down with sorrow because of what seems
baffled endeavours, we have only to think of that hope of ultimate
victory which made Him to endure to the end, to rise into

“that last large joy of all,

Trust in the goodness and the love of Him
Who, making so much well, will end all well.”
 LECTURE V.
THE BUDDHIST SANGHA[244]: THE CHRISTIAN
CHURCH.

The designation “Church,” never wholly applicable to Buddhism in

the sense in which Christians employ it, was totally inapplicable to
the primitive Buddhist communities. The institution of the Church is
peculiar to Christianity, for though we speak of the worship of
Krishna, or the religion of Baal, we never speak of the church of the
one or the other. Christianity is the only religion which has created a
society which no political revolution can destroy, and no civilisation,
however advanced, can outlive. It may change its form, or express
itself in several co-existent forms; but it is so adapted to the nature
and necessities of man that it is properly described, in its relation to
his present condition, as divine and everlasting.
Though the Church is the creation of Christ and the fruit of His
mission, the idea of it had been suggested to the world long ages
before He came. “Ecclesia” is peculiarly a New Testament word, but
there are found in the Old Testament Scriptures plain
foreshadowings of the reality represented by it. In Abraham, “called”
out from his country and kindred, that he might be separated unto
the worship of Jehovah, we have the first pre-intimation of the
Church. In relation to other nations, his descendants were the
“peculiar people” and Ecclesia of Jehovah, and when as a nation
they failed to embody and express the universal truths, which it is
the Church’s function to communicate for the blessing of all the
world, there was called out from them, or rather there was formed
within them, “the remnant,” so often referred to by Isaiah and the
subsequent prophets; and in this spiritual community and fellowship,
dissociated from the national religion,[245] were conserved and
perpetuated the truths and ideals from which they had fallen away.
After the Captivity, in the rise of the synagogue system of worship,
there was provided an organisation, whose essential details Christ
and His apostles in instituting the Church could either adopt or copy;
and there can be no question that from out this synagogue system
the Christian Church emerged, and that even to-day it reflects some
of its peculiar features.
The Church was the fruit of Christianity, but the Sangha was the root
out of which Buddhism sprang. In a Sangha its founder lived and
learned and taught, till as Buddha he founded his own; but just as
he gave a new significance to the doctrines in which he had been
instructed, so he gave the Sangha an application which accounts for,
though it does not justify, the designation often accorded to it of a
church. As an order without worship, a brotherhood without any
recognition of the uniting Fatherhood in heaven, a confraternity in
which seniority was assigned only to age,[246] and whose leaders
never pretended to hold any priestly office or to exercise any
hierarchical authority, the Sangha at first and for long was not a
church; yet when we examine its constitution and aims we need not
wonder that the religious instincts of Buddhists, proving stronger
than their creed, should have developed their Sangha into something
like a church, with a cult which, at first consisting only of veneration
for his images and relics, for long has been almost second to none in
the world for solemnity and dignity and pomp.[247]
We have seen that philosophic schools and religious sects originating
in secessions from the national religion abounded in India long
before Buddha’s day. In the Gangetic valley, as in Greece, the new
sages attracted their disciples by the fame of their teaching, but
there, not as in Greece, the disciples lived with their masters apart,
and distinguished from the world by peculiar dress and manners. Of
Monachism, an early outgrowth of Hindu religion, and indeed its
essential adjunct, as being the state which marked the maturity and
completion of a good man’s earthly life, there were already many
forms, all held in high respect by the people. Celibacy and
mendicancy were common to all Sanghas, but in regard to vows of
silence, and fasting, and self-torture, they differed greatly from one
another. The majority of them were Brahman in their constitution
and in their recognition of caste: but long before the rise of
Buddhism the Sraman fraternities, founded on the non-recognition of
caste, were quite equal to the purest Brahman ones in public
esteem. Now in organising the Sakya-putta-Samanas, the
designation by which his disciples were first known by the people,
Buddha adopted many features and details of discipline common to
all these fraternities, while yet the peculiarity of his doctrines gave to
the community of his own disciples a character quite distinctive.
The Brahman Orders believed that Brahmans only could be finally
saved, and Brahman reformers could only encourage inferior castes
that came to them for enlightenment by the hope of possibly
securing a higher birth in a future state. Buddha, however,
considered all men alike in respect of need, so, knowing of only one
way of deliverance, he proclaimed it without distinction, and, like the
Sramans, he opened his Sangha to all who were willing to submit to
his discipline. Unlike many of the Sraman fraternities, he discouraged
the life of solitude, and prohibited the practice of self-torture and
severe austerities. In opposition to the hated Nigganthas, who,
aiming at perfection, went about with only the light and air for their
clothing, he insisted that his disciples should be decently clad.[248] In
respect that he required obedience from disciples only as long as
they continued to be so, and would not permit irrevocable vows—
indeed, exacted from them no vow at all—his Sangha was more like
some Anglican guild than any monastic institution with which we are
acquainted.
