Lecture 2

MEC 354 Robotics (1)

Mahmoud Muhammad Abuhattab Khaled Ahmed

2022-2023

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Transformation Arithmetic
Compound transformations
In the figure, we have 𝐶𝑃 and wish to find 𝐴𝑃.

Compound frames: Each is known relative to the previous one

Frame 𝐶 is known relative to frame 𝐵 , and frame 𝐵 in known relative to

frame 𝐴 .

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Then, 𝐶𝑃 is transformed into 𝐵𝑃 as

𝐵
𝑃 = 𝐵𝐶𝑇 𝐶𝑃; (1)
Then by transforming 𝐵𝑃 into 𝐴𝑃,
𝐴
𝑃 = 𝐵𝐴𝑇 𝐵𝑃. (2)

By combining (1) and (2), then,

𝐴
𝑃 = 𝐵𝐴𝑇 𝐵𝐶𝑇 𝐶𝑃, (3)
From which,
𝐴
𝐶𝑇 = 𝐵𝐴𝑇 𝐵𝐶𝑇. (4)

In terms of the known descriptions of 𝐵 and 𝐶 ,

𝐴 𝐵
𝐴
𝐴 𝐵
𝐵𝑅 𝐶 𝑅 𝐵𝑅 𝑃𝐶𝑂𝑅𝐺 + 𝐴𝑃𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐺
𝐶𝑇 = . (5)
0 0 0 1
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Inverting a transform
Consider a frame {B} that is known with respect to a frame {A}—that is, we know
the value of 𝐵𝐴𝑇 Sometimes we will wish to invert this transform, in order to get a
description of {A} relative to {B}—that is, 𝐵𝐴𝑇.

A straightforward way of calculating the inverse is to compute the inverse of the 4

x 4 homogeneous transform. However, if we do so, we are not taking full
advantage of the structure inherent in the transform. It is easy to find a
computationally simpler method of computing the inverse, one that does take
advantage of this structure.

To find 𝐵𝐴𝑇, we must compute 𝐵𝐴𝑅 and 𝐵𝑃𝐴𝑂𝑅𝐺 from 𝐵𝐴𝑅 and 𝐴𝑃𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐺 . First, recall
from our discussion of rotation matrices that

𝐵
𝐴𝑅 = 𝐵𝐴𝑅𝑇 . (1)

Since, 𝐴𝑃 = 𝐵𝐴𝑅 𝐵𝑃, (2)

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Inverting a transform
then, the description of 𝐴𝑃𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐺 is changed into 𝐵 , such that,
𝐵 𝐴
( 𝑃𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐺 ) = 𝐵𝐴𝑅 𝐴𝑃𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐺 + 𝐵𝑃𝐴𝑂𝑅𝐺 . (3)

The left-hand side of (3) must be zero, so we have

𝐵
𝑃𝐴𝑂𝑅𝐺 = − 𝐵𝐴𝑅 𝐴𝑃𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐺 = − 𝐵𝐴𝑅𝑇 𝐴𝑃𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐺 . (4)

Using (1) and (3), we can write the form of 𝐵𝐴𝑇 as

𝐴 𝑇
𝐵 𝐵𝑅 − 𝐵𝐴𝑅𝑇 𝐴𝑃𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐺 ,
𝐴𝑇 = (5)
0 0 0 1

With the notation, 𝐵

𝐴𝑇 = 𝐵𝐴𝑇 −1 ,

Equation (5) is general and useful for computing the inverse of a homogeneous
transform.

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Example
The frame 𝐵 shown in Figure is rotated relative to frame 𝐴 about 𝑍መ by 30
degrees and translated four units in 𝑋෠𝐴 and three units in 𝑌෠𝐴 . Thus, we have a
description of 𝐵𝐴𝑇. Find 𝐵𝐴𝑇.

𝐵 relative to 𝐴
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Solution
The frame defining {B} is

0.866 −0.5 0 4
𝐴 0.5 0.866 0 3
𝐵 𝑇 = ,
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
𝐴 𝑇
𝐵 𝐵𝑅 − 𝐵𝐴𝑅𝑇 𝐴𝑃𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐺 , we compute
Using 𝐴𝑇 =
0 0 0 1

0.866 0.5 0 −4.964

𝐵 −0.5 0.866 0 −0.598
𝐴𝑇 = .
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

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Transform Equations

Set of transforms forming a loop

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Transform Equations
In Figure, there exist a situation in which a frame 𝐷 can be expressed as products
of transformations in two different ways.

First,
𝑈
𝐷𝑇 = 𝑈𝐴𝑇 𝐷𝐴𝑇; (1)

Second;
𝑈
𝐷𝑇 = 𝑈𝐵𝑇 𝐵𝐶𝑇 𝐷𝐶𝑇. (2)

We can set these two descriptions of 𝑈

𝐷𝑇 equal to construct a transform equation:
𝑈 𝐴
𝐴𝑇 𝐷 𝑇 = 𝑈𝐵𝑇 𝐵𝐶𝑇 𝐷𝐶𝑇. (3)
Transform equations can be used to solve for transforms in the case of 𝑛
unknown transforms and 𝑛 transform equations. Consider (3) in the case that all
transforms are known except 𝐵𝐶𝑇.

