Molecular Physical Chemistry A Computer Based Approach Using Mathematica and Gaussian 1st Edition José J. C. Teixeira-Dias (Auth.)
Molecular Physical Chemistry A Computer Based Approach Using Mathematica and Gaussian 1st Edition José J. C. Teixeira-Dias (Auth.)
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José J.C. Teixeira-Dias
Molecular
Physical
Chemistry
A Computer-based Approach using
Mathematica® and Gaussian
Molecular Physical Chemistry
José J.C. Teixeira-Dias
Molecular Physical
Chemistry
A Computer-based Approach using
Mathematica® and Gaussian
123
José J.C. Teixeira-Dias
University of Aveiro
Aveiro, Baixo Vouga
Portugal
v
Contents
1 Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Kinetic Model of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Pressure and Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Distribution of Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 Mean Free Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Van der Waals Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4 Mathematical Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.1 Exact Differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.2 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.3 Line Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5 Thermodynamic Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.6 Heat and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.6.1 Mechanical Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.7 First Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.7.1 Heat Capacities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.7.2 Calorimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.7.3 Standard States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.8 Reversible Heat Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.8.1 Carnot’s Heat Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.8.2 Absolute Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.9 Entropy and the Second Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.10 Irreversible Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.10.1 Heat Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.10.2 Gas Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.10.3 Diffusion of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.10.4 Chemical Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.11 Chemical Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.11.1 Gibbs–Duhem Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.11.2 Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.11.3 Real Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.11.4 Liquid Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.11.5 Pure Liquids and Solids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
vii
viii Contents
2 Chemical Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.1 Rate of a Chemical Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.2 Experimental Rate Equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.2.1 First-Order Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.2.2 Second-Order Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.2.3 Zeroth-Order Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.3 Effect of Temperature Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.4 Elementary Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.5 Complex Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.6 Extremely Fast Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.6.1 Neutralization Reaction in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.7 Chemical Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.7.1 Brusselator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Mathematica Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Mathematica Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6 Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
6.1 Packing Disks and Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
6.1.1 Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
6.1.2 Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
6.1.3 Hexagonal Close Packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
6.1.4 Cubic Close Packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
6.1.5 Packing Densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
6.1.6 Occupying Interstices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
6.2 Translation Symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
6.2.1 2D Bravais Lattices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
6.2.2 3D Bravais Lattices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6.3 Crystal Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
6.3.1 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
6.3.2 Lattice Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
6.3.3 Cesium Chloride and Sodium Chloride . . . . . . . . . . . 305
6.3.4 Diamond and Zinc Blende . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
6.4 X-Ray Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
6.5 Electrons in Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
6.6 Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Mathematica Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
7 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
7.1 Molecular Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
7.2 Enthalpy of Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
7.3 Atomic Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
7.4 Dipole Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
7.4.1 Electric Multipoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
7.4.2 Point Dipole. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
7.4.3 Electric Field Streamlines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
7.4.4 H2O Dipole and Quadrupole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
7.5 Molecular Orbitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
7.5.1 Natural Bond Orbitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
7.6 Molecular Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
7.7 Intermolecular Interactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
7.7.1 Electrostatic Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
7.7.2 Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
7.7.3 Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
7.8 Hydrogen Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
7.8.1 The Water Dimer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
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xii Contents
Gaussian (www.gaussian.com)
The computational quantum chemistry calculations whose results are presented in
this book were carried out with the Gaussian 09 series of programs.
Authors for Gaussian 09, Revision A.02: M.J. Frisch, G.W. Trucks, H.B.
Schlegel, G.E. Scuseria, M.A. Robb, J.R. Cheeseman, G. Scalmani, V. Barone, B.
Mennucci, G.A. Petersson, H. Nakatsuji, M. Caricato, X. Li, H.P. Hratchian, A.F.
Izmaylov, J. Bloino, G. Zheng, J.L. Sonnenberg, M. Hada, M. Ehara, K. Toyota, R.