Still more widely did it differ, not only from many, but from all the
existing fraternities in the purpose for which he instituted it. Hitherto
India had never witnessed a religious sect that could be called
propagandist. Brahmanism was essentially exclusive, for no man
could become a Brahman by conversion. The Sraman sages again,
left the masses to ripen in evil ways for worse lives in more
degraded spheres of future existence, in order to deliver themselves
by ascetic practices and meditation. At best they taught those who
resorted to them, and were prepared to consort with them. Buddha,
however, by laying upon the brethren the obligation of extending the
knowledge of the law, inaugurated a revolution in the monastic
system which anticipated that of the great Mendicant Orders of
Christendom. Just as St. Francis emptied the monasteries and sent
forth their inmates to find their own in seeking the salvation of
others, so Buddha broke down the barriers between the Indian
recluses and the world, by ordaining the members of his Sangha to
teach their fellow-men the way to liberty. “Therefore, O brethren, to
whom the truths which I have perceived have been made known by
me, having thoroughly mastered them, meditate upon them,
practise them, spread them abroad, in order that the pure Dhamma
may last long and be perpetuated, in order that it may continue to
be for the good and happiness of the great multitude, out of pity for
the world, to the good, and gain, and weal of gods and men.”[249]
This was the original element[250] in his conception, and while one of
its effects was to save the members of the Sangha from some of the
evils besetting the life of the recluse by balancing the duty of
contemplation by that of active itineration, its chief and immediate
result was to give Buddhism an expansive power marvellous to
Indians. Religious fraternities depended upon the presence of their
teachers, and consequently the members were few, but Buddha
commanded the brethren to go forth. “Let not two of you go the
same way” was the original instruction, and preach the doctrine
“which is glorious in the beginning, glorious in the middle, glorious in
the end, in the spirit and in the letter, for the pure and perfect life,
for the complete cessation of sorrow.”[251] By and by these
missionaries were authorised to receive those who desired admission
into the Sangha, and after a due novitiate to ordain them;[252] and so
we need not wonder that this itineracy, which in the earliest days
was the very essence of a good Buddhist’s duty, should have had the
effect of spreading the doctrines and gathering converts so rapidly
that in some of the earliest extant scriptures the Sangha was known
as “the Brotherhood of the Four Quarters”[253] of what to Indian
thought was the world.
Thus far the Sangha was different from the institutions that
preceded it, but, unlike the Christian Church, which finally emerged
from Judaism as the one holy Church of all nations and of both
sexes, and of all classes of men, the Buddhist Sangha bore with it,
and never lost, several marks of its Hindu origin. One relic of its
extraction it most zealously conserved as essential to the moral
restraint which it encouraged; for though later on it attracted
associates whom it recognised as in the ways of deliverance, it was
from the very first an exclusively monastic order. Indeed,
Monachism, or the life of retirement, privation, and chastity, had in
Buddhism a place quite different from that which it occupied in
Brahmanism.[254] The meditative Brahman anchorite was not
considered the only man who was in the way to deliverance, for
every believer in Brahman ascendency was free to choose one of
three ways of securing salvation,[255] but in Buddhism renunciation of
the world represented the highest form of religion, and the
indispensable condition of reaching Nirvana. So, though in opening
the Sangha to all classes, and proclaiming, in opposition to
Brahmanism, that every man was capable of the highest
enlightenment, Buddha sapped the foundation of caste, it was only
to replace it in another form.[256] The mendicant monk, as has been
truly observed, took the Brahman’s place, and for him alone Nirvana
was reserved. So sharply defined were the lines which divided the
Sangha from the rest of mankind, that no one who had not come
out from the world was regarded as in it and of it.
This was quite in keeping with the Buddhist conception of
deliverance. The Sangha simply was an attempt to realise the idea
and purpose of the creed. Salvation according to Christ meant
rescue from the power of evil, but not withdrawal from the world as
so incurably evil that the sooner man got out of it the better. Instead
of making His Church an asylum and refuge from the world, He
organised it for the redemption of the world. Instead of attempting
to destroy civil society, He aimed at its purification by the leavening
influence of the new society which He was creating. The Church was
to be Christ’s witness when He was no longer visible, the instrument
by which His own power would bear upon the wants of mankind.
The slavery and the degradation of society, the destruction of the
world, was never meant to be the condition of the existence or of
the liberty and dignity of the Church. It was but a means to an end,
a means so essential that without it the end could not be reached,
but, once the end has been reached, the Church will be superseded,
or rather will be merged in the kingdom of God. So the very symbol
of it is not found in the apocalyptic visions of the new heaven and
the new earth. In the civitas of the new Jerusalem St. John saw
families and nations and kingdoms, but he could see no temple
therein, for the instrumentality of which the temple was the symbol
had done its work in the emancipation and education of the human
race, and had vanished into the more glorious and eternal realities of
the throne of God and of the Lamb.
In Buddhism we find a set of ideas quite contradictory to all these.
