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TRUTH
THE BASICS
Truth: The Basics is a concise and engaging introduction to philo-

sophical theories about the nature of truth. The two authors –
leading philosophers in this field – build the book around a single
question: what, if anything, is common to all truths, which makes
them true? The book explores five important answers (‘theories’)
to the given question: correspondence, semantic, verifiability,
transparency, and plurality. For each given theory, the following
questions are addressed:
• What is the theory’s answer to the central question?

• What is the basic motivation behind that answer?
• What is a precise argument for that answer?
• What are the biggest objections to that answer?
• What are a few good resources for understanding more about
the theory?
An additional chapter provides an extensive introduction to the

notorious liar paradox. Truth: The Basics is an ideal starting point
for anyone seeking a lively and accessible introduction to the rich
and complex philosophical study of truth.
Jc Beall holds the O’Neill Family Chair in Philosophy at the
University of Notre Dame. Beall’s principal work is on truth,
paradox, logic, and related issues. His publications include Log-
ical Pluralism (2005), Spandrels of Truth (2009), and Formal Theories
of Truth (2018). In addition, Beall is the author of Logic: The Basics
(Routledge, 2017).
Ben Middleton has held postdoctoral positions in philosophy at
the University of Notre Dame and North Carolina State Univer-
sity. His published papers include work on nonclassical logic and
the semantic paradoxes.
THE BASICS SERIES
The Basics is a highly successful series of accessible guidebooks
which provide an overview of the fundamental principles of a
subject area in a jargon-free and undaunting format.
Intended for students approaching a subject for the first time,
the books both introduce the essentials of a subject and provide
an ideal springboard for further study. With over 50 titles span-
ning subjects from artificial intelligence (AI) to women’s studies,
The Basics are an ideal starting point for students seeking to
understand a subject area.
Each text comes with recommendations for further study and
gradually introduces the complexities and nuances within a
subject.
PSYCHOPATHY ECONOMICS (fourth edition)

Sandie Taylor and Lance Workman Tony Cleaver
SUBCULTURES (second edition) ELT

Ross Haenfler Michael McCarthy and Steve Walsh
TOTALITARIANISM SOLUTION-FOCUSED THERAPY

Phillip W. Gray Yvonne Dolan
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY ACTING (third edition)

Will Reader and Lance Workman Bella Merlin
SUBCULTURES BUSINESS ANTHROPOLOGY

Ross Haenfler Timothy de Waal Malefyt
GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT EATING DISORDERS

Daniel Hammett Elizabeth McNaught, Janet Treasure,
and Jess Griffiths
FOOD ETHICS
Ronald L. Sandler TRUTH
Jc Beall and Ben Middleton
TRANSLATION
Juliane House PERCEPTION
Bence Nanay
WORK PSYCHOLOGY
Laura Dean and Fran Cousans
For a full list of titles in this series, please visit

www.routledge.com/The-Basics/book-series/B
TRUTH
THE BASICS
Jc Beall and Ben Middleton

Designed cover image: Photo by Thomas T on Unsplash
First published 2024
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2024 Taylor & Francis
The right of Jc Beall and Ben Middleton to be identified as authors of this work has
been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent
to infringe.
ISBN: 978-1-032-03988-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-03987-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-19010-3 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003190103
Typeset in Bembo
by codeMantra
To all who’ve helped me see truth. — JcB
To Shirley, for her endless love and support. — BM

CONTENTS
1 Introduction 1
1.1 The Central Question 1
1.2 Shape of the Central Question
and the Sort of Answers 2
1.3 Necessary Background Issues for the Central
Question 6
1.4 Plan of the Book 19
1.5 Chapter Summary 21
2 Correspondence 23
2.1 Answer to the Central Question 23
2.2 Motivation 34
2.3 Argument for the Correspondence Answer 38
2.4 Evaluation 40
3 Semantic 49
3.2 Motivation 54
3.3 Argument for the Semantic Answer 57
3.4 Evaluation 58
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x CONTENTS
4 Verifiability 69
4.2 Motivation 74
4.3 Argument for the Verifiability Answer 78
4.4 Evaluation 80
5 Transparency 86
5.2 Motivation 86
5.3 Argument for the Transparency Answer 90
5.4 Evaluation 92
5.6 Further Reading 101
6 Plurality 102
6.2 Motivation 102
6.3 Argument for the Plurality Answer 104
6.4 Evaluation 104
7 Paradox 111
7.1 Introduction 111
7.2 The Liar, More Precisely 112
7.3 Solutions Which Accept the Liar Ingredients 117
7.4 Solutions Which Reject a Liar Ingredient 122
7.5 A Theory of Entailment 133
8 Final Score Card 147
9 Glossary 150
A Note on Relativism 155
B Note on Correspondence 157
C Note on the Semantic Theory 159
CONTENTS xi
D The Indirect Liar 161

E A Conditional for Truth Theories 163
E.1 Introduction 163
E.2 T-schema Conditionals 163
E.3 Liar Paradox and Curry’s Paradox 164
E.4 A Simple but Nonstandard Semantics 165
E.5 T-schema, Detachment, and Absorption 167
E.6 Nonclassical Logic 169
Index 171
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 THE CENTRAL QUESTION

This book is an introductory survey of five prominent answers to the
central philosophical question (henceforth, central question) about truth:
(Central Question) What feature do all and only the truths have in
common, which makes them all true?
More briefly: what is truth?

A common reaction to the central question is that it’s hopelessly
deep and complicated, far too complex to answer. This reaction may
stem from the following thought. If we could answer the central ques-
tion correctly, say by identifying Φ as the feature that makes a truth
true, then we would thereby be in a position to discover the truth
about every other subject matter as well. Want to know whether there
is extra-terrestrial life? Just test whether ‘There is extra-terrestrial life’
has Φ. Want to know whether nuclear war will break out this cen-
tury? Just test whether ‘Nuclear war will break out this century’ has
Φ. Clearly, philosophers cannot hope to discover the truth about
everything. As a result, philosophers cannot hope to discover the truth
about truth either.
The implicit assumption in the preceding argument is that the fea-
ture which makes a truth true must be much easier to recognize than
DOI: 10.4324/9781003190103-1
2 INTRODUCTION
truth itself. Although this would be nice, it need not be the case,
and in general, the answers philosophers have given to the central
question do not provide us with an algorithm for determining the
truth about every conceivable question. This may be disappointing
if you had turned to this book to help answer a question in quan-
tum physics, theology, or ethics. On the upside, it makes answering
the central question a tractable task, one which philosophers can
realistically hope to make progress on.
The first step to answering the central question is to clarify the
‘shape’ of the question and corresponding answers.
1.2 SHAPE OF THE CENTRAL QUESTION

AND THE SORT OF ANSWERS
The central question is one instance of the following general kind
of question: what feature do all and only the Fs have in common,
which makes them all F? More briefly: what is F? Other questions
of this general kind include:
• What feature do all and only the conscious beings have in

common, which makes them all conscious?
• What feature do all and only the morally right actions have in
common, which makes them all morally right?
• What feature do all and only the blue objects have in common,
which makes them all blue?
• What feature do all and only the diamonds have in common,
which makes them all diamonds?
• What feature do all and only the hot objects have in common,
which makes them all hot?
• For readers with some knowledge of mathematics: what feature
do all and only the continuous functions have in common, which
makes them all continuous?
The first question has mostly been investigated by philosophers and

neuroscientists. No consensus has emerged as to the correct answer,
put a popular view is that consciousness consists in certain kinds of
complicated information processing.
INTRODUCTION 3
The second question has mostly been investigated by philosophers

and theologians. Again, no consensus has emerged around a single
answer, but popular views include the following: the moral rightness
of an action consists in it maximizing overall happiness, the moral
rightness of an action consists in it being in line with God’s com-
mands, and the moral rightness of an action consists in it being what
a wholly virtuous person would do.
The third question has mostly been investigated by physicists and
philosophers. In this case, something approaching a consensus has
emerged around the view that blueness consists in being disposed to
reflect light with wavelength between 450 and 495 nanometers under
normal conditions.
The fourth and fifth questions have been investigated almost exclu-
sively by physicists. Here, there is complete consensus: being a
diamond consists in being composed of carbon atoms arranged in
a certain kind of crystal structure, and being a hot object consists in
being composed of particles with high mean kinetic energy.
The sixth question has been investigated almost exclusively by
mathematicians. Again, here there is complete consensus: being a
continuous function consists in being a function for which the preim-
age of every open set is open. (Do not worry if you do not know
what this means.)
An answer to a question of the form ‘what is F?’ is called an analysis
of F. We write an analysis of F as follows:
x is F =df x is Φ
where Φ is the feature taken by the analysis to answer the ‘what is

