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Nour El Madhoun
Ioanna Dionysiou
Emmanuel Bertin Editors

Blockchain and
Smart-Contract
Technologies
for Innovative
Applications
Blockchain and Smart-Contract Technologies
for Innovative Applications
Nour El Madhoun • Ioanna Dionysiou •
Emmanuel Bertin
Editors

Blockchain and
Smart-Contract Technologies
for Innovative Applications
Editors
Nour El Madhoun Ioanna Dionysiou
ISEP (Institut Supérieur d’Électronique de Department of Computer Science
Paris) University of Nicosia
Paris, France Nicosia, Cyprus

Emmanuel Bertin
Orange Innovation
Caen, France

ISBN 978-3-031-50027-5 ISBN 978-3-031-50028-2 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50028-2

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland
AG 2024
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
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Preface

Blockchain and smart contracts represent a major technological advance, paving

the way to innovative applications in a variety of fields. These technologies have
not only redefined financial transaction methods, but also infused new dynamism
into art, telecommunications, supply chain management, healthcare, and many other
sectors. The book Blockchain and Smart-Contract Technologies for Innovative
Applications offers a detailed exploration of blockchain and smart-contract tech-
nologies, highlighting the variety and richness of innovative applications that they
enable.
Part I provides a general introduction. In chapter “Fundamentals of Blockchain
and Smart Contracts”, the fundamentals of blockchain and smart contracts are
presented. Chapter “Smart Contract: The Contract Automation Climax. Back-End
and Front-End Legal Implications” deals with contract automation focusing on
the legal implications from a back-end and front-end perspective. Finally, chapter
“Designing Future Sustainable Cryptocurrencies: Principles and Expectations”
presents a forward-looking approach to the sustainable design of cryptocurrencies,
anticipating the principles and expectations of the future.
Part II presents a series of in-depth analyses of blockchain and smart contract
technologies. Chapter “A Taxonomy on Blockchain-Based Technology in the
Financial Industry: Drivers, Applications, Benefits, and Threats” offers a detailed
taxonomy of blockchain-based financial applications, identifying drivers, bene-
fits, applications, and threats. Chapter “Scientific Workflows Management with
Blockchain: A Survey” examines the potential of blockchain for scientific workflow
management.
Part III explores the exciting world of NFTs. Chapter “Tokenization of Fine Arts:
Revolutionizing the Fine Arts Industry with Blockchain” looks at the tokenization
of fine arts, highlighting how blockchain is revolutionizing the art industry. Chapter
“VeraciTIX: An NFT-Based Event Ticketing System” introduces VeraciTIX, an
innovative proposal for event ticketing using NFTs.
Finally, Part IV focuses on ontologies and telecommunications applications using
blockchain technology. Chapter “Auto-generation of Blockchain-Based Distributed
Applications Using Ontologies” describes how ontologies enable the generation

v
vi Preface

of distributed applications based on blockchain. Chapters “Blockchain and Smart

Contracts for Telecommunications: The Whys and Wherefores” and “Distributed
Ledger Technology for Next-Generation Cellular Networks: A SWOT Analysis”
offer a comprehensive perspective on the growing importance of blockchain in the
telecommunications sector, including a SWOT analysis of next-generation cellular
networks.
The book Blockchain and Smart-Contract Technologies for Innovative Applica-
tions is an essential resource for all those aiming to deepen their understanding of
blockchain and smart-contract technologies. In addition to demystifying these tech-
nologies, the book offers a detailed exploration of their innovative applications. It is
aimed not only for those who want to understand the technological fundamentals,
but also for those who are curious to discover how blockchain and smart contract
technologies are revolutionizing many sectors.

Paris, France Nour El Madhoun

Nicosia, Cyprus Ioanna Dionysiou
Caen, France Emmanuel Bertin
Acknowledgments

We express our sincere gratitude to all the authors for their significant contributions
to each chapter. We also thank the editors and reviewers for their proofreading work,
ensuring that each chapter met high standards:
Badis Hammi, EPITA Engineering School, France
Baptiste Hemery, Orange Labs, France
Daniel Alejandro Maldonado Ruiz, Escuela Politécnica Nacional (EPN), Ecuador
Davide Frey, INRIA, France
Damien Graux, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
Dimitri Saingre, Davidson consulting, France
El-Hacen Diallo, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, France
Emmanuel Bertin, Orange Labs, France
Fariba Ghaffari, IRT b-com, France
Guy Pujolle, Sorbonne Université, France
Ioanna Dionysiou, University of Nicosia, Cyprus
Jenny Torres, Escuela Politécnica Nacional (EPN), Ecuador
Kevin Atighehchi, Université Clermont Auvergne, France
Khaldoun Al Agha, Université Paris-Saclay, France
Line Guffond Le Goanvic, 360 Vision & Perspectives, France
Lina Mroueh, ISEP Engineering School, France
Lucas Sguerra, Eniblock, France
Meroua Moussaoui, Orange Labs, France
Mohamed Ali Kandi, IRIT, France
Mustapha-Kamal Benramdane, Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers
(CNAM), France
Nischal Aryal, Orange Labs, France
Nour El Madhoun, ISEP Engineering School, France
Nouredine Tamani, ISEP Engineering School, France
Rachid Guerraoui, EPFL, Switzerland
Rashid Boudour, Université Badji Mokhtar-Annaba, Algeria
Saad El Jaouhari, ISEP Engineering School, France

vii
viii Acknowledgments

Samia Bouzefrane, Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers (CNAM), France

Sara Tucci-Piergiovanni, CEA-List, France
Shyam Mohan, Sri Chandrasekarendra Saraswathi Viswa Maha Vidyalaya, India
Souvik Sengupt, IONOS, Germany
Tiphaine Henry, CEA-List, France
Tristan Bilot, Université Paris-Saclay, France
Wafa Njima, ISEP Engineering School, France
Yackolley Amoussou-Guenou, Université Paris Panthéon-Assas, France
Finally, we are deeply grateful to Mary James, Olivia Ramya Chitranjan, John
Barthelemy, and Brian Halm at Springer for their constant help and support
throughout this project.
Contents

Part I Introduction to Blockchain and Smart-Contract

Technologies
Fundamentals of Blockchain and Smart Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Fahad Rahman, Chafiq Titouna, and Farid Nait-Abdesselam
Smart Contract: The Contract Automation Climax. Back-End
and Front-End Legal Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Roberto Alma and Lorenzo Piatti
Designing Future Sustainable Cryptocurrencies: Principles
and Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Behzad Esmaeilian, Mark Jamison, Joseph Sarkis, and Sara Behdad

Part II Surveys on Blockchain and Smart-Contract Technologies

A Taxonomy on Blockchain-Based Technology in the Financial
Industry: Drivers, Applications, Benefits, and Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Andry Alamsyah and Syahputra Syahrir
Scientific Workflows Management with Blockchain: A Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Tiphaine Henry and Sara Tucci-Piergiovanni