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Transform Equations
Here, we have one transform equation and one unknown transform; hence, we
easily find its solution to be
𝐵
𝐶𝑇 = 𝑈𝐵𝑇 −1 𝑈𝐴𝑇 𝐷𝐴𝑇 𝐷𝐶𝑇 −1 . (4)
The following figure indicates a similar situation.
Note that, in all figures, we have introduced a graphical representation of frames
as an arrow pointing from one origin to another origin. The arrow's direction
indicates which way the frames are defined: In the previous figure, frame 𝐷 is
defined relative to 𝐴 ; in the next figure, frame 𝐴 is defined relative to 𝐷 .
In order to compound frames when the arrows line up, we simply compute the
product of the transforms. If an arrow points the opposite way in a chain of
transforms, we simply compute its inverse first. In the figure, two possible
descriptions of 𝐶 are
𝑈
𝐶𝑇 = 𝑈𝐴𝑇 𝐷𝐴𝑇 −1 𝐷𝐶𝑇, (5)
and
𝑈
𝐶𝑇 = 𝑈𝐵𝑇 𝐵𝐶𝑇. (6)

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Transform Equations

Example of a transform equation

Again, we might equate (5) and (6) to solve for, say, 𝑈𝐴𝑇:
𝑈
𝐴𝑇 = 𝑈𝐵𝑇 𝐵𝐶𝑇 𝐷𝐶𝑇 −1 𝐷𝐴𝑇. (7)

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Example
Assume that we know the transform 𝐵𝑇𝑇 in figure, which describes the frame at the
manipulator’s fingertips 𝑇 relative to the base of the manipulator, 𝐵 , that we know where
the tabletop is located in space relative to the manipulator’s base (because we have a
description of the frame 𝑆 that is attached to the table as shown, 𝐵𝑆𝑇), and that we know
the location of the frame attached to the bolt lying on the table relative to the table frame –
that is, 𝐺𝑆𝑇. Calculate the position and orientation of the bolt relative to the manipulator’s
hand, 𝐺𝑇𝑇.

Solution

Guided by our notation (and, it is hoped, our

understanding), we compute the bolt frame
relative to the hand frame as
𝑇
𝐺𝑇 = 𝐵𝑇𝑇 −1 𝐵𝑆𝑇 𝐺𝑆𝑇.

Manipulator reaching for a bolt

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More on Representation of Orientation

X-Y-Z fixed angles

One method of describing the orientation of a frame 𝐵 is as follows:

Start with the frame coincident with a known reference frame 𝐴 .

Rotate 𝐵 first about 𝑋෠𝐴 by angle 𝛾, then about 𝑌෠𝐴 by angle 𝛽, and, finally, about
𝑍መ𝐴 by an angle 𝛼.

Each of these rotations takes place about an axis in the fixed reference frame 𝐴 .

The word “fixed” refers to the fact that the rotations are specified about the fixed
(non moving) reference frame.

Sometimes they are referred as roll, pitch, yaw angles.

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X-Y-Z fixed angles. Rotations are performed in the order 𝑅𝑋 (𝛾), 𝑅𝑌 (𝛽), 𝑅𝑍 (𝛼)

The derivation of the equivalent rotation matrix 𝐵𝐴𝑅𝑋𝑌𝑍 (𝛾, 𝛽, 𝛼), is strait
forward, because all rotations occur about axes of the reference frame, that
is,

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Keep in mind that the definition given here specifies the order of the three
rotations. The equation is correct only for rotations performed in the order:
about 𝑋෠𝐴 by 𝛾, about 𝑌෠𝐴 , by 𝛽, about 𝑍መ𝐴 by 𝛼.

The inverse problem, that of extracting equivalent X-Y-Z fixed angles

from a rotation matrix, is often of interest.

The solution depends on solving a set of transcendental equations:

There are nine equations and three unknowns. Among the nine
equations are six dependencies. So, we have three equations and
three unknowns.

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By taking the square root of the sum of the squares of 𝑟11 and 𝑟21 , we can
compute cos 𝛽 . Then, we can solve for 𝛽 with the arc tangent of − 𝑟31 , over the
computed cosine. Then, as long as 𝑐𝛽 ≠ 0, we can solve for 𝛼 by taking the
arc tangent of 𝑟21 /𝑐𝛽 over 𝑟11 /𝑐𝛽 and we can solve for 𝛾 by taking the arc
tangent of 𝑟32 /𝑐𝛽 over 𝑟33 /𝑐𝛽.

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Z-Y-X Euler angles

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Z-Y-X Euler angles

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Example:

Solution

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Thanks

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