F ?’ question. For example, the standard analysis of hotness can be
written as:
x is hot = df
x is composed of particles with high mean kinetic energy.
As can be seen from the above list, analyses are commonplace both
in philosophy and in science more generally. As can also be seen
from the above list, the methods used to give an analysis of F vary
substantially depending on the domain in which F is found.
4 INTRODUCTION
Although experimental observations were helpful in analyzing the

properties of being hot, being a diamond, and being blue, and likely
will be helpful in analyzing consciousness, experimental observations
were of no help in analyzing a mathematical function’s ‘continu-
ity’ and are unlikely to be of any help in analyzing moral rightness.
Although it is hard to draw the line between domains in which exper-
imental observations are relevant and domains in which they are not,
it is safe to say that truth, in this respect, is closer to mathematical
continuity than to being a diamond.
Despite the variation in methods used to give analyses, there
remain certain abstract features common to all correct analyses (i.e.,
correct answers to What is F? questions), which every analysis aspires
to satisfy. We briefly summarize these features below.
1.2.1 EXTENSIONAL ADEQUACY OF CANDIDATE ANSWERS
The most obvious requirement for an analysis of F to be correct is that

the feature identified by the analysis is in fact shared by all and only
the Fs. This condition is referred to as extensional adequacy. For exam-
ple, an analysis that took consciousness to consist in a certain kind
of complicated information processing would not be correct if there
were nonconscious beings (computers, perhaps) that perform exactly
the same kind of complicated information processing. In other words,
the would-be analysis claims that to be conscious is just to process infor-
mation in such-n-so way, and so the analysis would be incorrect in the
face of such nonconscious information processors.
1.2.2 INTENSIONAL ADEQUACY OF CANDIDATE ANSWERS
Extensional adequacy alone is not enough for an analysis to be cor-

rect. For example, for all we know, it might turn out that we on Earth
are the only conscious beings in the universe. If this were the case,
then the conscious beings would be all and only the animals from
Earth. Nevertheless, it would still be incorrect to analyze conscious-
ness as the property of being an animal from Earth. This is because
analyzing consciousness as being an animal from Earth entails that
INTRODUCTION 5
it is impossible for a being to be conscious without also being from

Earth. Clearly, however, it is possible for extra-terrestrial conscious
beings to exist, even if, by chance, they do not.
In general, for Φ to be the correct analysis of F, it must be the case
that
(i) Φ is necessary for F, which means that it is not possible for

something to satisfy F without also satisfying Φ.
(ii) Φ is sufficient for F, which means that it is not possible for
something to satisfy Φ without also satisfying F.
An analysis that satisfies conditions (i) and (ii) is said to be inten-

sionally adequate. Note that intensional adequacy entails extensional
adequacy, since if, in actual fact, a feature Φ is not shared by all and
only the Fs, then Φ is not necessary and sufficient for F. (But, to
repeat, extensional adequacy does not entail intensional adequacy.)
1.2.3 EXPLANATORY POWER OF CANDIDATE ANSWERS
Even intensional adequacy is not enough for an analysis to be correct.

For example, an analysis of consciousness which took consciousness
to consist in being conscious would not be correct, despite being inten-
sionally adequate. This is because analyzing consciousness as being
conscious lacks explanatory power, in the sense that we cannot use the
analysis to derive any of the known phenomena involving conscious-
ness (e.g., the association between certain kinds of brain processes and
certain kinds of conscious states) from more fundamental principles.
Contrast the analysis of consciousness as being conscious with the
analysis of hotness as being composed of particles with high mean kinetic
energy. The latter analysis does have explanatory power because we can
use it to derive various known phenomena involving hotness from
more fundamental physical principles. For example, we can derive
the conditions under which certain kinds of hot objects will cool
down.
In general, for an analysis to be correct, it must have explanatory
power.
6 INTRODUCTION
1.2.4 UNIVOCAL AND NON-UNIVOCAL ANALYSES
We have established that for an analysis to be correct, it must be inten-

sionally (hence extensionally) adequate and have explanatory power.
There remains one further point to clarify. All of the proposed anal-
yses listed at the start of this section are univocal, which means that
they take a single feature to explain the presence of F in all Fs. It
could turn out, however, that different kinds of Fs are F for different
reasons.
An equivalent way of putting the same point is that the correct
analysis of F could have a so-called disjunctive, or either-or, form
such as
x is F =df (x is Φ1 ) or (x is Φ2 ) or … or (x is Φn )
where Φ1 , Φ2 , … , Φn are different features appropriate for different
kinds of Fs. The way we stated the central question seems to presup-
pose that the correct analysis of truth is univocal; however, univocity
is not required of correct analyses. Indeed, all of the analyses of truth
considered in this book are non-univocal to some extent, and some
are more radically non-univocal than others.
1.3 NECESSARY BACKGROUND ISSUES FOR THE

CENTRAL QUESTION
The central question revolves around a fair number of issues from
‘truth bearers’ to ‘context sensitivity’. We address those issues before
sketching the plan of the book.
1.3.1 FALSITY
Truth has a natural counterpart: falsity. Consequently, you might

expect an analysis of truth to be paired with an analysis of falsity. It
turns out, however, that any analysis of truth can straightforwardly be
generalized to an analysis of falsity. This is because falsity is plausibly
analyzed as follows:
x is false =df the negation of x is true
INTRODUCTION 7
where the negation of the sentence ‘p’ is obtained by prefixing ‘p’

with the negation operator, namely, ‘it is not the case that’.1 For
example, the falsity of the sentence ‘It is raining in London’ consists
in the truth of the sentence ‘It is not the case that it is raining in
London’. Thus, if Φ is an analysis of truth, then we can substitute ‘is
Φ’ for ‘is true’ in the above analysis to obtain
x is false =df the negation of x is Φ.
We’ll assume such an analysis of falsity throughout.
1.3.2 TRUTH BEARERS
We now turn to issues that arise specifically for the analysis of truth.
The first issue: what kinds of objects are true? Equivalently: truth is
a property of what sort of thing?
In ordinary life, we most commonly predicate truth of two distinct
kinds of objects: sentences and beliefs. For example, we can say both
that the sentence ‘It is raining in London’ is true and that Ahmed’s
belief that it is raining in London is true. It turns out to be more
fruitful to focus on the truth of sentences, rather than the truth of
beliefs, for two reasons.
The first reason it’s more fruitful to focus on sentences than beliefs
is that, unlike sentences, which are just finite sequences of symbols,
we do not currently have a clear idea of how our beliefs are structured.
The most popular contemporary view about beliefs is that our beliefs
are something like brain processes. However, we are yet to locate
exactly which process in Ahmed’s brain is his particular belief that it
is raining in London.
The second reason it’s more fruitful to focus on sentences than
beliefs derives, in a sense, from the first. Because our beliefs are hid-
den from public view, we developed language in order to share our
beliefs. Consequently, every belief is capable of being expressed by
a sentence, which is true under exactly the same conditions as the
belief it expresses. For example, Ahmed’s belief that it is raining
in London is expressible by the sentence ‘It is raining in London’,
which, like Ahmed’s belief, is true if and only if it is in fact raining
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8 INTRODUCTION
in London. Thus, by analyzing truth for sentences, we automatically

get an analysis of truth for beliefs: what makes a belief true is being
expressible by a true sentence.
Reflecting the foregoing, we assume that the correct analysis of
truth has the following non-univocal form:
x is true =df (x is a belief and x is expressible by a true sentence) or

(x is a sentence and x is Φ)
where different theories of truth fill out Φ in different ways.

Having clarified how the analysis of truth for beliefs should go, we
will talk about truth in the remainder of the book as if it applied only
to sentences.
1.3.3 FOREIGN LANGUAGES
Since people differ in which language they use to express their beliefs,
a complete account of truth should explain what the truth of the sen-
tences of each language consists in. However, since languages differ
greatly in their syntax, any account of truth which is simultaneously
applied to all languages would, by necessity, have a very abstract char-
acter. Consequently, we prefer to analyze truth for each language
separately.
Given that this book is written in English, we focus on how to
analyze truth for sentences of English. It is important to clarify, how-
ever, that we do not take the truth of sentences of English to be more
fundamental than the truth of sentences of, say, German, Hindi, or
Mandarin Chinese. In particular, we do not suppose that the correct
account of truth for, say, German is the property of being synony-
mous with a true sentence of English. Rather, we suppose that the
correct analysis of truth for sentences has the form:
x is true =df (x is a sentence of English and x is Φ1 ) or

(x is a sentence of German and x is Φ2 ) or
(x is a sentence of Hindi and x is Φ3 ) or
(x is a sentence of Mandarin Chinese and x is Φ4 ) or...
INTRODUCTION 9
where Φ1 , Φ2 , Φ3 , Φ4 , … are distinct yet structurally similar proper-

ties. Since this book is written at an introductory level, we do not
attempt to generalize the theories of truth for English surveyed here
to other languages. Nevertheless, we hope the reader will not be left
in doubt that this could in principle be done.
For ease of expression, we will talk about truth in the remainder
of the book as if it applied only to sentences of English.
1.3.4 SCOPE AMBIGUITY
Is the following sentence true?
The Earth is flat and the Earth is circular or the Earth is spherical.
The correct answer is: it depends. In particular, the truth status of the
sentence depends on how the different components of the sentence
are grouped together. We can use brackets to make clear the possible
groupings:
1. (The Earth is flat and the Earth is circular) or the Earth is spherical.
2. The Earth is flat and (the Earth is circular or the Earth is spherical).
When grouped according to (1), the sentence asserts that one of the
following conditions obtains: (i) the Earth is flat and circular, (ii) the
Earth is spherical. Since condition (ii) does obtain, the sentence is
true according to grouping (1).
By contrast, when grouped according to (2), the sentence asserts
that both of the following conditions obtain: (i) the Earth is flat,
and (ii) the Earth is circular or spherical. Since condition (i) does not
obtain, the sentence is not true according to grouping (2).
Because sentences of English frequently admit different possible
groupings, and the way a sentence is grouped can affect its truth
status, a theory of truth should, strictly speaking, apply to sentences
that have been bracketed to force a unique grouping. However, since
this book is written at an introductory level, we will mostly gloss over
this issue, leaving the brackets implicit.
10 INTRODUCTION
1.3.5 LEXICAL AMBIGUITY
Scope ambiguity is not the only kind of ambiguity found in lan-