Fukuda, J. Hasegawa, M. Ishida, T. Nakajima, Y. Honda, O. Kitao, H. Nakai,
T. Vreven, J.A. Montgomery, Jr., J.E. Peralta, F. Ogliaro, M. Bearpark, J.J. Heyd,
E. Brothers, K.N. Kudin, V.N. Staroverov, R. Kobayashi, J. Normand, K.
Raghavachari, A. Rendell, J.C. Burant, S.S. Iyengar, J. Tomasi, M. Cossi, N. Rega,
J.M. Millam, M. Klene, J.E. Knox, J.B. Cross, V. Bakken, C. Adamo, J. Jaramillo,
R. Gomperts, R.E. Stratmann, O. Yazyev, A.J. Austin, R. Cammi, C. Pomelli, J.W.
Ochterski, R.L. Martin, K. Morokuma, V.G. Zakrzewski, G.A. Voth, P. Salvador, J.
J. Dannenberg, S. Dapprich, A.D. Daniels, Ö. Farkas, J.B. Foresman, J.V. Ortiz,
J. Cioslowski, and D.J. Fox, Gaussian, Inc., Wallingford CT, 2009.
GaussView (www.gaussian.com)
GaussView is the graphical interface to Gaussian.
Authors for GaussView, Version 5.0.9: Roy Dennington, Todd Keith, and John
Millam, Semichem Inc., Shawnee Mission, KS, 2009.
Natural bond orbitals
A natural bond orbitals analysis of the electron population is included in Gaussian
09.
Reference: NBO Version 3.1, E.D. Glendening, A.E. Reed, J.E. Carpenter,
and F. Weinhold.
Mathematica (www.wolfram.com)
Author of Mathematica: Wolfram Research Inc. Champaign, IL, 2010.
Wolfram Alpha (www.wolframalpha.com)
This is a computational knowledge-based engine that provides answers to questions
raised through the Internet in free-form input of natural language (English).
xiii
xiv Credits
Abstract
The first three sections of this chapter include the ideal gas equation, the kinetic
model of gases, and the Van der Waals equation. They aim at building a unified
background for thermodynamics. Having in mind those students who might need
some refreshment of the mathematical concepts much used in thermodynamics,
such as exact and inexact differentials, the fundamental theorem of calculus, and
line integrals, we introduce a short section on these mathematical tools, followed
by sections on thermodynamic systems, heat and work, and the first law. In order
to formally arrive at the state function entropy, we show that an arbitrary
reversible cycle can be covered to the required precision by a mesh of
infinitesimal Carnot cycles and arrive at the Clausius inequality for an arbitrary
irreversible cycle. Following Prigogine, a distinction is then established between
entropy transfer across system boundaries and entropy produced inside a system
due to irreversible processes that drive the system to equilibrium. These are
illustrated with heat flow, gas expansion, matter diffusion, and a chemical
reaction in the gas phase. Next, we derive the Gibbs–Duhem equation and obtain
the chemical potential for the ideal gas, real gases, liquid solutions, pure liquids,
and solids, before presenting sections on the Gibbs energy, chemical equilib-
rium, the Gibbs phase rule, and the Helmholtz energy. The last three sections of
this chapter, on surface tension, membrane potential, and the electrochemical
cell, are important applications of the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
At the end of the chapter we present several Mathematica codes (Maxwell
Distribution of Molecular Speeds, Critical Point for Van der Waals Fluid,
3D Plot of the Van der Waals Equation in Reduced Variables, Absolute and
Reduced Temperatures for the Van der Waals Carbon Dioxide, Isothermal and
Adiabatic Transformations on an Ideal Gas Surface, Efficiency of the Carnot
Heat Engine, Gibbs Energy, and Affinity of a Chemical Reaction) that are
interconnected with the main text and contain detailed explanations of important
In, 1660, Robert Boyle (1627–1691) showed that at a defined temperature T, the
volume V of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure p, that is,
V ¼ f1 ðTÞ=p ð1:1Þ
where f1(T) is a function of temperature (see Note §1). Edmé Mariotte [1620(?)–
1684] independently confirmed this functional dependence between volume and
pressure at constant temperature. In the last quarter of the eighteenth century,
Jacques Charles (1746–1823) studied the dependence between volume and tem-
perature, having found that the volume is proportional to the temperature at constant
pressure,
n ¼ N=NA ð1:3Þ
Combining (1.1), (1.2) and the Avogadro hypothesis (gas volume proportional to
the amount of gas), one concludes that f1(T) is given by
where R is called the gas constant (R = 8.3144 J mol−1 K−1; see Appendix).