The Sangha was the vehicle of rescue from out the world, not the
bringer of salvation to it; it worked not for the regeneration of
society, but for its disintegration and destruction. It considered the
world to be so hopelessly incurable, and even existence to be so
weighted with misery, that wisdom would move men to abandon the
one to its fate, and goodness impel them to strive to bring the other
to an end. The monastery, therefore, was naturally its loftiest
conception of the Civitas Dei, and into that it endeavoured to
transform as large a section of humanity as was inclined to accept its
law.
This unnatural theory of life indicates the essential weakness of
Buddhism, and makes its history very instructive to Christians. In the
Church, perhaps, room may be accorded to the monastery and
convent, as long as they are sanctified by the Christian idea of self-
abnegation in the service of others, but the attempt to transform the
Church into a monastery, dominated by the Buddhist idea of
abnegation of the world for the sake of self, can only create
unmitigated evil. The effect of it in primitive Buddhism was not only
to withdraw good men from the world at the very time when its
diseased condition most required the help of their preserving salt,
but the salt itself, not being used for its natural and proper purpose,
soon lost its savour. The substitution of an artificial for a natural
standard of excellence inevitably tends to destroy even virtue. Very
soon in the Sanghas active itineracy and devout contemplation gave
way to listless indolence and enervating reverie, and there emerged
a mode of life from which the great mass of healthy men will ever
revolt, as sanctioning the idea that the more useless we become in
this world the more fitted for a better we may safely consider
ourselves to be.
The Buddhist Sangha, therefore, though in no sense resembling the
Christian Church, does resemble some of its after-growths. These,
however, must be regarded as parasitical in their nature, for though
fed by its life, they do not spring from its root. In Christianity,
Monachism represents a tendency of human nature incidental to its
development rather than the essential fruit of Christian principle; but
the Buddhist idea of a true society is one essentially and completely
monastic. This one fact is sufficient to show that the similarities
discoverable between the Buddhist and Christian institutions are
more apparent than real, while the contrasts between them are
found to be deeper and more substantial the more they are
examined.
The monachism of Christianity originated, it is said, in the endeavour
to reproduce the ideal of excellence represented in the life of Jesus.
In the life of Jesus there was nothing monastic. Though He
appeared in the land of the Essenes, though heralded by a solitary
ascetic, though the age was one of universal defection, when
because of its corruption it seemed impossible to live a man’s life in
society, Jesus lived freely in the world as He found it, and laid His
blessing on all of it that was natural, and on all of it that was
necessary. He did not refuse to enjoy any of the good gifts of God;
He warned us against despising or throwing them away, though He
asked us to be ready, when love calls, to let them go, or relinquish
them for the good of others. He gave Himself wholly to His mission,
and He took no thought for the morrow. If He called His apostles
from their secular callings, it was not because such callings hindered
their own salvation, but because, withdrawn from them for love of
God and man, they would be freer to serve the world. We have
interpreted the Apostolate as expressing His desire that in the
Church there will always be an order devoted specially to the service
of religion, but this form of service was never meant to be regarded
as the only religious service. If one calling is consecrated, it is as one
day is consecrated, that all may be sanctified thereby. The world was
never renounced by the apostles that they might work out their own
salvation; and if they “exercised” themselves it was because self-
control fitted them to render more valuable service for man’s
redemption. The missionary zeal which drove the members of the
Primitive Church all over the world to sow the seeds of truth and
love made them take no thought of what they should eat or what
they should drink; and missionary zeal all through the Christian ages
has manifested the same indifference to the Βιωτικά of existence;
but those who have been most inspired by it, and who have found
nothing impracticable in following the manner of life which our Lord
Himself led, have never deemed it the only way, or even the highest
way, of Christian service. It was that to which they felt inwardly
moved and called by the Holy Ghost, and, like the apostles, they
exhorted all others to abide in the callings wherein they were called.
Primitive Christianity, like any other religion, was susceptible to
morbid affections, and the germs of disease with which the
atmosphere around it was charged found early a lodgment within it,
and soon matured into portentous fertility. The persecutions of the
Church, the terrible corruption of the world, the troubles and
temptations consequent on the first junction of Christianity with the
Imperial Power, the mistaken idea that the world which the Church
had manifestly failed to transform, or even preserve, was doomed,
and that Christ was speedily coming in His glory to judge it,
strengthened the ascetic tendency to come out and be separate
from it.[257] By the end of the third century the deserts of Egypt and
Arabia, and the mountains of Asia Minor, were so peopled with
recluses that in one spot alone there were ten thousand men and
twenty thousand women. At the close of another century Monachism
had a home in every province of the Oriental Church, and monks
and nuns formed “a nation,” as distinct from the clergy as the clergy
were from the common believers, and in many instances they were
hated and persecuted by clergy and laity alike.[258]
The original purpose of the founders of the new institution, however,
was not to shelter mystics and visionaries, but to train soldiers and
martyrs. Solitude was not intended to be an asylum for the weak, or
an infirmary for the diseased, but an arena for the training and
testing of athletes. “Come,” says Chrysostom,[259] “and see the tents
of the soldiers of Christ. Come, behold their order of battle.”