guage – there is also lexical ambiguity. To understand lexical ambi-
guity, consider whether the following sentence is true:
A bank is usually a good place to fish.
As before, the correct answer is: it depends. However, on this occasion,

whether the sentence is true does not depend on how it is grouped,
but rather on how the word ‘bank’ is interpreted.
In English, the word ‘bank’ has at least two possible interpreta-
tions: (i) a type of financial institution and (ii) a type of geographical
area – in particular, the type of geographical area which immediately
borders a river. According to interpretation (i), the sentence is false –
financial institutions, after all, do not usually contain fish. By con-
trast, according to interpretation (ii), the sentence is true, since rivers
do usually contain fish.
Just as we can resolve scope ambiguities by adding appropriate
brackets, we can resolve lexical ambiguities by adding appropriate
indices to ambiguous words and then providing a key that informs us
which interpretation the indices refer to. For example, in the case of
‘bank’, our key would contain the following two entries:
bank1 : The type of financial institution in which money is

deposited.
bank2 : The type of geographical area that borders a river.
We can then enforce a disambiguation of ‘bank’ by adding the

appropriate index:
A bank2 is usually a good place to fish.
Given that many words in English admit multiple possible interpreta-

tions, and how we choose to interpret those words can affect the truth
status of a sentence in which they appear, a theory of truth should,
INTRODUCTION 11
strictly speaking, apply to fully disambiguated sentences – sentences

that have both been bracketed to resolve all scope ambiguities and,
in addition, had indices added to resolve all lexical ambiguities.
However, since this book is written at an introductory level, we will,
like the brackets, leave the indices implicit.
1.3.6 TWO KINDS OF EQUIVALENCE
Before introducing the next key feature of truth, we need to clarify

some terminology.
We say the condition that p is materially equivalent to the condition
that q when in actual fact, either both conditions obtain or both
conditions fail to obtain. For example, supposing we are alone in the
universe, the condition that there is a conscious being in the room
is materially equivalent to the condition that there is an animal from
Earth in the room. The sentence ‘p if and only if q’ asserts that the
condition that p is materially equivalent to the condition that q.
We say the condition that p is necessarily equivalent to the condition
that q when in every possible world, either both conditions obtain or
both conditions fail to obtain. Necessary equivalence is much more
demanding than material equivalence. For example, because there is
a possible world in which intelligent extra-terrestrial life exists, the
condition that there is a conscious being in the room is not necessarily
equivalent to the condition that there is an animal from Earth in the
room. The sentence ‘Necessarily, p if and only if q’ asserts that the
condition that p is necessarily equivalent to the condition that q.
1.3.7 TRUTH CONDITIONS
The most central feature of truth is that the truth of each sentence
‘p’ is materially equivalent to the condition that p. For example, the
truth of ‘It is raining in London’ is materially equivalent to the con-
dition that it is raining in London, the truth of ‘Unemployment
is falling in the US’ is materially equivalent to the condition that
unemployment is falling in the US, and the truth of ‘The aver-
age temperature on Earth is rising’ is materially equivalent to the
condition that the average temperature on Earth is rising.
12 INTRODUCTION
Consequently, truth satisfies the following principle, which is

referred to in philosophy as the T-schema:
‘p’ is true if and only if p.
The T-schema might initially strike you as a mere tautology, about

as informative as the principle that p if and only if p. But appear-
ances can be misleading, and in this case they are. If the T-schema
strikes you as tautologous, then this is only because you speak English.
Consider, for example, the following instance of the T-schema:
‘It is raining in London’ is true if and only if it is raining in London.
If you translate this sentence into, say, French, then it would strike
a French speaker as far from trivial. This can be seen by going the
other way around and translating the corresponding French instance
of the T-schema into English:
‘Il pleut à Londres’ is true if and only if it is raining in London.
It should now be clear that, far from being a tautology, the

T-schema asserts a non-trivial equivalence between a linguistic con-
dition on the one hand and a ‘worldly’ condition on the other hand.
We refer to the condition that p as the truth condition of the sentence
‘p’, since it is the worldly condition under which ‘p’, in actual fact,
is true.
1.3.8 THE LIAR PARADOX
Because the T-schema captures the most central feature of truth, it

is a basic requirement on the correctness of an analysis of truth as Φ
that Φ satisfies the analogous Φ-schema:
‘p’ is Φ if and only if p.
Thus, the instances of the Φ-schema should at least be consistent with

our background knowledge. It turns out, however, that the T-schema
runs into consistency problems all by itself, and the consistency prob-
lems for the T-schema automatically transfer to the Φ-schema for any
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“Treasures of wickedness are of no profit, but righteousness delivereth
from death” (x. 2).
“Better a little in the fear of the Lord than a large treasure, and confusion
therewith” (xv. 16).
“The righteousness of the upright maketh his way straight, but the wicked
falleth by his wickedness” (xi. 5).
“The remembrance of the righteous is for blessing; but the name of the
wicked will rot” (x. 7).
“Guilt is the interpreter of fools, but favour that of the straightforward”

(xiv. 9).
“To do justice is joy to the righteous, and a terror to evil-doers” (xxi. 15).
“Like a fountain made turbid and a well that is corrupted, is the righteous
that yieldeth in the presence of the wicked” (xxv. 26).
“Where a man of honesty is, there is multitude of blessings; but he who

hasteneth to become rich will not be guiltless” (xxviii. 20).
“The lip of truth will be established for ever, but the tongue of falsehood
for a moment” (xii. 19).
“A witness of faithfulness is he who does not lie, [104]but he who uttereth

falsehood is a false witness” (xiv. 5). 7
“A lip of excellency becometh not a low man; how much less doth a lip of
falsehood a noble man!” (xvii. 7).
“Pride came, and shame came; but with the meek is wisdom” (xi. 2).
“Meekness cometh before honour” (xv. 33). “Pride cometh before the fall,
and haughtiness of spirit before the stumbling” (xvi. 18). “Let another
praise thee, and not thy mouth; a stranger, and not thy lips” (xxvii. 2).
“He is poor who worketh with a slack hand, but the hand of the
industrious maketh rich” (x. 4).
“Better is he who thinketh little of himself, and is a slave to himself, than

he who thinketh much of himself and lacketh bread” (xii. 9).
“The hand of the industrious shall rule, but the slack hand shall be
tributary” (xii. 24).
“In all labour there is profit; but when there is only a word of lips it leads
but to want” (xiv. 23).
“Also he who is lazy in his work is a brother to the man that destroyeth”
(xviii. 9).
“I passed by the field of a slothful man, and the vineyard of a man

wanting heart; and behold, thorns have come up over the whole of it; its
surface is covered with thistles, and its stone-fence is pulled down. And I
beheld, I turned my heart, I saw, I took instruction: a little of sleep, a little
of slumber, a little of joining the hands to lie down; then thy poverty
cometh like a traveller, and thy want like an armed man” (xxiv. 30–34).
[105]
“The righteous eateth to the fulness of his soul, but the belly of the
wicked shall want” (xiii. 25).
“Wine is a mocker, strong drink roareth, and every one that erreth therein
will not be wise” (xx. 1).
“Who hath woe? who hath sorrow? who hath contentions? who hath
complaining? who hath wounds without cause? who hath redness of eyes?
Those who tarry long at the wine; those who come to search mixed drink.
Do not look upon the wine though it be red, though it send forth its colour
through the cup, though it flow smoothly; in the end it biteth like a
serpent and stingeth like an asp; thine eyes shall see strange things, and
thy heart shall speak perverse things; and thou shalt be like one that lieth
in the midst of the sea, and like one that lieth on the top of the mast.
They have stricken me, shalt thou say, and I was not sick. They have
beaten me; I felt it not. When shall I awake? I will seek it yet again” (xxiii.
29–35).
“He who is greedy after gain troubleth his house, but he who hateth gifts
shall live” (xv. 27).
“He whose desire is wide stirreth up strife, but he who trusteth in the Lord
shall be fattened” (xxviii. 25).
“There are who spend liberally, and there is an increase; and there are
who withhold more than is right, and yet it leads to want” (xi. 24).
“Know well the state of thy flock; set thy heart to the droves; for treasure
is not for ever, nor a crown for generation and generation. When hay is
gone, and grass is spoilt, and the herbs of the field are gathered in, there
are lambs for thy clothing, and he-goats are the price of a field: and there
will be goats’ milk enough for thy food, for the food of thy house, and
maintenance for thy maidens’ (xxvii. 23–27). [106]
“Lust overcome is sweet to the soul; but to depart from evil is the
abomination of fools” (xiii. 19).
“Better is he who is long-suffering than a hero; and he who ruleth his

spirit is better than he who conquereth a city” (xvi. 32).
“Like an open town without a wall is the man whose spirit is without
restraint” (xxv. 28).
The following proverbs refer to the relation between husband and