Part III NFT Applications

Tokenization of Fine Arts: Revolutionizing the Fine Arts Industry
with Blockchain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Teesta Bhandare and Mohamed Ali Kandi
VeraciTIX: An NFT-Based Event Ticketing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Ryan Ward, Komei Jo, Naipeng Dong, Bill Owens, and Marius Portmann

ix
x Contents

Part IV Ontologies and Telecommunications Applications in

Blockchain Technology
Auto-generation of Blockchain-Based Distributed Applications
Using Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Muhammad Uzair Qureshi, Damien Graux, Fabrizio Orlandi, and Declan
O’Sullivan
Blockchain and Smart Contracts for Telecommunications: The
Whys and Wherefores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Meroua Moussaoui, Emmanuel Bertin, and Noel Crespi
Distributed Ledger Technology for Next-Generation Cellular
Networks: A SWOT Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Nischal Aryal, Fariba Ghaffari, Emmanuel Bertin, and Noel Crespi

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
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 Part I
Introduction to Blockchain and
Smart-Contract Technologies
Fundamentals of Blockchain and Smart
Contracts

Fahad Rahman, Chafiq Titouna, and Farid Nait-Abdesselam

Abstract In this chapter, we explore the core principles of Blockchain technology

and smart contracts, offering insights into their functionality and implementa-
tion across different sectors. Blockchain technology stands distinguished for its
superior performance compared to its counterparts. It is rooted in a trustless
framework, guaranteeing immutable records, transparency, unwavering availability,
and pseudonymity in the recording of transactions. Its various forms—Public,
Private, and Consortium—have been effectively applied in real-world scenarios
including Cryptocurrencies (programmable money), FinTech, and Healthcare. One
of the most impactful features of blockchain is the smart contract. These are
autonomous codes programmed to execute automatically when specific predeter-
mined conditions are met. Smart contracts contribute to the reduction of transaction
expenses, performance enhancement, and augmentation of trust and transparency
in business dealings. The combined innovations of blockchain and smart contracts
are poised to transform the modes of business and interpersonal interactions. Even
though Blockchain technology confronts certain challenges, ongoing research is
dedicated to resolve these issues. The potential for incorporating Blockchain and
Smart Contracts in Web 3.0 and Industry 4.0 is immense and is anticipated to expand
progressively.

Keywords Blockchain technology · Smart contracts · Decentralization ·

Cryptography · Transaction validation · Blockchain challenges · Blockchain use
cases

F. Rahman ()
Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
e-mail: [email protected]
C. Titouna
ESIEE, University Gustave Eiffel, Paris, France
e-mail: chafi[email protected]
F. Nait-Abdesselam
University of Missouri Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, USA
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 3

N. El Madhoun et al. (eds.), Blockchain and Smart-Contract Technologies for
Innovative Applications, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50028-2_1
4 F. Rahman et al.

1 Introduction

Over time, various instruments of trust have emerged to facilitate exchange and
protect buyers and sellers, including minted coins, paper money, and banking
systems. Innovations like telephones, credit cards, Internet, and mobile technologies
have improved the efficiency of transactions and facilitated global economic growth.
However, limitations in current payment systems such as long settlement times,
intermediaries, fraud, and cyberattacks create the need for more efficient and secure
payment systems. Ownership of assets like money, land, and vehicles must be
proven and updated during transfers or inheritance, and digital ledgers have been
increasingly used for structured record maintenance over the past few decades.
Assets such as money, land, vehicles, and agricultural land require ownership
records to be maintained for transfer purposes, which is done through a ledger sys-
tem. This record-keeping has traditionally been done manually using spreadsheets
but they have limitations in handling large volumes of records and are not tamper-
resistant. But with the advancement of database technologies, digital ledgers were
created providing improved record management and security. Distributed Ledger
Technology (DLT) is the evolution of digital ledgers, the decentralization of ledgers,
and the elimination of the need for a clearing house [1].
Blockchain, in its essence, represents a disruptive innovation, bringing a
paradigm shift in our digital world. It is a distributed and decentralized ledger
technology that securely records and verifies transactions across multiple systems.
Its inception, attributed to an entity known as Satoshi Nakamoto, was initially
aimed at supporting cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin. However, its potential extends
far beyond digital currency. From healthcare to supply chain, blockchain is
revolutionizing various sectors by promoting transparency, security, and eliminating
intermediaries. Smart contracts, built atop blockchain, further augment its
capabilities, automating contractual agreements. Yet, this technology is not devoid
of challenges, ranging from scalability issues to regulatory uncertainties. This
introduction seeks to unfold the intricacies and potentials of blockchain in the
modern digital landscape.
In 2008, a pseudonymous person, Satoshi Nakamoto published a paper about
Bitcoin. He introduced a P2P system for transactions used for electronic cash
without depending on centralized approving authority, i.e., (banks). Satoshi defined
Blockchain as a distributed storing information. Bitcoin is just the first prominent
example of how it can be used. It suggests that Blockchain can be applied to other
areas beyond cryptocurrency and has immense potential to revolutionize various
industries. In this chapter, the authors have two words Block and chain without
space, so it became Blockchain. It is a combination of two simple terms [2]: (1)
Block: A batch of transactions, (2) Chain: Encrypted connections between records.
The technical definition of Blockchain is the “Use of distributed ledger in
a decentralized way that records transactions in chronological order.” The main
difference between distributed ledger and Blockchain is consensus algorithms,
which are used to develop trust among the nodes of the network. The new block
Fundamentals of Blockchain and Smart Contracts 5

Fig. 1 A new block in blockchain

Table 1 Blockchain evolution steps

Year Event
1990 Concept of distributed computing
1991 Early concepts and cryptography
2008 Satoshi Nakamoto (Pseudonym) published the idea
2009 Satoshi Nakomoto created and started of the Bitcoin network
2010 Fist cryptocurrency stock exchange is launched
2011 One Bitcoin equals one US Dollar
2012 The deployment of cryptocurrency in applications related to cash
2013 Early adoption, currency transfer, and digital payments systems
2014 Financial markets including Microsoft using blockchain
2015 Introduction and launching of Ethereum and smart contracts
2017 1 Bitcoin equals 10,000 US Dollars
2022 1 Bitcoin equals 42,272 US Dollars
Present Expansion and diversification

creation time directly depends on the consensus algorithm. The new block creation
is depicted in Fig. 1.
The concept of a blockchain, though most commonly associated with cryp-
tocurrencies like Bitcoin, has a history that extends back well before the inception
of digital currency. Understanding this history allows for a broader view of this
influential technology and its potential applications. Brief history of Blockchain is
mentioned in Table 1:
Blockchain is a unique form of DLT. It allows decentralized data storage across
various computers, negating the need for a central authority. Each data block
contains transaction records and is securely linked to the preceding block via a
6 F. Rahman et al.

unique code called a hash. Blockchain’s security relies on cryptography, ensuring

changes to block data are easily detectable. For the addition of a new block, network
consensus is required, typically achieved through protocols like Proof of Work or
Proof of Stake. Blockchain’s hallmark feature is its immutable nature, meaning
that once a block is added, altering it is extraordinarily difficult. This technology
promotes transparency with every transaction verifiable and permanently stored.
It can also facilitate smart contracts, which automatically execute when specific
conditions are met. Blockchain’s application spans various sectors, including
Banking and Finance, Energy, Healthcare, and Supply chain management.
This chapter is comprised of the following sections: Key concepts of Blockchain
are described in Sect. 2. Components and Blockchain architecture are discussed in
Sect. 3. Consensus mechanisms are explained in Sect. 4. Types of Blockchain are
apprised in Sect. 5. The application of Blockchain in Real life is explored in Sect. 6.
Section 7 described Blockchain challenges. Smart contracts are described in Sect. 8.
Blockchain Oracle is described in Sects. 9 and 10 presents the conclusion.