Augustine also refers to them as “milites Christi,” even as later on
they were designated as “the chivalry of the Church” and “the
paladins of God.” Though not of the world, and being above its
ways, they were yet in it and for it. So these retreats were not only
technical schools, representing the industries essential to the well-
being of man; they were also academies for sacred studies, from
which went forth champions like Athanasius to defend the faith
against the heretic, and like Basil to defend the Church against the
Empire. They were also brotherhoods of charity, in which in self-
imposed austerities men grew tender in respect for the miseries of
others, and anticipated in much more unfavourable times the
hospitals for “sick children” and “lepers” and “incurables,” which we
are inclined to regard as the peculiar products of the latest Christian
centuries.[260] Of course, early Christian Monachism had its ridiculous
extravagances, in types like the Stylites and Browsers; and of course
even its soberer types soon degenerated through over cultivation, till
it became a greater hindrance to the spread of Christianity than all
external opposition and persecution. The spirit of piety which it
originated was speedily poisoned by superstition; theological
discussion supplanted the love of earnest study; the spirit of
obedience and loyalty was superseded by that of intrigue and revolt.
So though it spread, it was not as a contagion of health, but as an
infectious disease, whose evil effects are traceable in the
decrepitude which the Oriental Church has never been able to throw
off.
In the Western Church, Monachism, though less brilliant in its
beginnings than its Eastern precursor, has had a longer and healthier
course. It is not within the scope of this lecture even to sketch it, or
to analyse and tabulate its results. We live in an age which has
certainly little sympathy with the ideal of Christianity which it sought
to realise, but that is not sufficient reason that we should affect to
despise it, or imagine that we have outgrown the necessity for it.
The life of the recluse may be beyond our attainment, for we may be
so afraid to be alone, and so unable to endure “conversation with
ourselves,” that we have to take refuge in perpetual society. The
“weakness” of the old asceticism many of us have not the strength
to practise, for we are too much under the dominion of the flesh,
which they at least could master, and we are far too inclined to treat
with unnecessary tenderness what they chastised and immolated.
The vows of poverty and obedience and chastity may be the very
medicine we require, in a condition of public sentiment so unhealthy
that a man’s standing, and worth, and even life, seems to consist in
the abundance of his goods, and his freedom in licence to despise all
authority and indulge all his likings. No doubt, in the West as in the
East, Monachism eventually became an impediment to Christian
civilisation, but not until it had considerably regenerated and uplifted
it. It kept before the Church the dignity of manual labour, it wiped
out the discredit attaching to honest poverty, it proclaimed the
equality of men by treating rich and poor alike, and it proved the
defender of the oppressed, the mediator between the strong and the
feeble. “We are the poor of Christ,” says Bernard, “and the friendship
of the poor makes us the equals of kings.” Then just as
unquestionably it was the pioneer of learning and of enterprise, the
guardian of law and the fosterer of charity. There is hardly a city or
populous centre in Europe which does not owe its churches,
universities, hospitals, charitable institutions, either in their origin or
growth, to the cœnobites and celibates of former ages; and whether
we acknowledge or repudiate our debt to them, “its magnitude
confronts us more imposingly the more we honestly consider it.”
But like all unnatural segregations of human beings from society, for
which man was made, Monachism everywhere became eventually an
excuse for indolence and misanthropy; a refuge for the melancholy,
and for all who had become unfit to serve either the world or the
Church. Its whole history in the Christian Church has justified the
warning of St. Paul against artificial methods of attaining to
saintliness. The vices which beset society never lost any of their
power over the recluses of the desert or the inmates of the
monastery, while many other vices were added to the host that
assailed the solitary, undefended by his fellows.[261] “Woe to him that
is alone, for when he falls there is not another to raise him up! Woe
to him that is alone, for there is no one to keep him from falling!”
are the lessons of this long mistaken attempt to realise an
undemanded standard of excellence; and yet, just because of the
consistency of its ideal with one side of Christian service, modern
Christendom, though in altered and modified forms, has not parted
with Monachism yet.
“The ideal of the Christian monk,” says Montalembert, “is that of
manhood in its purest and most energetic form—manhood
intellectually and morally superior, devoting itself to efforts greater
and more sustained than are exacted in a worldly career; and this
not to make earthly service a stepping-stone to heaven, but of life a
long series of victories for man.”[262] Surely this is the ideal of every
Christian minister truly consecrated to the service of man; yea, the
ideal of every brother or sister who, married or single, in business or
society, is trying to reach forward to the mark of our high calling.
There is no code of disabilities in the service of Christ, and the way
to the highest honours is open to all who wish to enter it, of
whatever condition or rank or mental capacity they may be. When
this common ideal was fallen from in the monastic orders, it was
being realised by many private members of the Church; when the
professional Church had falsified it, it was being upheld by so-called
“men of the world”; and therefore, as a natural consequence, when
the monastic orders of Christendom became corrupt, society, true to
its better instincts, rose up and reformed them or swept them away.
There was always a large volume of life outside the particular
channel which these orders filled, to purify it when it became foul, or
to force it onward, when stagnant, into the life of the Church.