wife, and between man and his neighbour as friend or enemy, father
and child, rich and poor, king and people:—
“He who hath found a wife hath found a good thing, and obtained favour
of the Lord” (xviii. 22).
“A virtuous wife is the crown of her husband, but a wicked woman is like
rottenness in his bones” (xii. 4).
“House and wealth are the inheritance of fathers, but a wise wife is from
the Lord” (xix. 14; chap. xxxi. 10 to end).
“He who revealeth a secret is a slanderer, but he who is faithful in spirit

covereth a thing” (xi. 13).
“Hatred stirreth up strifes, but love covereth all sins” (x. 12).
“Better is a meal of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred
therewith” (xv. 17).
“He who covereth transgression seeketh love, but he who repeateth a
matter separateth a friend” (xvii. 9).
“Open rebuke is better than secret love” (xxvii. 5).
“He who saith to the wicked, Thou art righteous, him shall the people
curse, nations shall abhor him; but to them that rebuke him shall be
delight, and a good blessing shall come upon them” (xxiv. 24, 25).
“Faithful are the wounds of a friend, but the kisses of an enemy are like
smoke” (xxvii. 6). [107]
“When there is no wood the fire goeth out; so when there is no tale-
bearer strife ceaseth” (xxvi. 20).
“A kind man doth good to his soul, and a cruel man troubleth his flesh”
(xi. 17).
“Rejoice not when thine enemy falleth, and let not thy heart be glad when
he stumbleth, lest the Lord see it and it displease Him, and He turn away
His wrath from him” (xxiv. 17, 18).
“The righteous knoweth the feelings of his cattle, but the heart of the
wicked is cruel” (xii. 10).
“He who curseth his father and his mother, his lamp shall be put out in
obscure darkness” (xx. 20).
“Children’s children are the crown of old men, and the glory of children
are their fathers” (xvii. 6).
“The eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his mother, the
ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young eagles shall eat it”
(xxx. 17).
“Where there is the instruction of the father, there is a wise son; but a
mocker will he be who heard no rebuke” (xiii. 1).
“He who spareth his rod hateth his son, and he who loveth him chastiseth
him early” (xiii. 24).
“Chastise thy son while there is hope, and let not thy soul turn to his
crying” (xix. 18).
“Train the lad in his way, and when he is old he will not depart from it”
(xxii. 6).
“Foolishness is bound in the heart of a child, but the rod of correction

shall drive it far from him” (xxii. 15).
“Withhold not correction from the child; for if thou beatest him with the
rod, he shall not die. Thou shalt beat him with the rod, and shalt deliver
his soul from death” (xxiii. 13, 14).
“The benevolent shall be blessed, for he hath given of his bread to the
poor” (xxii. 9). [108]
“The liberal soul shall be made fat, and he that stilleth the thirst of others
shall also have his thirst stilled” (xi. 25).
“He who despiseth his neighbour sinneth, but whoso is gracious to the
poor is happy” (xiv. 24).
“In the multitude of people is the glory of the king; but in the want of
people is the destruction of the prince” (xiv. 28).
“The king’s wrath is like messengers of death; but a wise man will pacify
it” (xvi. 14).
“The heart of a king is in the hand of the Lord like brooks of water; He
turneth it whithersoever He liketh” (xxi. 1).
On miscellaneous subjects:—
“There is that maketh himself rich, yet hath nothing; there is that maketh
himself poor, yet hath great riches” (xiii. 7).
“The heart knoweth its own bitterness, and a stranger doth not
intermeddle with its joy” (xiv. 10).
“If care is in the heart of man, let him still it; if a good thing, let him
brighten it up” (xii. 25).
“He is a guide to life who keepeth instruction, but he that refuseth reproof
misleadeth” (x. 17).
“Boast not thyself of to-morrow; for thou knowest not what a day may
bring forth” (xxvii. 1).
“All the ways of man are clean in his own eyes; but the Lord weigheth the
spirits” (xvi. 2).
Job, ‫‏איוב‬‎—The Book of Job consists of the following three parts:—
(a.) Introduction (i. and ii.).—God is figuratively represented as

presiding over a council of ministers (‫‏בני האלהים‬‎“sons of God”),
amongst whom also the accuser (‫‏השטן‬‎“the hinderer,” one who is
hostile to the [109]word of God) appears. While God praised the piety
of Job, the accuser doubted the purity of his heart, and suggested
that if any adversity were to befall Job he would no longer be pious;
Job, exposed to hard trials, remained firm in his faith in God. “Naked
came I forth from my mother’s womb, and naked shall I return
thither; the Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken: let the name
of the Lord be praised” (i. 21). “Skin for skin,” said the accuser, “and
everything that man hath, he giveth for his soul; but stretch now
forth thy hand and touch his bone and his flesh: surely he will take
leave of thee in thy presence” (ii. 5). The trial was granted. And
when Job’s wife was surprised that Job was still holding to his
integrity, adding “Take leave of God and die,” he replied, “Thou
speakest like the speaking of one of the wicked women. Are we to
accept of God the good, and shall we not accept the evil?”—“In all
this did Job not sin with his lips, and did not find fault with God” (i.
22). His friends came to see him, but felt so distressed that they sat
with him for seven days without uttering a word.
(b.) Discussion between Job and his friends Eliphaz, Bildad, Zophar,
and Elihu; Job asserting his innocence, and consequent inability to
see the justice of his afflictions; his friends contending that he has
sinned, and has been justly punished; Elihu attempts to justify Job’s
sufferings, on the plea that they are merely a reminder sent by God
that Job has sinned, and must seek reconciliation with God, who is
All-wise, All-good, and All-powerful; God addresses Job, and shows
him man’s inability to comprehend the [110]Divine power and wisdom
in the creation and in the ruling of the universe; whereupon Job
repents.
(c.) Conclusion.—God rebukes the friends of Job, that they have not
spoken rightly like His servant Job (xlii. 7), and richly compensates
Job for his sufferings and losses.
The book has no heading, and therefore we do not know by whom

or when it was written. There is, however, a tradition, mentioned in
the Talmud (Baba Bathra, p. 14b), that Moses wrote the Book of Job.
Even about Job himself it is impossible to ascertain at what time he
lived. But the description of his riches and the length of his life leads
us to think of the time of the patriarchs. His name is mentioned only
in one other book of the Bible. The prophet Ezekiel names him
together with Noah and Daniel as a righteous man who would, by
his piety, save himself in the time of general calamity, though he
would not be able to save his generation (Ezek. xiv. 14). There is
also an opinion that Job never existed at all. ‫‏איוב לא היה ולא נברא‬
‫אלא משל היה‬‎“Job never lived; nor has he had any existence; the
story is all only an allegory” (Babyl. Talm. Baba Bathra, 15a). This
dictum can only refer to the detailed account of the manner in which
the misfortune came upon Job, and the poetical discussion of Job
and his friends. But it is undeniable that a pious man of the name of
Job lived, and escaped from a calamity to which others succumbed;
since it is clear that Ezekiel refers to real and not to imaginary
personages. Job and his friends were not Israelites. The patriarch
lived in the land of Uz in Arabia; the friends came from Teman,
Shuah, Naamah, and Buz, in the south, [111]east, west, and north of
Uz. Like the Book of Jonah, this book conveys the lesson, ‫‏חסידי‬
‫אומות העולם יש להם חלק לעולם הבא‬‎“The pious of all nations
have a portion in the world to come” (Maim., Mishneh-torah I.
Hilchoth Teshubah, iii. 5). God rewards the righteous of all nations,
punishes those among them who deserve punishment, and pardons
the penitent.
The introduction and conclusion are written in prose, but the

principal part of the book is poetical, and consequently parallelism is
a predominant feature of the book.
The following are a few sentences from the book:—
“Shall we receive good at the hand of God, and shall we not receive evil?”
(ii. 10).
“The small and great are there (in the grave), and the servant is free from
his master” (iii. 19).
“Shall mortal man be more just than God? shall a man be more pure than
his Maker?” (iv. 17).
“Behold, happy is the man whom God correcteth: therefore despise not
thou the chastening of the Almighty” (v. 17).
“Is there not an appointed time to man upon earth? are not his days also
like the days of an hireling?” (vii. 1).
“He is wise in heart, and mighty in strength; who hath hardened himself
against him, and hath prospered?” (ix. 4).
“Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him” (xiii. 15).
“For I know that my Redeemer liveth, and he will rise in the end over the
dust” (xix. 25).
“And when my skin is gone, when worms have destroyed this body, and
when my flesh is no more, yet shall I see God” (xix. 26).
“And unto man he said, Behold, the fear of the Lord, [112]that is wisdom;
and to depart from evil, that is understanding” (xxviii. 28).
The following passages are noteworthy, on account of both their

lofty thought and their poetical form:—
Eliphaz mildly rebukes Job, exhorting him to repentance (iv.).
Job’s charge against the cruelty of his friends (v. 12–30).
Bildad’s view of God’s justice (viii. 3–13).
Job’s conception of God’s Omnipotence (ix. 2–12).
Zophar’s explanation of God’s justice (xi. 2–7, 10–15).
Job’s declaration of his faith in God (xiii. 6–16; xix. 23–27; xxiii. 3–12).
Job’s confession of man’s dependence on God’s wisdom (xxviii. 1, 2, 12–