2 Key Concepts of Blockchain

In this section, we present some useful concepts of Blockchain. We summarize them

into five elements: Decentralized Control, Integrity/ Transparency, Confidentiality,
Enhanced Security, and Faster Processing.

2.1 Decentralized Control

Blockchain enables multiple parties to share information among themselves elim-

inating the risks of centralized control and providing cost savings on security.
The network provides a shared system of record for all participants, and trust is
established through the use of cryptographic protocols. Changes require agreement
from all parties, making it highly secure [3].

2.2 Integrity and Transparency

The Blockchain is growing like an ever-expanding archive of history, while

the Merkle tree ensures data integrity by hashing transactions to a single root.
Blockchain technology offers public verifiability through integrity and transparency,
distinguishing it from traditional database technology. Users can trust the data to be
uncorrupted and unaltered since its recording and verification are appended to the
Blockchain.
Fundamentals of Blockchain and Smart Contracts 7

2.3 Confidentiality

Although Blockchain technology is typically an openly distributed ledger, it is

also possible to establish a private system that prioritizes confidentiality. This is
achieved by ensuring that only authorized individuals or organizations have access
to the data. Permissioned Blockchains are being emerged as an alternative to Public
Blockchains, especially for enterprise needs. Confidentiality can be maintained
in this system using solutions, for example, Hyperledger Fabric Blockchain and
Blockstream.

2.4 Enhanced Security

Blockchain transactions are secured through encryption and interconnected with the
preceding transaction since the data is distributed and stored among a network of
computers. The utilization of cryptographic protocols helps in preventing fraudulent
and unauthorized activities and safeguards against DOS attacks. Each block has a
unique cryptographic fingerprint (hash), ensuring the data’s security.

2.5 Faster Processing

The use of Blockchain technology has significantly reduced the settlement time
required from days to mere minutes or seconds. Information is accessible to
all participants so it becomes simpler to establish trust without the need for
intermediaries. Uploading product data to the Blockchain can also streamline the
tracking process. The trustless system and digital assets ensure secure and efficient
transactions.

3 Components and Blockchain Architecture

Each block of Blockchain consists of two main parts: header and body part. The
header part has block hash, previous block hash, nonce, timestamp, and Merkle root,
whereas the body part keeps the transaction data. The following terms are common
and frequently used in Blockchain [4]. Table 2 summarizes them.

3.1 Private Keys

A private key generates a signature for each transaction on the Blockchain,

confirming that it has come from a specific user and preventing alteration by
8 F. Rahman et al.

Table 2 Blockchain key terms

Term Description
Node The end devices connected with blockchain like PCs, laptops, mobile phones
Ledger A decentralized, distributed database is called a ledger
Block A batch of transactions
Mining The procedure of adding a new block to the system
Miner The person or machine doing the mining
Transaction Every record in the system
Nonce Target difficulty level set by the network

malicious entities. Private keys are used to sign the cryptocurrencies being sent to
others, and if someone obtains the private key, they can send the cryptocurrencies
to themselves resulting in a security breach. This has been involved in many hacks
worldwide.

3.2 Public Keys

The public keys can be generated from the private one mathematically by
using Rivest, Shamir, Adleman (RSA)/ Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC),
etc. algorithms, which can be distributed to everyone. While it is easy to
derive a public key from a private key, it would take millions of years
to do the opposite. Public keys are practically irreversible, and a unique
public key is generated for each private key. An example of a public key is
0327F47F4SSF760BF5BA223515E63B7B2A1621AB71AE7631386738B3BC4D1
B73SE.

3.3 Addresses

The public key is derived from cryptographic hash functions which represent
cryptocurrency address. In Bitcoin, addresses from public keys are generated using
“Secure Hash Algorithm 256” (SHA-256) and the “RACE Integrity Primitives
Evaluation Message Digest 160” (RIPEMD-160). The address typically appears in
a transaction, signifying the recipient of the funds. An example of a cryptocurrency
address is 1JPgMJuAvYJU6mxxbJdmf1XBd7bBPdPV3a.
Fundamentals of Blockchain and Smart Contracts 9

3.4 Basics of Cryptographic Techniques

The secure and transparent nature of blockchain technology relies heavily on cryp-
tographic techniques. The following are the fundamental cryptographic techniques
commonly used in blockchain:

3.4.1 Hash Functions

A hash function takes an input (or “message”) and produces a fixed-length string
of characters, which is a digest that represents the data. The same input will
always produce the same output, but even a tiny change in the input will produce a
significantly different output. The use cases are data integrity verification, forming
blocks by hashing transaction data and metadata, creating transaction IDs. The
common algorithms are SHA-256 (Secure Hash Algorithm 256-bit).

3.4.2 Public-Key Cryptography (Asymmetric Cryptography)

In public-key cryptography, each participant has a pair of cryptographic keys: a

public key, which is openly distributed, and a private key, which is kept secret.
The use cases are transaction verification (Digital Signatures) and secure data
transmission. The common algorithms are RSA and ECC.

3.4.3 Digital Signatures

Digital signatures provide a way to verify the authenticity of data or transactions. A

sender uses their private key to create a digital signature on a message, and the
receiver uses the sender’s public key to verify the signature. The use cases are
Transaction authorization and data integrity.

3.4.4 Merkle Trees

Merkle trees are a type of binary tree composed of a set of nodes with the leaf
nodes representing data blocks. Each non-leaf node is the cryptographic hash of its
children. This structure allows for efficient and secure verification of large sets of
data. The use cases are efficient data verification and forming the block structure in
some blockchain architectures.
10 F. Rahman et al.

Fig. 2 Blockchain and OSI model

3.4.5 Symmetric Cryptography

Although less commonly used in blockchain than asymmetric cryptography, sym-

metric cryptography uses the same key for both encryption and decryption. The use
case is secure data transmission within closed networks. The common algorithm is
AES (Advanced Encryption Standard).

3.5 Blockchain Data Flow in OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) is a famous conceptual model that

provides a basic understanding of data flow. Figure 2 depicts the Blockchain
theoretical working given the OSI model.