Substitution of (1.4) in (1.1) leads to
pV ¼ nRT ð1:5Þ
1.1 Ideal Gas 3
The gas constant is related to the Boltzmann constant (kB = 1.3806 10−23
J K−1; see Appendix) by
R ¼ kB N A ð1:6Þ
p V ¼ N kB T ð1:7Þ
p ¼ qN kB T ð1:8Þ
qN ¼ N=V ð1:9Þ
Equations (1.5), (1.7), and (1.8) are equivalent forms of the ideal gas equation of
state.
A gas can be studied at the macroscopic and molecular levels. The macroscopic
study requires the measurement of variables such as pressure, volume, temperature,
and amount of gas, interrelated by an empirical, relationship involving these vari-
ables (the equation of state), as we have just shown for the ideal gas. In turn, at the
molecular level, the study of gases requires a theoretical model that allows for the
understanding of the dynamical behavior of molecules under the model assump-
tions and the evaluation of macroscopic intensive variables such as pressure and
temperature.
It was Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782) who first concluded that the pressure of a
gas results from collisions of gas particles with the container walls. At that time, no
one knew about molecules or could predict the order of magnitude of the speed of
gas particles.
The kinetic model of gases explains macroscopic gas properties such as pressure
and temperature from the random motion of molecules and was mostly developed
during the nineteenth century, with main contributions by James Prescott Joule
4 1 Thermodynamics
Among the molecules that move toward the container wall at the right in Fig. 1.2,
those that collide with the wall within the time interval Dt cannot be at a distance
from the wall greater than vxDt, where vx > 0. The volume occupied by such
molecules is vxDtA, where A is the area of the wall, and the number of such
molecules is given by
vx DtAqN =2 ð1:10Þ
1.2 Kinetic Model of Gases 5
where qN is the number density given by (1.9). The factor of 1/2 in (1.10) accounts
for the fact that one-half of the molecules move toward each of the walls, right and
left. In each collision with the wall at the right, the x component of the velocity
changes sign. Hence, the variation of linear momentum on collision with the wall is
given by mvx − (−mvx) = 2mvx (Fig. 1.3), and the total variation of linear
momentum is 2mvx times the number of molecules (1.10), that is,
According to Newton’s equation, the force is equal to the time derivative of the
linear momentum, which is given approximately by the ratio of (1.11) to Dt,
since the time interval is very short. Therefore, the pressure (force per unit area) on
the right wall is given by (1.12) divided by A, that is,
p ¼ mv2x qN ð1:13Þ
v2 ¼ 3v2x ð1:15Þ
p ¼ mv2 qN =3 ð1:16Þ
However, not all molecular velocities have the same absolute value (the same
speed), and consequently the same square speed. In the ensemble average of square
speeds, the average is taken over all N gas molecules in the container,
2 2
v ¼ v1 þ v22 þ þ v2N =N ð1:17Þ
In velocity space, the Cartesian axes correspond to the velocity components vx, vy,
and vz. The probability of finding the velocity vector v = (vx, vy, vz) in the domain
(vx, vx + dvx), (vy, vy + dvy), (vz, vz + dvz) (Fig. 1.4) is given by
where the function P(v) is the probability density for the distribution of molecular
velocities, first evaluated by James Clerk Maxwell for a gas in thermodynamic
equilibrium and given by
1.2 Kinetic Model of Gases 7
h i
PðvÞ / exp m v2x þ v2y þ v2z =ð2kB T Þ ð1:21Þ
where the symbol / means that the proportionality constant of the above expression
has been omitted and the absolute value of the exponent of (1.21) is the molecular
kinetic energy m(v2x + v2y + v2z )/2 divided by kBT. The proportionality constant of
(1.21) is given by