But it was not so in Buddhism. Its lay associates, however
numerous, were but the fringes of religious communities essentially
and wholly monastic. When, therefore, deterioration or degradation
in the Order set in, reformation of it by the people was hopeless. In
the Order this deterioration showed itself earlier that its dominant
ideal was lower than the Christian. In early Christian Monachism,
fortitude and devotion all sprang from the immolation of self for the
universal good. In Buddha’s Sangha, however, though there was
both devotion and fortitude displayed, the goal to be reached was
simply self-rescue. Its course of beneficence therefore was not only
shorter but shallower. Unintentionally it wrought out social reforms,
and perhaps political revolution. It restrained luxury, and checked
the unbounded sensuality to which Indians are prone; it rebuked the
earthly-minded, and witnessed nobly of the higher interests of life to
peoples that sorely needed the testimony. It not only propagated
morality, but promoted learning, and a love of the beautiful in nature
and art, but its force was eventually exhausted. Very early it sank
into the stagnation in which it has existed for centuries, and any
advance registered by the nations among whom the institution has
existed has been due, for more than a thousand years, to the influx
of Christian ideas and sentiments.
Its own methods hastened its decay. Like all Eastern religious
growths, it represented the piety of inertion. Manual labour of all
kinds was placed under the ban, and beyond attending to the
cleanliness of his person and of his lodging the Buddhist monk was
not allowed to do anything save itinerate for his maintenance and
the preaching of the law. He was instructed that every moment
abstracted from meditation was serious loss. This was in direct
contradiction to the very first rule of Christian solitary life, which
even in the stifling heat of the desert demanded manual tasks,
which fasting might be said to have doubled, continued through the
long day till vespers summoned the labourers to worship. The
Buddhist monk knew neither the healthy life of physical exertion nor
the spiritual refreshment of worship. He might vindicate his idleness
against the reproaches of the industrious by the assertion that he
too in his quiet life was also “ploughing and sowing” to much better
purpose,[263] but then the effect of his ploughing and the fruit of his
sowing were all confined to himself, who alone was freed by it from
suffering. He could not answer, as the Nicæan monk and quondam
courtier replied to Valens, when challenged as to whither he was
going, “I go to pray for your empire.”[264] Augustine has indeed
assured us that “the less a monk labours in anything but prayer the
more serviceable he is to men”; but the prayer which he had in view
was not selfish. On the contrary, the tears and penitential exercises
of men who had become strangers to all personal desires “were
mighty to drown sin and purify the world.”[265] As long as monks
were truly prayerful, and nuns, like vestals, kept alive the sacred fire
for every hearth, they represented that side of the Church’s
mediation which is most important and effective; for no one can be
really effective in the service of man who is not frequent in the
service of waiting upon God. The heroes of the Christian Church,
who have evangelised and civilised the wild waste places of the
world, who, like the apostle, laid aside every encumbrance to run
their race, were, like the apostle, men of much meditation and
prayer. We have no such examples in Buddhism, for it lacked the
provision which alone could nurture them. In the life of the Buddhist
monk there was probably more, and more intense meditation than in
that of the Christian, but there was a vast difference in their
respective themes of meditation. The Christian could draw his
inspiration from a source far higher and purer than himself, and in
communion with the Father, Redeemer, Sanctifier of his spirit gather
a strength which astonished the world; but what possible inspiration
for endeavour could come to a poor Buddhist monk who was chiefly
occupied in contemplating the impurity of his perishable body, and
whose very highest theme of meditation was simply “nothing
whatever”?[266]
Another essential distinction between the two modes of life is
disclosed in their relation to charity. We have seen that Buddhism
had no conception of charity in the Christian sense, and that
practical charity in it was represented from a pole quite opposite to
that of Christianity. As if conscious of its defects, later Buddhism
originated faith in and hope of Maitreya, the Buddha who is next to
come, and who, as the son of love, will realise its unconscious
prophecies, fulfil its longings, and perfect all things; but
notwithstanding this the Buddhist monk continued to be the receiver,
not the dispenser, of charity. His whole merit consisted in taking
what it was the merit of the layman to offer him:[267] and the taking
was all for himself and for his Order. He had no conception of the life
suggested in the saying, “As poor, yet making many rich,” and he
never could have said of his monastery that it was “l’infirmière des
pauvres.” To offer charity to others was the last conception which he
could form of his duty: yea, to clothe the naked, take the leper from
the dunghill, and help the outcast, was the very reverse of his duty.
His creed as to misery in this being the fruit of evil done in a former
existence, cut him off from that service of the lost and fallen which
in Christendom has been accounted glorious, and for the rendering
of which, several of its monastic institutions have been spared the
penalty of their corruption.
The charity which the Buddhist monk practised was in his preaching
and exposition of the law for the deliverance of the multitudes. And
that this may be the very highest form in which benevolence can
express itself all Christians must admit, for the greatest gift which
any man can bestow is the truth which makes one free. Buddhist
monk and Christian missionary alike proclaimed a gospel for the
redemption of men; and as the gospel of Christ’s salvation brings
ever many blessings in its train, so the preaching of the mendicant
Buddhist was attended with material beneficial results to those who
heard and believed it. The Buddhist, however, while expounding the
law for the rescue of the individual, never laboured, like the Christian
missionary, for his temporal and social improvement. His message
had no promise for the life that now is, and consequently he never
seems to have played the part so nobly sustained by many of the
monks of Christendom—that of defending the oppressed and
befriending the helpless. He never, so far as can be gathered from
the texts, proclaimed the equality of men in the same way and for
the same purpose as a Christian reformer would preach it.