4 Consensus Mechanisms

A Blockchain consensus mechanism is a protocol that allows participants in a

decentralized network to agree on the contents of a shared digital ledger. It ascertains
the integrity and security of the Blockchain by preventing fraudulent transactions
and double-spending. Proof of Work (PoW), Proof of Stake (PoS), and Delegated
Proof of Stake (DPoS) are frequently used Consensus algorithms. These mech-
anisms contribute to the trustworthiness of a Blockchain by requiring validators
to perform specific tasks or hold a certain amount of cryptocurrency. Overall,
consensus mechanisms promote a stable, secure, and decentralized ecosystem for
digital transactions [5]. Some commonly used consensus algorithms are mentioned
in Table 3.
Fundamentals of Blockchain and Smart Contracts 11

Table 3 Consensus mechanisms

Sr. no. Algorithm name Mechanism
1 Proof of Work (PoW) It is a pioneer consensus algorithm in Blockchain. PoW
creates a competitive environment among the miners to
validate transactions and generate new blocks. In this way,
miners can earn rewards for their efforts
2 Proof of Stake (PoS) The proof of stake (PoS) concept is based on the idea that a
person’s ability to validate block transactions or mine new
blocks is directly proportional to the number of coins they
hold. In other words, a miner who owns a greater amount of
Bitcoin or altcoins will have more mining power than
someone who holds fewer coins
3 Practical Byzantine One of the most popular byzantine fault tolerance (BFT)
Fault Tolerance consensus algorithms is practical byzantine fault tolerance
(PBFT) (PBFT), which achieves consensus through a series of
message exchanges between nodes, ensuring that particular
number of nodes agree on the same value before finalizing it
4 Proof of Burn (PoB) Proof of burn (PoB) is a different type of consensus algorithm
that aims to solve the energy consumption problem associated
with proof of work (PoW) system. PoB is sometimes referred
to as a PoW system that does not waste energy. Its underlying
concept is to allow miners to “burn” tokens
5 Raft consensus Raft is an algorithm for achieving distributed consensus. It
operates by selecting a leader within the cluster who is
responsible for processing client requests and replicating log
entries to the other servers. The data in Raft is unidirectional,
flowing solely from the leader to other servers
6 Federated consensus The conventional approach for achieving consensus in
Blockchain technology is through a fundamental concept, the
Byzantine agreement. In this method, nodes on the
Blockchain validate blocks of data by collectively agreeing on
the solution to a given problem. A quorum, which is a
minimum number of nodes, must agree that the presented
solution is correct to reach a Byzantine agreement, validate a
block, and append in the blockchain
7 Proof of Activity Proof of Activity (PoA) verifies the authenticity of
transactions as well as facilitates consensus among miners. It
has features of both PoW and PoS. Decred (DCR) is an
autonomous cryptocurrency that utilizes PoA
8 Proof of elapsed time It is a consensus algorithm that aims to prevent excessive
resource utilization and energy consumption while
maintaining process efficiency through a fair lottery system.
In this system, players may either choose their own set of six
numbers, including five regular and one Powerball or allow
computer terminals to select them at random. If the numbers
on a ticket match the winning numbers in the exact order they
are drawn and the player wins the jackpot prize
(continued)
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12 F. Rahman et al.

Table 3 (continued)
Sr. no. Algorithm name Mechanism
9 Proof of Capacity Proof of capacity (PoC) is a consensus algorithm employed in
Blockchain networks, which permits mining devices to
determine mining rights using their hard drive space instead
of the computational power of mining device or miner’s stake
like PoW and PoS, respectively
10 Proof of importance Proof of importance is a mechanism utilized to ascertain the
eligibility of network participants (nodes) to append a new
block referred to as “harvesting” by NEM. Upon successfully
harvesting a block, nodes are rewarded with transaction fees
within that block

5 Types of Blockchain

5.1 Public Blockchain

A Public Blockchain is a type of Blockchain that is accessible to everyone,

allowing anyone to read, write, and audit it. It operates without a central authority,
and decisions are based on complicated mechanisms. Public Blockchains have
safeguards in place to protect against malicious actors. They are resource hungry
to mine and add a block over the network. Bitcoin and Ethereum [6] are famous
examples of public Blockchains.

5.2 Private Blockchain

A Private Blockchain is owned and operated by an individual or organization. It has

an administrator/anchor who manages permissions and identities, and the consensus
is achieved at the discretion of the central in-charge who can grant mining rights
to anyone or not at all. Private Blockchains are faster and cheaper than public
Blockchains because they do not require much energy, time, and money to reach
a consensus. However, they are less secure than Public Blockchains. Examples of
Private Blockchains include Bankchain and Medichain.

5.3 Consortium Blockchain

A Consortium Blockchain is a hybrid of Private and Public Blockchains, where

a group of companies or representatives come together to make decisions for the
network’s benefit, rather than relying on one central authority. This approach speeds
up decision-making and mitigates single points of failure. Consortium Blockchains
Fundamentals of Blockchain and Smart Contracts 13

offer options for rights and access management while leveraging the benefits of
Blockchain technology. Examples of consortium Blockchains include R3 and EWF.

6 Application of Blockchain in Real life

Blockchain is ideal for use cases where security, transparency, and decentralization
are critical, such as financial services, supply chain management, and identity
verification [7].

6.1 Finance

The loan process involves numerous intermediaries and bank-related obstacles,

adding to the overall complexity of the process. The proposal suggests the deploy-
ment of a peer-to-peer mortgage lending platform using Blockchain, which involves
creating a smart contract between borrowers and lenders through token-based loan
issuance. The platform of Blockchain technology would enable real-time reporting
of transactions, making the process cost-effective and eliminating the need for
intermediaries making the system transparent for both borrowers and lenders. This
would increase transaction performance and reduce the time taken for transactions,
resulting in streamlined and efficient processing of mortgages [8].

6.2 Healthcare

Healthcare billing encounters various issues such as billing inaccuracies, fraud, and
slow processing time. A smart contract can be used in Blockchain-based solutions
for automatic payment processing, audit, and transparency. Smart contracts can also
be initiated to provide insurance to the patients. Storing billing information in a
Blockchain would provide a trustworthy source of data for claims adjudication,
reduce costs, and save time for funds transfer. It would also minimize billing fraud
because the information stored in the Blockchain is immutable [9].

6.3 Digital Privacy

Digital media created for human consumption can be easily copied and distributed,
which leads to monetary loss for content creators. A Blockchain-based media
tracking technology assigns a unique ID to video content and stores it on the
Blockchain. Content can be consumed using tokens, and a smart contract can be
14 F. Rahman et al.

triggered to monitor copyright infringement. The smart contract can automatically

trigger copyright actions if duplicate content is found. The use of Blockchain
technology enables tracking the entire lifecycle of any content, while also allowing
instant tracking of piracy. Additionally, micro-consumption of content can be
achieved using this technology [10].