28).
Job’s defence of his innocence (xxxi.).
Elihu’s defence of God’s justice (xxxiii. 8, 9, 12–30).
Job is shown his ignorance (xxxviii. 3–24); his impotence (xl. 9–14).
Job’s contrition (xlii. 2–6).
The three books, Psalms, Proverbs, and Job, are distinguished from
the rest of the Bible by their peculiar accents, which are on this
account called ‫‏מעמי אמ״ת‬‎“the accents of the books, ‫‏תהלים‬‎, ‫‏משלי‬‎
and ‫‏איוב‬‎.”
The Song of Solomon, ‫‏שיר השירים‬‎(lit., The Song of Songs = the
most poetical song).—The faithfulness of the beloved to her lover,
her resistance to all temptation, and the concentration of all her
thoughts on the well-being of her lover, form the theme of the book.
The relation between lover and beloved has been interpreted
allegorically as representing the relation between God and Israel.
The latter remains faithful to his God, throughout all vicissitudes of
fortune. “I am [113]for my lover, and my lover is for me,” is the centre
of this feeling of faith. According to the heading and the tradition,
King Solomon is the author of the book.
Ruth, ‫‏רות‬‎—The book contains the history of Ruth, a Moabite

woman, who, by her marriage with Boaz, became the founder of the
house of David. Elimelech of Beth-lehem in Judah, with his wife
Naomi and his two sons, left his country in time of famine in order to
stay in the land of Moab. There the two sons marry Moabite women,
Orpah and Ruth. Elimelech and the two sons die. Naomi returns to
Judah; Orpah, at the request of Naomi, remains in Moab and goes
back to her family, but Ruth insists on accompanying Naomi, saying,
“Whither thou goest I will go, and where thou lodgest I will lodge;
thy people shall be my people, and thy God my God: where thou
diest will I die, and there will I be buried: so the Lord do to me, and
more also, if ought but death will part thee and me” (i. 16, 17).
Naomi having lost her property, Ruth was obliged to glean ears of
corn in the fields in order to maintain herself and her mother-in-law.
She happened to glean in the field of Boaz, a near relative of
Elimelech. Boaz having noticed her, and having heard of her conduct
toward Naomi, married her; his son was Obed; the son of the latter
was Jesse, the father of David. Thus the virtues of Ruth, modesty,
faithfulness, and industry, were rewarded; this is one of the lessons
derived from the book. The principal object of the book, however, is
to show the origin of the house of David.
The Lamentations of Jeremiah, ‫‏איכה‬‎—The name of [114]the author is

not mentioned in the book, but tradition informs us that the prophet
Jeremiah composed these lamentations. The first four chapters are
alphabetical; in the third chapter there are three verses for each
letter; the fifth chapter is not alphabetical. The cause of the
lamentations is the catastrophe of the kingdom of Judah through the
victories of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, although neither
Nebuchadnezzar nor Babylon is mentioned in the book.
Ecclesiates, ‫‏קהלת‬‎—This book contains reflections on the vanity of

man’s labours and plans; whatever man aims at as the source of his
happiness and blessing proves in the end useless and deceptive.
Man is disappointed to find everything transient; he discovers just
people in misery, and wicked people in apparent comfort; he begins
to doubt whether virtue and wisdom are really conducive to true
happiness. Thus man, left to himself, is at a loss to find the right
way to happiness. The author therefore concludes his reflections
with the exhortation: “The end of the word in which everything is
heard is, Fear God, and keep His commandments, for that is the
whole of man. For every deed will God bring to account, together
with every hidden thought, whether good or bad” (xii. 13, 14).
Koheleth mentioned in the heading is King Solomon. The

philosophical reflections are frequently intermixed with proverb-like
lessons and maxims, of which the following are a few examples:—
“For in much wisdom is much grief; and he that increaseth knowledge
increaseth sorrow” (i. 18).
“To every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under the
heaven” (iii. 1). [115]
“The fool foldeth his hands together, and eateth his own flesh” (iv. 5).
“Better is an handful with quietness, than both the hands full with travail
and vexation of spirit” (iv. 6).
“Keep thy foot when thou goest to the house of God, and readiness to
hear is better than the fools’ giving of sacrifice; for they consider not that
they do evil” (iv. 17).
“Be not rash with thy mouth, and let not thine heart be hasty to utter any
thing before God: for God is in heaven, and thou upon earth; therefore let
thy words be few” (v. 1).
“When thou vowest a vow unto God, defer not to pay it; for He hath no
pleasure in fools: pay that which thou hast vowed” (v. 3).
“A good name is better than precious ointment; and the day of death
better than the day of one’s birth” (vii. 1).
“Be not hasty in thy spirit to be angry; for anger resteth in the bosom of
fools” (vii. 9).
“Be not righteous over much; neither make thyself over wise: why
shouldst thou destroy thyself?” (vii. 16).
“Be not over much wicked, neither be thou foolish: why shouldst thou die
before thy time?” (vii. 17).
“There is not a just man upon earth, that doth good, and sinneth not” (vii.
20).
“Let thy garments be always white; and let thy head lack no ointment” (ix.
8).
“A wise man’s heart is at his right hand; but a fool’s heart at his left” (x.
2).
“He that diggeth a pit shall fall into it; and whoso breaketh an hedge, a
serpent shall bite him” (x. 8). [116]
“He that observeth the wind shall not sow; and he that regardeth the
clouds shall not reap” (xi. 4).
“Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth, while the evil days
come not, nor the years draw nigh when thou shalt say, I have no
pleasure in them” (xii. 1).
“Then shall the dust return to the earth as it was, and the spirit shall
return to the God who gave it” (xii. 7).
Esther, ‫‏אסתר‬‎—The history of the conception and frustration of the

wicked plans of Haman against Mordecai and the Jews is described
in this book. Ahasuerus, king of Persia, sent Vashti, his wife, away,
and married Esther, a cousin of Mordecai. Haman, enraged against
the Jews because Mordecai did not bow before him, planned to kill
the Jews on the thirteenth of Adar; but Esther frustrated Haman’s
design; Haman himself and his ten sons were killed; and the Jews
were allowed to take up arms against those who attacked them. The
Jews defended themselves victoriously on the thirteenth of Adar; in
Shushan, the capital, also on the fourteenth. This deliverance was
the cause of the institution of Purim.
The name of the author is not mentioned; the book was probably
written by Mordecai and Esther (comp. Esther ix. 29).
Daniel, ‫‏דניאל‬‎—The author of this book is not named. The book is

called Daniel because it contains the history and the visions of
Daniel. According to a tradition mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud
(Baba Bathra, 15a), the men of the Great Synagogue wrote or edited
the book probably from trustworthy traditions, partly written, partly
oral. The last six [117]chapters seem to have been written by Daniel
himself; he speaks in them of himself in the first person.
The object of the book is to show that God is the Ruler of the
Universe. The author, therefore, gives, on the one hand, examples of
men of great piety and genuine faith in God—Daniel and his friends;
and, on the other hand, examples of men of great wickedness—
Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar; the former enjoyed glorious
victories, the latter received their due punishment. The style is
throughout bold and emphatic; the frequent heaping of synonyms is
to serve the purpose of emphasis. In the last chapters the author
shows that the misdeeds of the wicked and the sufferings of the
pious are foreseen by God, and that both the punishment of the
former and the redemption of the latter form part of the Divine plan
in the government of mankind. We are thus exhorted to remain firm
in our faith in time of oppression, and to wait patiently for
deliverance, which is sure to come.
Although Daniel belonged to those distinguished men to whom God

communicated coming events in visions, he is not classed among the
prophets, because he had no Divine message to bring to his fellow-
men, and he was not charged to address them in the name of God.
Daniel was brought to Babylon, together with other captives, in the
third year of Jehoiakim, and remained there during the reigns of
Nebuchadnezzar, Belshazzar, Darius the Mede, and the first years of
Cyrus the Persian. He distinguished himself by great piety and
wisdom, so that in a prophecy of Ezekiel (xiv. 14), in the sixth year
of the exile of King Jehoiachin, he is mentioned, together with Noah
and Job, as famous for piety, as one [118]of those whom God
protects from danger because of their righteousness, although their
piety could not save their fellow-men. The same prophet mentions
him as a wise man (xxviii. 3).
The book is divided into two parts: (A.) An account written in
Chaldee of Daniel’s wisdom and piety, with a Hebrew Introduction (i.
to vi.). (2.) The visions of Daniel in Chaldee and Hebrew (vii. to xii.).
In the introductory chapter the author narrates the principal facts of
the training of Daniel in Babylonian wisdom, and his great success at
the court of Nebuchadnezzar. Then follows the Chaldee portion,
including the following subjects:—
(1.) Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream.—The king demands that the sages

initiated in Babylonian wisdom shall tell him his dream, which he
himself has forgotten, and its interpretation. They cannot do it, and
many of them are put to death. Daniel arrests the slaughter; for he
prays to God, and God reveals to him the king’s dream.
When Daniel appeared before the king he began thus: “The secret
which the king wants to know, no wise men can tell. But there is a
God in heaven, the revealer of secrets, and He has let King
Nebuchadnezzar know what will come to pass in the remote future”
(ii. 27, 28). The dream was this: He saw a big statue, its head of
gold, breast and arms of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs and
feet of iron and clay. A large stone fell upon the legs of the statue,
broke them, and the whole statue fell together and was crushed into
pieces; then the stone grew larger, and filled the whole earth. The
following was the interpretation of the vision: The statue
represented a series of [119]earthly kingdoms; the gold was
Nebuchadnezzar, the silver referred to his successors, the brass to
the Persian government, the iron to the Greek, and the mixture of
iron and clay to the kingdoms that would then follow, all of which
would ultimately be overthrown, and the Divine kingdom would then
be recognised by all. Daniel was greatly rewarded; he and his friends
received high positions in the government of the empire.
(2.) Nebuchadnezzar erected a large statue, and commanded that at
certain times all should worship it; disobedience was to be punished
with death. Daniel’s friends did not bow before it, and were accused
before the king. They said to the king, “There is a God whom we
worship; He can save us from the burning furnace and from thy
hand, O king. And if He does not save us, let it be known to thee, O
king, that we shall not worship thy god, and not bow down before
the golden image which thou hast set up” (iii. 17, 18).
They were thrown into the furnace, and miraculously saved.