Theoretically, he maintained the right of all classes to be admitted to
the brotherhood, but Dr. Oldenberg has asserted that “in the
composition of the Order a marked leaning to the existing
aristocracy was observable.”[268] Buddha never had occasion to
confess with the Christian apostle “that not many noble, not many
mighty, were called,” nor had his Order ever to bear the reproach of
the Church, that its members were recruited from the lowest strata
of society. The references to his disciples from the first all indicate
people of rank and wealth and education. It is not implied that
persons of humble origin would have been rejected had they come,
only that “the scriptures afford no evidence that they did come”; and
yet they yield unmistakable evidence that, as the Order prospered,
all lepers, cripples, blind, or one-eyed persons, all who were deaf
and dumb, all who were consumptive or subject to fits, were
rejected.[269] The Order was for the reputable, the noble, and
especially for the religious, for the Brahman votary, and Sraman
seeker after truth. These again were all attracted to it; they were not
sought out as by the Christian Church. Not for one moment would
Christ allow the Church to become select. He not only welcomed all
penitents—for all men needed salvation, and the poorest and the
guiltiest were most in need of it,—but He sent forth His apostles to
seek and gather them, and in order to reason down all natural fears,
based on the personal unworthiness of these outcasts of society,
they were instructed to “compel them to come in.”[270]
Of propagandism in this sense the Buddhist Sangha knew nothing. It
was moved by no enthusiasm of humanity; it felt nothing of that
earnestness which from the days of the apostles has characterised
the true propagators of the gospel. In no discourse that has come
down to us is there any impassioned entreaty of men to repent and
believe. There is no sorrow over the unbelieving who refuse their
salvation, no burning indignation against those who despise or who
scoff at the truth. In Buddha’s last view of the world there is no
weeping as over Jerusalem, reprobate because of its wickedness,
and in none of his successors do we find any trace of the apostle’s
willingness to be anathema for the sake of his brethren.
This tolerant spirit of Buddhism, however, has been contrasted, as
greatly in its favour, with that alleged intolerance which Christianity
is supposed to have inherited from Judaism. We must remember
that Christianity must be judged as it is presented in Christ, and not
by His professing followers, who have often misrepresented Him. Of
hypocrisy, cruelty, deceit, Christ was indeed intolerant, but toward
error and misbelief, because of ignorance, He was very
compassionate. Christianity would make no compromise, again, with
false systems of heathendom. It would have no peace save through
victory; it would not accept a place in the Pantheon for its Lord, and
it was content to be persecuted till He was allowed to rule from the
throne of the world. The alleged intolerance of Christianity,
therefore, is simply its conviction of the infinite importance and value
to all men of the truth which compels it to be propagandist. Now if
Buddhism tolerates everything, it is because it is not sure about
anything, but, on the contrary, is in doubt about everything. It is
essentially sceptical, “raising the rejection of every affirmation to the
rank of a principle.”[271] Earnestness in a preacher of sceptical
quietism was an impossibility. He had no heart touched with the
feeling of heavenly love, wounded by sin, impelling him to proclaim
forgiveness, and he had no such hearts to appeal to. The Christian
missionary appeals to soul and conscience in name of a Saviour
crucified for sin; the Buddhist missionary only appealed through the
intellect to self-interest. His preaching was purely didactic,
expository, and advisory in character. He was at best a theologian or
moral philosopher teaching the ignorant, and not a preacher aiming
at the conviction of sinners, endeavouring, with his whole heart and
strength and mind, to sway them to conversion.[272] He never
experienced the almost consuming glow and fervour of inspiration
which made the apostles agonise in their mission. “Now is the
accepted time, now is the day of salvation.” “I pray you, in Christ’s
stead, Be ye reconciled to God.” As might have been expected, the
early enthusiasm of Buddhists for the enlightenment of others soon
died out, and its missionary spirit, once spent, has never undergone
a true revival. It can boast of many ecclesiastics and philosophers,
but for hundreds of years it cannot point in its honour-roll to either a
Xavier or a Livingstone. It has long ago ceased to be aggressive. At
this day no Oriental Buddhist seriously contemplates becoming a
missionary. Paris may add to its attractions and curiosities a real
Buddhist temple,[273] but the priests who officiate in it, however
devoted they may be to their cult, will certainly never dream of
taking the trouble of preaching it in the streets.