6.4 Royalty

In a digital world where it is easy to share and distribute copies, it is challenging

to pay creators fairly for their work. A transparent Blockchain-based ledger can be
used to store media assets and their rights holders. By utilizing smart contracts,
media owners can distribute rights and automate royalty payments based on
consumption, including streaming. The use of Blockchain technology provides
transparency to content developers on the consumption and payments of their media,
enabling instant payments based on usage [11].

6.5 Crowdfunding

Independent filmmakers often struggle to raise funds for their niche projects. A
Blockchain-based crowdfunding solution enables the public to invest in projects
using smart contracts and tokens, with potential returns offered in the form of
percentages. The solution also allows for the tracking of investments through KYC
verification and enables the public to earn from content market capture. Blockchain-
powered crowdfunding offers benefits such as privacy and transparency, eliminating
the need for external payment or verification solutions.

6.6 Real Estate

The issue at hand is that multiple listing services are providing incomplete lists,
and there is a lack of clear definitions when it comes to releasing apartment
ownership or documents. The proposal is to use a public Blockchain for listing and
storing rental documents and service payments. This would provide a centralized
location for all rental records and enable independent verification and automatic
reconciliation of transactions and listings. The rental process would be facilitated by
self-executing smart contracts, which would automate transactions between tenants
and landlords, eliminating the need for a real estate agent. The proposal suggests
that using a Blockchain can mitigate the risks of double-spending, fraud, abuse,
and manipulation of transactions, thereby increasing the security of data sharing in
Fundamentals of Blockchain and Smart Contracts 15

property rental agreements. This would reduce barriers for both property owners
and renters, ultimately making the rental process simpler and more efficient.

7 Blockchain Challenges

The challenges that are being faced by Blockchain technology include scalability
issues, energy consumption concerns, and regulatory uncertainty. Additionally, the
lack of interoperability between different Blockchain networks remains a significant
challenge for widespread adoption [12]. Blockchain trilemma is the biggest problem
of Blockchain mentioned in Fig. 3.

7.1 Decentralization

The decentralization of Blockchain networks means that all participants have

equal access and influence, but maintaining it can be challenging as the network
grows. The concentration of mining power, governance issues, and user adoption
are some of the challenges faced by the decentralization of Blockchain. The
possession of mining power by a few large miners can potentially compromise the
network’s security. Governance issues can lead to disagreements and forks in the
Blockchain, reducing its effectiveness. Finally, user adoption can be limited due
to the complexity and technical expertise required to use Blockchain effectively.

Fig. 3 Blockchain trilemma

16 F. Rahman et al.

Achieving and maintaining decentralization requires careful consideration of tech-

nical, economic, and social factors, and there are trade-offs between characteristics
such as scalability, decentralization, and security. Balancing these trade-offs is
crucial to create a Blockchain suitable for the specific use case [13].

7.2 Security

Blockchain security refers to the measures and techniques related to integrity,

confidentiality, and availability of data stored on a Blockchain network, including
the use of cryptographic algorithms and consensus mechanisms to ensure trust and
immutability [14].

7.2.1 51% Attack

A 51% attack occurs when a certain number of miners take over more than fifty
percent of a Blockchain network’s computing power so they can effectively control
the network. An example of this type of attack was carried out on Bitcoin Gold,
which resulted in a loss of $18 million. This type of attack enables the attackers
to block new transactions and reverse confirmed transactions, resulting in double-
spending [15].

7.2.2 Eclipse Attack

The Distributed Application Architecture is the basis for the described attack,
which partitions tasks among peers without a central server. The attack involves
compromising a node’s ability to communicate with others on the network by
exploiting limitations in its identification and selection. Bitcoin and Ethereum have
a limited number of connections per node, which means that a single node relies on
the other connected nodes for a complete network view, presenting an opportunity
for hackers. The potential damage resulting from this type of attack includes double-
spending, attacks on second-layer protocols, and potential attacks on smart contracts
due to inconsistent Blockchain views.

7.2.3 Sybil Attack

In a Sybil attack, a single entity generates numerous false identities to exert undue
influence or control over a network or system, increasing the likelihood of other
nodes connecting with the attacker’s nodes. In Bitcoin, there is no record of nodes,
and if a node is isolated from the honest network, it can increase the chance of
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 Meanwhile Hermod was proceeding on his mission. Of him it is to
be related that he rode nine days and as many nights through dark
and deep valleys—so dark that he could not discern anything until
he came to the river Gjol and passed over the Gjallar bridge (bridge
over the river Gjol), which is covered with glittering gold. Modgud,
the maiden who kept the bridge, asked him his name and
parentage, and added that the day before five fylkes (kingdoms,
bands) of dead men had ridden over the bridge; “but,” she said, “it
did not shake as much beneath all of them together as it does under
you alone, and you have not the complexion of the dead; why, then,
do you ride here on your way to Hel?” “I ride to Hel,” answered
Hermod, “to seek for Balder; have you perchance seen him pass this
way?” She replied that Balder had ridden over the Gjallar bridge, and
that the road to the abodes of death (to Hel) lay downward and
toward the north.
Hermod then continued his journey until he came to the barred
gates of Hel. Then he alighted from his horse, drew the girths
tighter, remounted him, and clapped both spurs into him. The horse
cleared the gate with a tremendous leap without touching it.
Hermod then rode forward to the palace, alighted and went in,
where he found his brother Balder occupying the most distinguished
seat in the hall, and spent the night in his company. The next
morning he entreated Hel (death) to let Balder ride home with him,
representing to her the sorrow which prevailed among the gods. Hel
replied that it should now be tried whether Balder was so universally
beloved as he was said to be; if, therefore, she added, all things in
the world, the living as well as the lifeless, will weep for him, then
he shall return to the gods, but if anything speak against him or
refuse to weep, then Hel will keep him.
After this Hermod rose up; Balder went with him out of the hall
and gave him the ring Draupner, to present as a keepsake to Odin.
Nanna sent Frigg a carpet, together with several other gifts, and to
Fulla she sent a gold finger-ring. Hermod then rode back to Asgard
and related everything that he had heard and witnessed.
 The gods upon this dispatched messengers throughout all the
world to beseech everything to weep, in order that Balder might be
delivered from the power of Hel. All things very willingly complied
with the request—man, animals, the earth, stones, trees, and all
metals—just as we see things weep when they come out of the frost
into the warm air. When the messengers were returning, with the
conviction that their mission had been quite successful, they found
on their way home a giantess (ogress, gygr), who called herself
Thok. They bade her also weep Balder out of the dominion of Hel.
But she answered:

Thok will weep

With dry tears
For Balder’s death;
Neither in life nor in death
Gave he me gladness;
Let Hel keep what she has.