Z1 Z1 Z1 h i 3=2
m
1= exp m v2x þ v2y þ v2z =ð2kB T Þ dvx dvy dvz ¼
2pkB T
1 1 1
ð1:22Þ
and is said to be normalized, that is, the integral of the probability density over all
velocity space is equal to 1. The density P(v) is called the Maxwell velocity
distribution. Expression (1.23) can be easily factored as the product of the vx, vy,
and vz components of the velocity vector v, that is,
where
1=2
m
Pðvx Þ ¼ exp mv2x =ð2kB T Þ ð1:25Þ
2p kB T
Since P(vx) depends on v2x , both vx and −vx give the same value to the function,
which is symmetric about zero, that is, its mean value is zero. Figure 1.5 shows
P(vx) for molecular oxygen, at 100 and 300 K.
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8 1 Thermodynamics
and the geometric place for the tips of velocity vectors with the same absolute value
is the volume between two concentric spheres with radii v and v + dv, which is
given by the product of the area of the spherical surface 4pv2 and dv. Thus, using
(1.23) and (1.14), we can write
3=2
m
f ðvÞdv ¼ PðvÞ4pv2 dv ¼ 4p exp mv2 =ð2kB T Þ v2 dv ð1:27Þ
2pkB T
where f(v) is the distribution of molecular speeds [the word speed is used to
express the absolute value of the velocity vector, and the integration of (1.27) is now
between zero and infinity]. Figure 1.6 shows the distributions of molecular speeds
for oxygen, at 100 and 300 K (see Mathematica code M1). It can be seen that
these distributions are no longer symmetric, due to the factor v2, which strongly
weights larger values of molecular speeds, thus widening the higher wing of the
distributions.
[f(v) has a single positive stationary point that is the curve maximum]. The positive
solution for (1.28) is
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2kB T
vp ¼ ð1:29Þ
m
Z1 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
8kB T
vm ¼ f ðvÞvdv ¼ ð1:30Þ
pm
0
Consider the mutual diffusion of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, at a defined
pressure and temperature, after the wall separating them has been removed
(Fig. 1.7a). When the equilibrium is reached, the gas mixture has the same con-
centration everywhere in the system. In a container with a few liters of volume, the
equilibrium state may be reached in approximately 1 h. This result may look sur-
prising, since molecular speeds are on the order of hundreds of meters per second.
While each molecule has a large number of collisions, not all of them drive the
molecule away from the starting point, since some collisions drive the molecule
backward.
10 1 Thermodynamics
(b)
N2
(a)
before some time later ...
O2 N2
O2
Fig. 1.7 a Diffusion of two gases at the same pressure and temperature. b Test molecule of O2
diffusing through N2. Note that the colors used to distinguish the gases are fictitious: both O2 and
N2 do not absorb in the visible spectrum
Let us follow an oxygen molecule on its path through nitrogen gas (Fig. 1.7b).
To simplify matters, let us assume that the nitrogen molecules are fixed. Through
what distance does the oxygen molecule move before it first collides with a nitrogen
molecule? How long does it move before its second/third collision? The average
distance between collisions is called the mean free path.
In this thought experiment, the test molecule O2 and the molecules N2 are
represented by spheres of the same diameter d. The cross section for collision is the
area of a circle of radius d (pd2) (Fig. 1.8a). Between consecutive collisions, this
circle spans a cylinder whose height is equal to the distance traveled by the test
molecule (Fig. 1.8b). The volume of the broken cylinder is called the interaction
volume, and it contains all the nitrogen molecules that collide with the test molecule
within a certain time interval Dt.