In the Church of the middle ages, supposed to consist only of pope
and bishops and clergy and monks and nuns, of which mediævalism
a remnant survives in those who speak of “entering the Church,” not
when as children they are baptized into its communion, but when
they are to be ordained to service in it, we must look for any
resemblance to the Buddhist Sangha. In ancient India, a church,
meaning the fellowship of the faithful in its totality, was an
impossibility. Brahmanism had no church, and never attempted a
conversion, but Buddha in seeking to rescue others from evil, and in
offering a place of escape which they were free to accept or reject,
created not a church but a precursor of one.[274] Admission into his
Brotherhood was at first open to all who requested it, but as
disciples crowded around him, and parents complained that they
were bereaved of their children, and masters that they were robbed
of their slaves, and creditors that they were deprived of what was
owing by their debtors, and even the judges that criminals escaped
the prison; and when accusations grew frequent and loud that the
new movement would ruin households, injure the State, and
depopulate the country, restrictions were devised. Gradually
conditions were imposed by which all who were diseased, or
criminals, or soldiers, or debtors, or slaves, or children under fifteen
years of age, or youths under twenty who had not received their
parents’ consent, were disqualified.[275] At first the disciple was
admitted without any ceremony, beyond that of shaving the whole
head, and putting on the yellow robes which distinguished the
ascetic and the recluse, but eventually a rite of initiation was
adopted, which in Ceylon has continued substantially unaltered to
this day.
It consisted of two stages;[276] the first that of the novitiate into
which a candidate could be received by any fully accredited monk.
The ceremony was called the Pabbagga, or “outgoing,” a word used
from old time to describe the last act of a pious Brahman, when,
warned by approaching age, he gave up his possessions to his
family, and left them to enter upon the hermit life of meditation. The
Buddhists naturally adopted it to mark the first step by which a
layman at any age exchanged the secular for the religious life. It was
a confession that he desired to be done with the world, to put off
the old man with his deeds and to put on the new. So with head and
face completely shaven, and holding three lengths of yellow cotton
cloth, first torn to render them valueless, and then sewed together,
he presented his petition three times, that “the reverend monks
would take pity on him, and invest him with the robes, that, like
them, he might escape sorrow.” The presiding monk then tied the
clothes around his neck, repeating sentences regarding the
perishable nature of the body, and the petitioner retired. When he
reappeared he had laid aside the loin-cloth, generally the only article
of raiment in tropical lands, and had assumed the new investiture of
the two under-garments and the loose robe, which covered the
whole body, except the right shoulder, of a Buddhist mendicant.
Three times, thus clothed, in “robes of humility and religion,” in
reverential salaam to the monk or monks present, he made public
confession that he took refuge in Buddha, Dharma, Sangha, and
receiving instructions as to conduct and duty, he became a
Sramanera, a bachelor as it were, a monk of lower degree.
When the novice who had thus “gone forth” from the world, or from
the membership of another fraternity, had “seen the truth, mastered
the truth, understood the truth, penetrated the truth; when he had
overcome uncertainty, dispelled all doubts, was dependent on
nobody else for his knowledge of the doctrines of the Teacher,”[277]
he presented himself before the Order, of whom ten members at
least had to be in session, and reverentially cowering on the ground
with his hands clasped on his forehead, he three times entreated
them “to take pity upon him and draw him out of the evil world by
granting him Upasampada” or the “arrival” initiation rite.[278] Then
followed his examination as to whether he was qualified[279] in his
person, his health, his social and civil relations, whether he had
provided an alms-bowl and the yellow robes, what was his own
name, and that of the teacher with whom he was to consort, and
whom he was to serve during a course of five years’ instruction in
the whole doctrine and discipline of the system. If the answers to all
these questions were satisfactory, the resolution to receive him was
formally put by the presiding monk, and thrice repeated:
“Whosoever of the venerable is for granting Upasampada to this
novice, with brother So-and-so for his teacher, let him be silent.”
When no dissent was intimated the resolution was passed. “The
Sangha is in favour of it, therefore it is silent—thus I understand,”
said the president, and the novice became a Samana, a fully
accredited member of the Order of Bikkhus.
There was certainly nothing of the Church in all this ceremony, and
Sir Monier Williams very properly guards us from applying to it the
sacred word of ordination.[280] Any one who cares to read the texts in
which the proceedings are described will be inclined to think that the
questions put to the novice, in their childishness and absurdity, seem
diabolically framed to caricature the solemn and soul-searching
questions addressed to candidates for the Holy Ministry. Yet in the
instruction given to the newly admitted member, concerning the
“four chief forbidden acts” from which he must abstain, and “the
four resources”[281] in which he was to trust, there was a touch of
the solemnity which belongs to the charge which follows Christian
ordination. The monk was reminded that in regard to what was
pleasant and permissible to other men he had subjected himself to
self-denial and a yoke. He might receive from the pious, without
offence, offerings of food and clothing, and medicine and shelter, but
he must be prepared for the hard life of one whose food might only
be scraps and refuse put into his bowl, whose clothing might have to
be made of cast-off rags, whose shelter might often be the tree in
the jungle or the cave in the rock, and whose medicine might be
only the foul deposit of the cattle-pen. He was warned that any
breach of the four cardinal precepts—against unchastity, which to
him meant what to others was the lawful estate of marriage, against
theft, even of a blade of grass, against murder, even to the crushing
of a flea, against assumption of virtues not really possessed,—would
necessitate expulsion from the Order. “For even as a man whose
head is cut off cannot live with the trunk; ... as a dry leaf separate
from the stalk can never again become green; ... as a stone split in
two cannot be made into one; ... as a palm whose top is destroyed
cannot again grow, so the monk who breaks the least of these laws
is no longer a Samana, no longer a follower of the Sakya-putta.”[282]
To the credit of Buddha, however, it must be observed, that a monk
who had entered the Order was at any time free to withdraw from it.