Thereupon Nebuchadnezzar sends letters to all the peoples of his
empire, testifying to the greatness of God, and narrating what
wonderful thing had occurred to him. He had a strange dream, and
none but Daniel was able to interpret it; the dream was literally
fulfilled according to Daniel’s interpretation. The dream, which, after
the manner of such phenomena, introduced and mingled together
diverse elements, was this: He saw a high tree with many branches
and much foliage. Suddenly an angel from heaven came, and
ordered the tree to be cut down, but the root to be left for seven
seasons, bound with fetters of iron and brass, in the midst of the
grass of the field. The heart of man [120]was to be taken from it, and
replaced by a heart of beasts. The interpretation was, that the
mighty Nebuchadnezzar would be removed from the society of man,
and live like a beast with beasts for seven seasons. This happened
to him just when he was boasting of his greatness and said, “Is this
not great Babylon which I have built for the royal house, in my great
power, and to my great glory?” (iv. 27). He was humbled, recognised
the dominion of God over the whole universe, and was again, after
seven seasons, restored to his former power and dignity. “Praised be
God,” he exclaimed, “whose deeds are all truth, and whose ways are
justice, and who can humble those who walk in pride” (Ibid. 34).
(3.) King Belshazzar, in the midst of a banquet, at which the holy
vessels of the Temple in Jerusalem were used, perceived a hand
writing on the wall opposite him strange signs which none could
read. Daniel was called, and read the writing: “Mene, mene, tekel
upharsin,” and explained it thus: The days of thy government are
counted and brought to a close; thou hast been weighed and found
wanting; thy kingdom is divided, and given to the Medes and
Persians (v. 25–28). That same night King Belshazzar was killed, and
the Mede Darius was made king (v. 30–vi. 1).
(4.) King Darius, advised by his officers, who sought to find an

opportunity for overthrowing Daniel, issued an order, that within
thirty days no god or other being except Darius should be prayed to,
and that transgressors against this decree should be punished with
death. Daniel prayed to God three times a day [121]at his open
window. He was thrown into the lions’ den; but God protected him
from the mouths of the lions. When he was taken out of the den, his
accusers were thrown into it, and the lions immediately devoured
them. Thus Darius was forced publicly to recognise the Omnipotence
of God.
(5.) A dream of Daniel is related by the author in Daniel’s own

words, who had written down the dream, and explained the chief
points. 8 The following is the dream:—He saw four beasts, viz., a lion,
a bear with three ribs in its mouth, a leopard with four wings and
four heads, and a fourth beast with iron teeth and ten horns, one of
the horns being small, but having “a mouth speaking haughtily.” In a
court of justice the latter beast was sentenced to death, and the
other beasts were to be deprived of their power; but respite was
granted to them for a time and a season. The royal power was given
to one who approached the judge appearing like a human being,
and not like any of the beasts. His rule was to remain for ever. The
interpretation of the dream is this: There will be four different
kingdoms; out of the fourth ten different kingdoms will be formed.
One of these will haughtily presume to oppose the Will of God, and
to abolish the festivals and the religion of the holy ones. It will
succeed for “a season, seasons, and half a season,” and will then be
utterly destroyed, whilst the rule of “the holy ones” 9 will in the end
be firmly established and continue for ever. [122]
The indefinite character of the vision shows that it was intended to

apply to all those oppressors of the Jews who at different times have
presumed, or still presume, to be able to abolish the religion of “the
holy ones.” Whether the oppression lasts a “season of seasons” (or
“a season and seasons”), i.e., a very long time, or “half a season,”
i.e., a very short time, the holy ones are exhorted to remain firm in
their faith in God’s justice. The truth of this vision is especially
illustrated by the failure of the attempts of Antiochus Epiphanes after
a temporary success. More definite are the numbers 2300 “evening-
mornings” (viii. 14), 1290 days and 1335 days (xii. 11, 12); but the
absence of any further description as to the date of the first of these
days leaves even to these numbers a certain degree of
indetermination. From the context we learn that they are somehow
connected with the persecution to which the Jews were subjected by
Antiochus Epiphanes. 2300 days (or 6 years 110 days) passed
between the decree of the Syrian king enforcing idolatry and the
peace with Lysias granting religious liberty; there were 1290 days
between the decree forbidding the practice of the holy religion and
the enforcement of idolatry in the Temple of Jerusalem, and 1335
days is the period between the latter event and the death of
Antiochus.
(B.) The second part contains visions of Daniel as written down by

himself.
(1.) In the third year of Belshazzar, Daniel had the following vision:—
Being in Susan, in the province of Elam, near the river Ulai, he saw a
ram with [123]two unequal horns pushing towards west, north, and
south. From the west came a goat with one horn, and overthrew the
ram; in the place of the one horn four horns grew up in all
directions; there was one small horn which pushed on against the
south, the east, and Palestine; it rose even against the host of
heaven and the chief of the host, and destroyed his holy place.
Daniel heard one holy one saying to another, “This state of things
will last till ‘evening-morning 2300.’ ” The angel Gabriel gave him the
interpretation of the vision: The ram represented the empire of the
Medes and the Persians, the goat that of the Greeks, out of which
four kingdoms would be formed; in one of these a wicked king
would venture to rise against the Prince of princes, but his power
would in the end be destroyed. Daniel was told to keep the vision
secret, for it referred to a distant future (viii. 26).
(2.) In the first year of Darius, son of Ahasuerus, of the seed of the
Medes, Daniel reflected on the seventy years of exile foretold by
Jeremiah, and fervently prayed to God for pardon and the
restoration of Jerusalem. At the end of his prayer the angel Gabriel
appeared to him, and told him that the hoped-for restoration would
not take place before the lapse of seventy weeks of trouble and
anxiety. There would elapse seven weeks before the “princely
anointed” (‫‏משיח נגיד‬‎) led the Jews back to Palestine; sixty-two
weeks of trouble and anxiety were predicted for the time of the
rebuilding of Jerusalem and the Temple; and one week’s misery on
the arrival of a new prince or governor, who would strengthen the
covenant of the enemies and [124]entirely suspend the Divine Service
in the Temple for a short time. 10
(3.) In the third year of Cyrus, king of Persia, Daniel, after three
weeks’ mourning and fasting, had the following vision on the twenty-
fourth day of the first month:—He saw near the river Tigris
(Hiddekel) a man of extraordinary appearance, who told him that he
came in answer to his prayers; that for twenty-one days (x. 13) he
was opposed by the prince of the kingdom of Persia, and had on his
side only one of the princes, Michael. Future events are foretold: the
fall of Persia, the division of the Greek kingdom, the wars between
the Northern country (Syria) and the Southern (Egypt), the troubles
of the Jews, the ultimate deliverance of the Jews out of danger, and
the glorious victory of the teachers “who taught many, and led them
to righteousness” (‫‏המשבילים ומצדקי הרבים‬‎xii. 3). When Daniel
asked, “Till when have we to wait for the end of these wondrous
things?” (‫‏עד מתי קץ הפלאות‬‎Ibid. 6), he was told, “After a season,
seasons, and a half (‫‏למועד מועדים וחצי‬‎Ibid. 7) 11 all these things
will come to an end.” He further asks, “What then?” He is told, “The
things must remain sealed till the time of the end (‫‏עד עת קץ‬‎Ibid.
9), when the wise and good (‫‏משכלים‬‎) will understand them.” The
vision ends with the words addressed to Daniel: “But thou go toward
the end, and thou wilt rest, and rise for thy lot at the end of the
days” (xii. 13). [125]
Ezra, ‫‏עזרא‬‎—The Book of Ezra relates the first return of the Jews
under Zerubbabel from Babylon to Palestine by the permission of
King Cyrus (‫‏כורש‬‎) of Persia, the construction of the altar, the
foundation and the building of the Temple by permission of King
Darius. It also describes the second settlement of Jews from Babylon
in Palestine under Ezra, the Scribe, in the reign of Artaxerxes, and
his energy in purifying the community from intermarriages with
heathen people. The book is written in Hebrew, with the exception
of iv. 8–vii. 27, which includes several documents written in Chaldee
by the Persian kings. The author of the book is probably Ezra; he
speaks of himself in the first person (vii. 28; viii. 1, &c.); he is also
named as the author of the book in the Babylonian Talmud; and
lastly, the name of the book is Ezra, although Ezra is only mentioned
in the second half of the book. The special merit of Ezra was the
promotion of the study of the Law; his name is followed by the title,
“A ready scribe of the Law of Moses” (‫‏סופר מהיר בתורת ה׳‬‎vii. 6),
and “Scribe of the words of the commandments of the Lord and His
statutes for Israel” (‫‏ספר דברי מצות ה׳ וחקיו על ישראל‬‎vii. 11); the
task he set to himself was “to study the Law of God (‫‏לדרוש את‬
‫תורת ה׳‬‎), and to practise it, and to teach in Israel Law and
judgment” (vii. 10).
Nehemiah, ‫‏נחמיה‬‎—The heading probably indicates the author,