(b)
(a)
Fig. 1.8 a Cross section for collision between spheres of equal radius. b All molecules colliding
with the test molecule have their centers of mass within the broken cylinder
1.2 Kinetic Model of Gases 11
A reasonable estimate k for the mean free path can be obtained by dividing the
distance d traveled by the test molecule by the number of collisions Nc, that is, the
number of N2 molecules within the interaction volume (= volume of the broken
cylinder),
k ¼ d=Nc ð1:32Þ
Nc is given by
Nc ¼ Vint qN ð1:33Þ
where qN is the number density of molecular nitrogen and the interaction volume
Vint is
d 2 1
k¼ pd qN ð1:35Þ
pd2 dqN
This result is based on the less realistic assumption of the nitrogen molecules
remaining fixed while the test molecule travels among them. However, the distance
traveled by the test molecule [d in the numerator of (1.35)] and the length of the
interaction cylinder [d in the denominator of (1.35)] are distinct quantities, which
we name dn and dd, respectively. In fact, the distance traveled by the test molecule
dn is equal to the rms speed times the corresponding time interval,
dn ¼ vrms Dt ð1:36Þ
whereas dd, the real length of the interaction cylinder, is equal to the rms speed of
the test molecule relative to the speed of the colliding nitrogen molecule,
Hence, substitution of (1.36) in (1.35) and of (1.38) and (1.37) in (1.35) leads to
the following expression for the mean free path:
Considering the assumptions of the kinetic model of gases, this expression can
give only an order of magnitude for the mean free path. According to (1.39), the
mean free path is inversely proportional to the cross section for collisions and the gas
number density. In fact, increases of the cross section and of the gas number density
are expected to lead to decreases in the mean free path. Note that the mean free path
is independent of the distance traveled by the test particle [see (1.39)], since this
distance was chosen in an arbitrary way. Considering the approximate nature of
(1.39), one can deal with d as a parameter whose value can be chosen so that a
realistic value is obtained for the collision cross section. In particular, d = 0.3 nm
(= 3 Å) allows one to obtain a reasonable estimate for the mean free path.
The quantity qN can be obtained from the gas pressure and temperature using
(1.8), assuming ideal gas behavior. Alternatively, in order to relate qN to the
molecular diameter d, one can take the ratio of the liquid and gas densities and
equate this ratio to the inverse ratio of the molecular volumes,
ql m=Vl Vg
¼ ¼ ð1:40Þ
qg m=Vg Vl
since a molecule has the same mass m in the liquid and gas phases. For nitrogen, the
liquid density is 800 kg m−3 and the gas density is 1.2 kg m−3. Therefore, the ratio
of densities is approximately equal to 670 ( 800/1.2). In the liquid, the volume of
one molecule is approximately given by d3 (volume of a cube containing one
nitrogen molecule). Hence, applying (1.40) to nitrogen, we can write
Vg
670 ) Vg 670d3 ð1:41Þ
d3
If the definition of number density [see (1.9)] is applied to one molecule in the
gas and (1.41) is used, we obtain
1
qN ¼ Vg ð670d3 Þ1 ð1:42Þ
Hence, the mean free path is about 150 times the collision cross-sectional radius
or the particle diameter (see Fig. 1.8a). The average distance between molecules in
the gas is given approximately by
1=3
670d 3 10d ð1:44Þ
that is, is about 15 times smaller than the mean free path.
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VÄIJYTYS.
Äkkiä hyökkäsi esiin toinen henkilö. Se oli don Estevan, joka tähän
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5.
MOLEMMAT TIIKERINPYYTÄJÄT.
6.
TIBURCION SALAISUUS.
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— Ei, ei mikään.
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