BATTLE BETWEEN RA AND ANAPEF OR APEP

IN THE UNDERWORLD
(Egyptian)

Get thee back, depart, retreat from me, O Anapef; withdraw, or

thou shalt be drowned at the pool of Nu, at the place where thy
father hath ordered that thy slaughter be performed. Depart thou
from the divine place of birth of Ra, wherein is thy terror. I am Ra
who dwelleth in his terror. Get thee back, Fiend, before the darts of
his beams. Ra hath overthrown thy words, the gods have turned thy
face backward, the Lynx hath torn open thy breast, the Scorpion
hath cast fetters upon thee, and Maat hath sent forth thy
destruction. Those who are in the ways have overthrown thee; fall
down and depart, O Apep, thou Enemy of Ra! O thou that passest
over the region in the eastern part of heaven with the sound of the
roaring thunder-cloud, O Ra, who openest the gates of the horizon
straightway on thy appearance, Apep hath sunk helpless under thy
gashings. I have performed thy will, O Ra, I have performed thy will,
I have done that which is fair, I have done that which is fair, I have
labored for the peace of Ra. I have made to advance thy fetters, O
Ra, and Apep hath fallen through thy drawing them tight. The gods
of the south and of the north, of the west and of the east, have
fastened chains upon him, and they have fettered him with fetters;
the god Rekes hath overthrown him and the god Hertit hath put him
in chains. Ra setteth, Ra setteth, Ra is strong at his setting. Apep
hath fallen; Apep, the enemy of Ra, departeth. Greater is the
punishment which hath been inflicted on thee than the sting which is
the Scorpion goddess, and mightily hath she, whose course is
everlasting, worked in upon thee, and with deadly effect. Thou shalt
never enjoy the delights of love, thou shalt never fulfil thy desire, O
Apep, thou Enemy of Ra! He maketh thee to go back, O thou who
art hateful to Ra; he looketh upon thee, get thee back! He pierceth
thy head, he cutteth through thy face, he divideth thy head at the
two sides of the ways, and it is crushed in his land; thy bones are
smashed in pieces, thy members are hacked off thee, and the god
Aker hath condemned thee, O Apep, thou Enemy of Ra! Thy
mariners are those who keep the reckoning for thee, O Ra; as thou
advancest and thou resteth there within are the offerings made to
thee. As thou advancest, as thou advancest toward the House. Let
not any baleful obstacle proceed from thy mouth against me when
thou workest on my behalf. I am Set, who let loose the storm-clouds
and the thunder in the horizon of heaven.

THE STORY OF PHŒBUS APOLLO

(Greek)

Soon after his birth the Sun God spent a year among the
Hyperboreans, where for six continuous months of the year there is
sunshine and spring, soft climate, profusion of herbs and flowers,
and the very ecstasy of life. During this delay the Delphians sang
pæans—hymns of praise—to Apollo, and danced in chorus about the
tripod, or three-legged stool, where the expectant priestess of Apollo
had taken her seat. At last, when the year was warm, came the god
in his chariot drawn by swans—heralded by songs of springtide, of
nightingales and swallows and crickets. Then the crystal fount of
Castalia and the stream Cephissus overflowed their bounds, and
mankind made grateful offerings to the god. But his advent was not
altogether peaceful. An enormous serpent (Python) had crept forth
from the slime with which, after the flood, the earth was covered;
and in the caves of Mount Parnassus this terror of the people lurked.
Him Apollo encountered, and after fearful combat slew with arrows,
weapons which the god of the silver bow had not before used
against any but feeble animals. In commemoration of this conquest,
he instituted the Pythian games, in which the victor, in feats of
strength, swiftness of foot, or in the chariot race, should be crowned
with a wreath of beach leaves.
In his conflict with another monster of darkness, Apollo had the
assistance of his sister Artemis (Diana). By their unerring, fiery darts
they subdued the giant Tityus, who not only had obstructed the
peaceful ways to the oracle of Delphi, but had ventured to insult the
mother of the twin deities.
Another event in the life of Apollo shows the fatal effect of his
fiery darts upon a young friend, Hyacinthus. The god of the silver
bow was in the habit of going with Hyacinthus when he went forth
on his hunting and fishing expeditions, or upon tramps in the
mountains. One day they decided to play a game of quoits together.
Apollo, heaving aloft the discus with strength mingled with skill, sent
it high and far. Hyacinthus, excited with the sport and eager to make
his throw, ran forward to seize the missile; but it bounded from the
earth and struck him in the forehead. He fainted and fell. The god,
as pale as himself, raised him and tried all his art to staunch the
wound and retain the flitting life, but in vain. As when one has
broken the stem of a lily in the garden it hangs its head and turns its
flowers to the earth, so the head of the dying boy, as if too heavy
for his neck, fell over on his shoulder. “Thou diest, Hyacinth,” said
Phœbus, “robbed of thy life by me. Would that I could die for thee!
But since that may not be, my lyre shall celebrate thee, my song
shall tell thy fate, and thou shalt become a flower inscribed with my
regret.” While the golden god spoke, the blood which had flowed on
the ground and stained the herbage ceased to be blood, and a
flower of hue more beautiful than Tyrian purple sprang up,
resembling in shape the lily. Phœbus then, to confer still greater
honor, marked the petals with his sorrow, inscribing “Ai! ai!” upon
them. The flower bears the name of Hyacinthus, and with returning
spring revives the memory of his fate.
Apollo was also a perfect magician in music. He helped Neptune,
the God of the Sea, to build the walls of the ancient and far-famed
city of Troy simply by playing on his lyre.
It is said that upon one occasion Pan had the temerity to compare
his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge the God of the Lyre to
a trial of skill. The challenge was accepted, and Tmolus, the
Mountain God, was chosen umpire. The Senior took his seat, and
cleared away the trees from his ears to listen. At a given signal, Pan
blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction
to himself and his faithful follower Midas, who happened to be
present. Then Tmolus turned his head toward the Sun God, and all
his trees turned with him. Apollo rose, his brow wreathed with
Parnassian laurel, while his robe of Tyrian purple swept the ground.
In his left hand he held the lyre, and with his right hand struck the
strings. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to the lyric god, and all
but Midas acquiesced in the judgment. He dissented, and questioned
the justice of the award, and Apollo promptly transformed his
depraved pair of ears into those of an ass.

THE STORY OF ARTEMIS AND ORION

(Greek)
 Orion, the son of Neptune, was a giant and a mighty hunter,
whose prowess and manly favor gained for him the rare good-will of
Artemis. It is related that he loved Merope, the daughter of
Œnopion, king of Chios, and sought her in marriage. He cleared the
island of wild beasts, and brought the spoils of the chase as presents
to his beloved; but as Œnopion constantly deferred his consent,
Orion attempted to gain possession of the maiden by violence. Her
father, incensed at this conduct, made Orion drunk, deprived him of
his sight, and cast him out on the seashore. The blinded hero,
instructed by an oracle to seek the rays of morning, followed the
sound of a Cyclop’s hammer till he reached Lemnos, where Vulcan,
taking pity on him, gave him Cedalion, one of his men, to be his
guide to the abode of the sun. Placing Cedalion on his shoulders,
Orion proceeded to the east, and there meeting the Sun God, was
restored to sight by his beam.
 Diana or Artemis. Correggio.