“Words of Nehemiah, son of Hachaliah.” 12 The book contains the
history of Nehemiah’s visit to Jerusalem by the permission of King
Artaxerxes, and [126]the building of the walls of Jerusalem under
Nehemiah’s supervision, in spite of the opposition of Sanballat and
Tobiah the Ammonite; his example of disinterestedness and of
liberality towards the poor, which is followed by the princes and the
rich; the reading and expounding of the Law by Ezra; the celebration
of the festival of the first of Tishri and of Tabernacles; the renewal of
the covenant “to walk in the Law of God, which was given through
Moses the servant of God,” to keep Sabbath, to abstain from
intermarrying with the heathen, and to contribute towards
maintaining the Sanctuary; the provision for filling Jerusalem with
inhabitants by selecting by lot one-tenth of the general population to
dwell in the holy city; the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem; and
Nehemiah’s energy in enforcing the laws of Sabbath and of
marriages. The two books Ezra and Nehemiah are also called by
some “two books of Ezra,” and by some “the book of Ezra.”
Nehemiah is written in Hebrew.
The Chronicles, ‫‏דברי הימים‬‎—The two books of Chronicles contain
the following three parts: (1) Genealogical tables (I., i.–ix.); (2) the
history of the death of King Saul, the history of David and Solomon
(I., x.–II., ix.); (3) the history of the kingdom of Judah from
Rehoboam till the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (II.,
x.–xxxvi.). Special attention has been given by the author to the
arrangements made at various periods for the Temple-service, by
King David (I., xxiii. sqq.), King Hezekiah (II., xxix.), and King Josiah
(II., xxxiv., xxxv.).
The author is not named in the book; according to the tradition it is

Ezra. As the genealogical tables [127]give six generations after
Zerubbabel (I., iii. 19–24), we may assume that the author wrote
about fifty years after Zerubbabel; that is, the last years of Ezra and
Nehemiah.
The sources from which the author derived his information were,
besides the Biblical books, the following:—The book of the kings of
Judah; the book of the kings of Israel, registers probably kept in the
Temple archives; the histories of Samuel the Seer, Nathan the
prophet, and Gad the Seer; the prophecy of Ahijah of Shilo; the
visions of Jedo; the Midrash of the prophet Iddo; the history of Jehu,
son of Hanani; the history of Isaiah, son of Amoz, and the history of
Hozai.
This is the last book of the series of Holy Writings. Books that were
written later, whatever their intrinsic value may be, were not
considered holy, and were not received into this collection. There are
a number of books known as Apocrypha (‫‏גנוזים‬‎), lit. “Hidden things”
or “put aside,” that is, kept separate from the Holy Scriptures. They
were not considered as genuine, as they consisted of a mixture of
fact and fiction, truth and error. They were, however, not suppressed
or forbidden; in the Talmud several quotations from these books are
met with. The following are the principal books belonging to the
Apocrypha:—
(1.) The Book of Wisdom, or the Wisdom of Solomon. Wisdom based

on the fear of God, and guided by it, is the source of man’s true
happiness, and if wisdom and virtue are not rewarded by success in
mundane affairs, the reward is sure to come in the future world.
This is the quintessence of the lessons taught in this book. [128]The
kings and potentates of the earth are frequently exhorted to be just
and kind towards their people, and to remember that they are but
human beings, weak and mortal, like the rest of mankind; wisdom
alone can raise them to higher perfection and happiness.
“For the very true beginning of her is the desire of discipline, and the care
of discipline is love. And love is the keeping of her laws; and the giving
heed unto her laws is the assurance of incorruption. And incorruption
maketh us near God. Therefore the desire of wisdom bringeth to a
kingdom. If your delight be then in thrones and sceptres, O ye kings of
the people, honour wisdom, that ye may reign for evermore” (vi. 17–21).
“For regarding not wisdom, they got not only this hurt, that they knew not
the things which were good, but also left behind them to the world a
memorial of their foolishness, so that in the things wherein they offended
they could not so much as be hid. But wisdom delivered from pain those
that attended upon her. When the righteous fled from his brother’s wrath,
she guided him into right paths, shewed him the kingdom of God, and
gave him knowledge of holy things that made him rich in his travels, and
multiplied the fruit of his labours” (x. 8–10).
(2.) The Wisdom of Jesus, son of Sirach.—Proverbs, maxims, and

moral lessons collected by Joshua (Jesus), son of Sirach of
Jerusalem. After having studied the Law, the Prophets, and the other
Holy Writings, he thought it advisable to write a book on knowledge
and wisdom for those who seek instruction, in order to lead them to
greater obedience to the Law. Joshua’s grandson migrated from
Palestine to Egypt, and translated [129]the work of his grandfather
into Greek for those who could not read the Hebrew original. The
translation was made in the thirty-eighth year of King Euergetes II.
of Egypt (3888 a.m.).
The contents of the book are similar to those of the Proverbs of

Solomon: the author recommends the acquisition of wisdom,
patience, faith in God, meekness, obedience of children to parents,
charity, cautiousness in the use of the tongue, temperance, honesty,
and the like. As models of piety and wisdom the principal heroes in
the Bible, from Adam to Joshua, son of Jehozadak, are named, and
in addition to these Simon the high priest.
“My son, if thou come to serve the Lord, prepare thy soul for temptation.
Set thy heart aright, and constantly endure, and make not haste in time of
trouble. Cleave unto him, and depart not away, that thou mayest be
increased at thy last end. Whatsoever is brought upon thee take
cheerfully, and be patient when thou art changed to a low estate. For gold
is tried in the fire, and acceptable men in the furnace of adversity. Believe
in him, and he will help thee: order thy way aright, and trust in him” (ii.
1–6).
“But he that giveth his mind to the law of the Most High, and is occupied
in the meditation thereof, will seek out the wisdom of the most ancient,
and be occupied in prophecies. He will keep the sayings of most renowned
men, and where subtle parables are, He will be there also. He will seek
out the secrets of grave sentences, and be conversant in dark parables”
(xxxix. 1–3).
(3.) Baruch.—The book may be divided into two [130]parts. In the

first part Baruch, son of Nerijah, the amanuensis of the prophet
Jeremiah, addresses, in Babylon, Jehoiachin, the captive king of
Judah, and the other captive Jews; they send money to Jerusalem
for sacrifices, with a letter exhorting their brethren to return to God,
and comforting them with the prospect of a glorious future. The
second part contains a letter of Jeremiah to his brethren in
Jerusalem denouncing idolatry.
The letters are probably not genuine, not being in harmony with the
facts related in the books of Jeremiah and Kings.
(4.) The Book of Tobit.—Tobit, of the tribe of Naphtali, a good and

pious man, was one of those who were carried away into the
Assyrian captivity. One of the charitable acts to which he devoted
himself with special zeal was the burying of the dead. Twice was
misfortune brought upon him for practising this deed of piety. Once
he had to flee, and to remain away from his family in misery and
want, and a second time something fell into his eyes, and he
became blind. In both cases he was saved out of his trouble, and
was greatly rewarded for his patience, his faith in God, and his
perseverance in the performance of the Divine commandments. The
author of the book is not known.
(5.) Judith.—An incident of Jewish history during the Persian rule.

Judith is set forth as an ideal of piety, beauty, courage, and chastity.
Holofernes, a general in the service of Nebuchadnezzar, king of
Assyria, conquers many lands, but meets with vigorous resistance in
Judea; he besieges Bethulia and endeavours to suppress the Jewish
religion. He falls by the [131]hands of Judith. Thus the stratagem and
the courage of the Jewish heroine, combined with the plans of
Divine justice, frustrated the wicked plans of the heathen conqueror,
and delivered the besieged city.
(6.) Additions to the Books of Daniel and Ezra, containing—
(a.) The song of the three men in the furnace (Dan. iii.).
(b.) The false charges brought against Susanna, and her deliverance
through Daniel.
(c.) Bel and the Dragon. Cyrus, the Persian, worshipped these idols,
but was convinced by Daniel that they had no claim whatever to
man’s worship.
(d.) The apocryphal Book of Esdras, containing portions of the Books

of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah; only chaps. iii. and iv. being
original. In these it is related how Zerubbabel distinguished himself
before King Darius in describing Woman and Truth as the mightiest
rulers of mankind, and thus obtained permission to return to
Palestine and rebuild the Temple. A second apocryphal Book of
Esdras is named, in which Ezra is represented as a prophet
addressing his brethren in the name of God, and telling them the
visions he had.
(7.) The Books of the Maccabees.—Three books containing the