If he had a hankering after home, or the pleasures of the old life
which he had forsaken, he was exhorted to confess his weakness
and renounce a vocation which he had found too high for him. He
had simply to declare before a witness that he renounced Buddha,
Dharma, Sangha—yea, he could go forth without making any
declaration at all. Freely as he had joined, as freely could he
abandon the brethren; no anger was expressed or even felt; no
discredit attached to him, for the working out of his deliverance was
his own concern. Yea, if at any time he repented of his action, and
desired to renew with the companions of wiser days the relation of
votary or novice, he was not subjected to any discipline, such as a
lapsed member of the Church might be expected to undergo when
seeking re-communion. He was treated upon his confession as
though his past had not been remembered, and as if his folly or fault
had never been committed.[283] Such facility of withdrawal and
readmission seemed to tend to laxity, and may have occasioned very
great abuses, but on the very face of it, it appears calculated to
preserve monastic life in India in a much healthier condition than
has always prevailed in the recluse institutions of Christendom. In
how many cases has the monastery become worse than a prison,
and the convent become a very chamber of tortures, because
occupied by reluctant tenants, who have been cruelly immured in
them against their will, or have thoughtlessly devoted themselves to
a vocation for which they were totally unfit. The Eastern sage may
even have shown greater wisdom than the Western bishops and
presbyters, who have bound over for life those admitted to a sacred
profession, so that freedom from it can only be got by ignominious
expulsion, and by degradation for a fault or a crime.
The Sangha from the first was an order of Cœnobites, not Solitaries,
and it was an exception for a mendicant to be alone; for with his
practical insight Buddha seems to have discovered that the life of
solitude has more disadvantages and dangers than that of
fellowship. So he ordained that the newly admitted monk must
attach himself for five years to a tutor and teacher,[284] one of whom
must have been ten years in the Order, rendering to them such
personal offices as Elisha rendered to Elijah, and receiving such
parental instruction as St. Paul bestowed upon his son in the faith.
No vow of obedience, so essential to the monastic rule of
Christendom, unless in regard to the laws of the Order, was exacted.
No man could be called Rabbi among them, for the knowledge which
brought deliverance could be and must be acquired by each man for
himself.[285] A monk was expected to reverence his superior in age
and knowledge, but his obedience was to be rendered not to his
brother, who was simply his equal in respect of need and capability
of deliverance, but only to The Law which alone could secure it.
While obedience to a superior was not exacted, the law of poverty
and chastity was as obligatory upon the Buddhist monk as on the
members of the Christian Orders. Francis of Assisi could not more
highly have eulogised poverty as “the way to salvation, the nurse of
humility, the root of perfection,” than did the Indian monks who
compiled the Buddhist scriptures. “In supreme felicity live we,
though we call nothing our own. Feeding on happiness, we are like
the gods in the regions of light.”[286] Food a monk could receive, but
not ask for, and of what he so received he could only have one meal
a day. Gold or silver he could on no account accept, though he might
accept its equivalents in food or medicine. If like Achan’s wedge it
was found to have been secreted by any covetous member, one of
the brethren had to hide it away in the jungle, in a place which could
not again be recognised. Bitter controversies regarding this
prohibition seem to have exercised the primitive Sanghas, and
though it was successfully maintained for long, concessions in
relation to it were eventually agreed upon. These however proved as
fatal to the prosperity of the Buddhist, as similar concessions proved
to that of the Western monastic establishments. They were seeds of
evil which speedily grew up into thickets of trouble. The individual
member professed to observe the original law and maintain the
principle that “a man’s life consisteth not in the abundance of his
goods,” but the several fraternities came speedily to abound in lands
and property of every kind, so that in the East as in the West it may
be said the monasteries fell, because crushed with their weight of
wealth.
Even while the primitive rule was observed the mendicants could
easily procure what of the necessaries of food and shelter and
clothing they required; the jungle gave them all the shelter they
needed, though it exposed them to frequent perils of being poisoned
by snake-bites, and devoured by beasts. The rains put an end
periodically to their peregrinations, and gathered the twos and
threes who had been associating together into common retreat in
the viharas. These originally were intended to be only temporary
shelters from the annual floods, but as by degrees the system
extended into distant regions, they became permanent institutions,
each one a centre of influence in its own territory, like the abbeys in
the original dioceses of mediæval Europe.
Life in a Buddhist vihara two thousand years ago must however have
been very different from life in a monastic establishment in the
middle ages. Labour, as we have seen, of no kind was allowed,
either among them or for them. “A monk who digs the earth or
causes it to be dug is liable to punishment.”[287] Scant time was