After this he used to go hunting with Artemis, much to the

displeasure of Apollo, who did not like his sister to make such a
friend of Orion. One day, therefore, observing Orion as he walked
through the sea, with his head just above water, Apollo pointed out
the black object to his sister, and maintained that she could not hit
it. The archer goddess discharged a shaft with fatal aim; the waves
rolled the dead body of Orion to the land. Then, bewailing with
many tears the death of her friend, Artemis placed him among the
stars, where he appears as a giant, with a girdle, sword, lion’s skin,
and club. Sirius, his dog, follows him, and the Pleiades fly before
him. In the beginning of winter, all through the night, Orion follows
the chase across the heavens, but with dawn he sinks toward the
waters of his father, Neptune. In the beginning of summer he may
be seen, with daybreak, in the eastern sky, till Artemis draws again
her darts and slays him.

The myths of the stars are almost as numerous as those of the

sun and moon, and exist everywhere. A very prevalent idea in
regard to them is that human beings are transformed into stars; for
example, in Australia they say that the god Pundjel made stars of all
the good men and women after the Deluge. In Greek mythology, the
gods very frequently turned men and women into stars. Both in
Australia and Greece the stars the Greeks called, and we know now
as, Castor and Pollux were two young men. In the first case they are
said to be two hunters, in the second they were two brothers so
famous for their brotherly love that Zeus, desiring to make their
memory immortal, placed them both among the stars. Sometimes a
human being or an animal is transformed into a whole constellation
or group of stars. The story told about the constellations of the
Great Bear and the Little Bear in Greece is that once a nymph,
Callisto, of the train of Artemis, who fell in love, was changed into a
bear by Juno. One day long after she saw a youth hunting, and
recognized him as her own son. She stopped and wanted to
embrace him, but her son, not recognizing her in her bear form, was
on the point of transfixing her when Zeus arrested the crime, and,
snatching away both of them, placed them in the heavens as the
Great Bear and the Little Bear. The story of Orion’s translation into a
constellation has already been given. Around the group of stars
called the Pleiades cluster many legends. Of this group of seven
stars one is so dim that it seems entirely to disappear. A South
Australian legend tells that the Pleiades were a queen and her six
attendants. The Crow fell in love with the queen, who refused to be
his wife. The Crow, however, found that the queen and her six
maidens were in the habit of hunting for white, edible grubs in the
bark of trees. The Crow at once changed himself into a grub and hid
in the bark of a tree. The six maidens sought to pick him out with
their wooden hooks, but he broke the points of all the hooks. Then
came the queen with her pretty bone hook; he let himself be drawn
out, took the shape of a giant, and ran away with her. Ever since
there have only been six stars and six maidens in the Pleiades.
According to a Greek myth, the Pleiades, who still fly before Orion in
the heavens, were daughters of Atlas and nymphs of the train of
Artemis. One day they were pursued by the giant hunter Orion, and,
being very much frightened, they prayed to the gods to change their
form. Zeus heard their prayers, changed them into pigeons, and
placed them among the stars. Though their number was seven, only
six stars are now visible, for it is said Electra left her place that she
might not behold the ruin of Troy, which had been founded by her
son Dardanus. The sight had such an effect on her sisters that they
blanched, and have been pale ever since. But Electra became a
comet. Her hair floating wildly, she still ranges inconsolably the
expanse of heaven.
The prettiest notion in regard to the stars is that they are the
souls of the dead. In Germany, for example, they thought that when
a child died, God made a new star.
The North American Indians are particularly fond of star myths,
and they have invented some charming star stories. According to
them, stars might come down and talk to men, after the manner of
one whose story is given below. It came down and told a hunter
where to find game.
Some of the animal constellations among the stars are evidently
metamorphosed totems, for there is a widespread belief that these
star animals or men were the ancestors of the people, and that ages
ago they had been lifted up to heaven. The Milky Way is described
by the Indians sometimes as the “path of spirits and the road of
souls,” sometimes as the “road of birds along which the souls of the
good go flitting like birds, to dwell at last in heaven in peace.”
 STORY OF THE CHILD AND THE STAR
(Iowa Indian)

Many years ago a child, when very young, observed a star in the
heavens that attracted him more than any others. As the child grew
to manhood his attachment increased. His thoughts dwelt
continually on this beauty of the night. One day, while hunting, as he
sat down, travel-worn and weary with his ill-success, his beloved star
appeared to him and comforted him with encouraging words, and
then conducted him to a place where he found a great plenty and
variety of game. From this time the young man showed a wonderful
improvement in the art of hunting, and soon became celebrated in
this pursuit.

OSSEO, THE SON OF THE EVENING STAR

(North American Indian)