history of the Maccabees, and various episodes of the wars against
the Syrian oppressors, both legendary and historical.
Sixth Principle.—“I firmly believe that all the words of the Prophets
are true.”
By “the Prophets” the prophets thus designated in [132]the Bible are

to be understood who have proved themselves to be the true
messengers of God, and were accepted as such by the people. They
either counselled the people what to do under various
circumstances, in times of peace and in times of war, in times of
security and in times of danger, or they announced the coming
catastrophe as a punishment sent by the Almighty for disobedience,
and foretold future happiness and prosperity in case of improvement
and return to God. Those prophecies that referred to the proximate
future have been verified by subsequent events, and so also will
those prophecies that refer to the remote future and have not yet
been fulfilled.
“A prophet out of thy midst, of thy brethren, like unto me, will the
Lord thy God raise up unto thee; unto him ye shall hearken” (Deut.
xviii. 15). “The former things, behold, they are come to pass, and
new things do I declare; before they will spring forth, I shall let you
hear” (Isa. xlii. 9). “I have also spoken unto the prophets, and I
have multiplied visions, and by the ministry of the prophets have I
used similitudes” (Hosea xii. 11). “And by a prophet the Lord
brought Israel out of Egypt, and by a prophet was he preserved”
(Ibid. 14).
In the sixth article we declare our belief in the fact that the Almighty
has communicated His Will to human beings, although we are
incapable of forming a clear and definite idea of the manner in which
such communication took place. The selection of the individual for
the office of a prophet, as well as of the time, the place, and the
object of the Divine communication, is dependent solely on the Will
of God, whose Wisdom [133]and Plan no mortals are able to fathom.
We know only the fact that Malachi closed the series of Prophets,
but are ignorant of the reason why since Malachi no human being
has “found a vision from the Lord.” Mankind is, however, not
altogether deprived of the benefit of prophecy; the holy book need
only be opened, and the message of the prophets is heard once
more.
Seventh Principle.—“I firmly believe that the prophecy of Moses was

a direct prophecy, and that Moses was the chief of the prophets,
both of those who preceded him and of those who followed him.”
All that has been said with regard to the sixth article applies to the
prophecy of Moses. There is, however, this distinction between the
words of Moses and the words of other prophets:—whilst other
prophets chiefly addressed their own generation, blaming their
brethren for disobedience to the Divine Law, threatening with
punishments and comforting with blessings of which experience was
to be made in the remote future, Moses addresses all times and
generations, communicating to them laws “for all generations,”
“everlasting statutes,” “the things which have been revealed for us
and our children for ever.” He is therefore proclaimed by the
Almighty as the greatest prophet. When Miriam and Aaron had
spoken against Moses, God rebuked them, saying, “If there be
among you a prophet of the Lord, I will make myself known unto
him in a vision, I will speak with him in a dream. My servant Moses
is not so; he is faithful in all my house; with him will I speak mouth
to mouth, even manifestly, and not in dark speeches; and the form
of the Lord shall he behold” (Num. xii. 6–8). The [134]Torah
concludes with the praise of Moses, as follows: “And there hath not
arisen a prophet since in Israel like unto Moses, whom the Lord
knew face to face: in all the signs and the wonders, which the Lord
sent him to do in the land of Egypt, to Pharaoh, and to all his
servants, and to all his land; and in all the mighty hand, and in all
the great terror, which Moses wrought in the sight of all Israel”
(Deut. xxxiv. 10–12).
The phrase “knew God face to face,” or “I will speak with him mouth
to mouth,” and the like, denotes figuratively “the clearest, most
direct, and most simple communication,” the figure being taken from
the way in which men communicate to each other things when they
desire to be clearly understood, and to leave no doubt as to the
truth and the meaning of the communication.
Eighth Principle.—“I firmly believe that the Law which we possess

now is the same which has been given to Moses on Sinai.”
The whole Torah, including both history and precepts, is of Divine

origin; nothing is contained in the Torah that was not revealed to
Moses by the Almighty, although we do not know in what manner
Moses received the information. The history of preceding
generations was probably handed down to his time by tradition; in
part it may have been contained in documents then extant, as is
likely to have been the case with the various genealogies mentioned
in the Pentateuch. But it was by Divine inspiration that Moses knew
to distinguish between truth and error, between fiction and reality.
The events recorded in the Pentateuch are to demonstrate and to
keep constantly [135]before our eyes the fact that there is a higher
Power that ordains the fate of men and nations according to their
deeds. Everything is described in a simple and objective manner.
Although the whole Torah is the work of Moses, the great prophet
speaks of himself everywhere in the third person, except in the Book
of Deuteronomy, in which he records his addresses to the people in
the last year of his life.
The last few verses, which describe the death of Moses, the
mourning of the Israelites for the death of their teacher, and his
exaltation above all other prophets, have been added to the Torah
by Joshua the son of Nun, the leader of the Israelites after the death
of Moses. Thus, from that day until the present the Torah, in its
integrity, has been in the hands of the children of Israel. It was
guarded as the most valuable national treasure, and although there
have been not a few generations which were corrupt and idolatrous,
Israel has never been entirely bereaved of pious and faithful
worshippers of the true God; and when in one generation or period
the study and the practice of the Torah were neglected, they were
resumed with greater vigour and zeal in the next.
There is a tradition recorded in the Talmud that after the Babylonian

exile Ezra, the Scribe, replaced the ancient Hebrew characters in
which the Torah had originally been written by the square characters
still in use. Nothing, however, was omitted from or added to the
contents of the Torah, when the present forms of the letters were
introduced by Ezra. In the scrolls of the Law the letters were not
provided with vowel-points and accents; the manner in which the
words, [136]phrases, and sentences were to be read was a subject of
oral teaching. Also many explanations and details of the laws were
supplemented by oral teaching; they were handed down by word of
mouth from generation to generation, and only after the destruction
of the second Temple were they committed to writing. The latter
are, nevertheless, called Oral Law (‫‏תורה שבעל פה‬‎), as
distinguished from the Torah or Written Law (‫‏תורה שבכתב‬‎), which
from the first was committed to writing. Those oral laws which were
revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai are called ‫‏הלכה למשה מסיני‬‎
“Laws given to Moses on Mount Sinai.” There are several passages in
the Bible from which it appears that a certain unwritten law must
have supplemented the written Law; e.g., when a man was found in
the wilderness gathering sticks on the Sabbath-day, the persons who
discovered him brought him to Moses. They must have been taught
before, that the gathering of sticks constituted a ‫‏מלאכה‬‎, labour
prohibited on the Sabbath-day, although this had not been distinctly
stated in the written Sabbath-laws. Had this not been the case the
Sabbath-breaker could not have been put to death, since he would
have committed the sin in ignorance. The same can be said of the
man who cursed the name of God; he must have known that cursing
the name of God was a capital crime; for he would not have been
put to death if the Israelites had not yet been taught that death
would be inflicted for such an act. The question which the prophet
Haggai (ii. 11) addressed to the priests, and the answers which the
priests gave, lead to the conclusion that the details of the laws on
uncleanness and cleanness (‫‏טומאה וטהרה‬‎) must have been known
to [137]the priests and the prophets to a greater extent than has
been explained in the written Law. Besides, there were many
precepts that came at once into force. These must have been fully
explained to the people, who were anxious to obey the word of God.

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Jc Beall and Ben Middleton

To Shirley, for her endless love and support. — BM

D The Indirect Liar 161

1.1 THE CENTRAL QUESTION

More briefly: what is truth?

1.2 SHAPE OF THE CENTRAL QUESTION

• What feature do all and only the conscious beings have in

The first question has mostly been investigated by philosophers and

The second question has mostly been investigated by philosophers

where Φ is the feature taken by the analysis to answer the ‘what is

Although experimental observations were helpful in analyzing the

1.2.1 EXTENSIONAL ADEQUACY OF CANDIDATE ANSWERS

The most obvious requirement for an analysis of F to be correct is that

1.2.2 INTENSIONAL ADEQUACY OF CANDIDATE ANSWERS

Extensional adequacy alone is not enough for an analysis to be cor-

it is impossible for a being to be conscious without also being from

(i) Φ is necessary for F, which means that it is not possible for

An analysis that satisfies conditions (i) and (ii) is said to be inten-

1.2.3 EXPLANATORY POWER OF CANDIDATE ANSWERS

Even intensional adequacy is not enough for an analysis to be correct.

1.2.4 UNIVOCAL AND NON-UNIVOCAL ANALYSES

We have established that for an analysis to be correct, it must be inten-

1.3 NECESSARY BACKGROUND ISSUES FOR THE

Truth has a natural counterpart: falsity. Consequently, you might

where the negation of the sentence ‘p’ is obtained by prefixing ‘p’

x is false =df the negation of x is Φ.

We’ll assume such an analysis of falsity throughout.

1.3.2 TRUTH BEARERS

in London. Thus, by analyzing truth for sentences, we automatically

x is true =df (x is a belief and x is expressible by a true sentence) or

where different theories of truth fill out Φ in different ways.

1.3.3 FOREIGN LANGUAGES

x is true =df (x is a sentence of English and x is Φ1 ) or

where Φ1 , Φ2 , Φ3 , Φ4 , … are distinct yet structurally similar proper-

1.3.4 SCOPE AMBIGUITY

Is the following sentence true?

1.3.5 LEXICAL AMBIGUITY