There once lived an Indian in the north who had ten daughters, all
of whom grew up to womanhood. They were noted for their beauty,
especially Oweenee, the youngest, who was very independent in her
way of thinking. She was a great admirer of romantic places, and
spent much of her time with the flowers and winds and clouds in the
open air. Though the flower were homely, if it was fragrant—though
the wind were rough, if it was healthful—and though the cloud were
dark, if it embosomed the fruitful rain, she knew how, in spite of
appearances, to acknowledge the good qualities concealed from the
eye. She paid very little attention to the many handsome young men
who came to her father’s lodge for the purpose of seeing her.
Her elder sisters were all sought in marriage, and one after the
other they went off to dwell in the lodges of their husbands; but
Oweenee was deaf to all proposals of the kind. At last she married
an old man called Osseo, who was scarcely able to walk, and who
was too poor to have things like others. The only property he owned
in the world was the walking-staff which he carried in his hand.
Though thus poor and homely, Osseo was a devout and good man;
faithful in all his duties, and obedient in all things to the Good Spirit.
Of course they jeered and laughed at Oweenee on all sides, but she
seemed to be quite happy, and said to them, “It is my choice and
you will see in the end who has acted the wisest.”
They made a special mock of the walking-staff, and scarcely an
hour in the day passed that they did not make some disparaging
reference to it. Among themselves they spoke of Osseo of the
walking-staff, in derision, as the owner of the big woods, or the
great timber-man.
“True,” said Oweenee, “it is but a simple stick; but as it supports
the steps of my husband, it is more precious to me than all the
forests of the north.”
A time came when the sisters, and their husbands, and their
parents were all invited to a feast. As the distance was considerable,
they doubted whether Osseo, so aged and feeble, would be able to
undertake the journey; but in spite of their friendly doubts, he joined
them, and set out with a good heart.
As they walked along the path they could not help pitying their
young and handsome sister who had such an unsuitable mate. She,
however, smiled upon Osseo, and kept with him by the way the
same as if he had been the comeliest bridegroom in all the company.
Osseo often stopped and gazed upward; but they could perceive
nothing in the direction in which he looked, unless it was the faint
glimmering of the evening star. They heard him muttering to himself
as they went along, and one of the elder sisters caught the words,
“Pity me, my father!”
“Poor old man,” said she; “he is talking to his father. What a pity it
is that he would not fall and break his neck, that our sister might
have a young husband.”
Presently, as they came to a great rock where Osseo had been
used to breathe his morning and his evening prayer, the star emitted
a brighter ray, which shone directly in his face. Osseo, with a sharp
cry, fell trembling to the earth, where the others would have left
him; but his good wife raised him up, and he sprang forward on the
path, and with steps light as the reindeer he led the party, no longer
decrepit and infirm, but a beautiful young man. On turning around
to look for his wife, behold! she had become changed, at the same
moment, into an aged and feeble woman, bent almost double, and
walking with the staff which he had cast aside.
Osseo immediately joined her, and with looks of fondness and the
tenderest regard, bestowed on her every endearing attention, and
constantly addressed her by the term of ne-ne-moosh-a, or my
sweetheart.
As they walked along, whenever they were not gazing fondly in
each other’s face, they bent their looks on heaven, and a light, as if
of far-off stars, was in their eyes.
On arriving at the lodge of the hunter with whom they were to
feast, they found the banquet ready, and as soon as their entertainer
had finished his harangue—in which he told them his feasting was in
honor of the Evening or Woman’s Star—they began to partake of the
portion dealt out, according to age and character, to each one of the
guests. The food was very delicious, and they were all happy but
Osseo, who looked at his wife, and then gazed upward, as if he was
looking into the substance of the sky. Sounds were soon heard, as if
from far-off voices in the air, and they became plainer and plainer, till
he could clearly distinguish some of the words.
“My son, my son,” said the voice, “I have seen your afflictions, and
pity your wants. I come to call you away from a scene that is stained
with blood and tears. The earth is full of sorrows. Wicked spirits, the
enemies of mankind, walk abroad, and lie in wait to ensnare the
children of the sky. Every night they are lifting their voices to the
Power of Evil, and every day they make themselves busy in casting
mischief in the hunter’s path. You have long been their victim, but
you shall be their victim no more. The spell you were under is
broken. Your evil genius is overcome. I have cast him down by my
superior strength, and it is this strength I now exert for your
happiness. Ascend, my son; ascend into the skies, and partake of
the feast I have prepared for you in the stars, and bring with you
those you love.
“The food set before you is enchanted and blessed. Fear not to
partake of it. It is endowed with magic power to give immortality to
mortals, and to change men to spirits. Your bowls and kettles shall
no longer be wood and earth. The one shall become silver and the
other pure gold. They shall shine like fire, and glisten like the most
beautiful scarlet. Every female shall also change her state and looks,
and no longer be doomed to laborious tasks. She shall put on the
beauty of the starlight, and become a shining bird of the air. She
shall dance, and not work. She shall sing, and not cry.
“My beams,” continued the voice, “shine faintly on your lodge, but
they have power to transform it into the lightness of the skies, and
decorate it with the colors of the clouds. Come, Osseo, my son, and
dwell no longer on earth. Think strongly on my words, and look
steadfastly at my beams. My power is now at its height. Doubt not,
delay not. It is the voice of the Spirit of the Stars that calls you away
to happiness and celestial rest.”
The words were intelligible to Osseo, but his companions thought
them some far-off sounds of music, or birds singing in the woods.
Very soon the lodge began to shake and tremble, and they felt it
rising into the air. It was too late to run out, for they were already as
high as the tops of the trees. Osseo looked around him as the lodge
passed through the topmost boughs, and behold! their wooden
dishes were changed into shells of a scarlet color, the poles of the
lodge to glittering rods of silver, and the bark that covered them into
the gorgeous wings of insects.
A moment more and his brothers and sisters, and their parents
and friends, were transformed into birds of various plumage. Some
were jays, some partridges and pigeons, and others gay singing
birds, who hopped about, displaying their many-colored feathers,
and singing songs of cheerful note.
 But his wife, Oweenee, still kept her earthly garb, and exhibited all
the indications of extreme old age. He again cast his eyes in the
direction of the clouds, and uttered the peculiar cry which had given
him the victory at the rock. In a moment the youth and beauty of his
wife returned; her dingy garments assumed the shining appearance
of green silk, and her staff was changed into a silver feather.
The lodge again shook and trembled, for they were now passing
through the uppermost clouds, and they immediately after found
themselves in the Evening Star, the residence of Osseo’s father.
“My son,” said the old man, “hang that cage of birds which you
have brought along in your hand at the door, and I will inform you
why you and your wife have been sent for.”
Osseo obeyed, and then took his seat in the lodge.
“Pity was shown to you,” resumed the King of the Star, “on
account of the contempt of your wife’s sisters, who laughed at her ill
fortune, and ridiculed you while you were under the power of that
wicked spirit whom you overcame at the rock. That spirit lives in the
next lodge, being the small star you see on the left of mine, and he
has always felt envious of my family because we had greater power,
and especially because we had committed to us the care of the
female world. He failed in many attempts to destroy your brothers
and sisters-in-law, but succeeded at last in transforming yourself and
your wife into decrepit old persons. You must be careful and not let
the light of his beams fall on you while you are here, for therein lies
the power of his enchantment. A ray of light is the bow and arrow
he uses.”
Osseo lived happy and contented in the parental lodge, and in due
time his wife presented him with a son, who grew up rapidly, and in
the very likeness of Osseo himself. He was very quick and ready in
learning everything that was done in his grandfather’s dominions,
but he wished also to learn the art of hunting, for he had heard that
this was a favorite pursuit below. To gratify him, his father made him
a bow and arrows, and he then let the birds out of the cage that he
might practise in shooting. In this pastime he soon became expert,
and the very first day he brought down a bird; but when he went to
pick it up, to his amazement it was a beautiful young woman, with
the arrow sticking in her breast. It was one of his younger aunts.
The moment her blood fell upon the surface of that pure and
spotless planet, the charm was dissolved. The boy immediately
found himself sinking, although he was partly upheld by something
like wings until he passed through the lower clouds, and he then
suddenly dropped upon a high, breezy island in a large lake. He was
pleased, on looking up, to see all his aunts and uncles following him
in the form of birds, and he soon discovered the silver lodge, with
his father and mother, descending, with its waving tassels fluttering
like so many insects’ gilded wings. It rested on the loftiest cliffs of
the island, and there they fixed their residence. They all resumed
their natural shapes, but they were diminished to the size of fairies;
and as a mark of homage to the King of the Evening Star, they never
failed on every pleasant evening during the summer season to join
hands and dance upon the top of the rocks. These rocks were
quickly observed by the Indians to be covered, in moonlight
evenings, with a larger sort of Ininees, or little men, and were called
Mish-in-e-mok-in-ok-ong, or Little Spirits, and the island is named
from them to this day.
Their shining lodge can be seen in the summer evenings, when
the moon beams strongly on the pinnacles of the rocks; and the
fishermen who go near those high cliffs at night have even heard the
voices of the happy little dancers. And Osseo and his wife, as fondly
attached to each other as ever, always lead the dance.

THE WANDERING STAR

(A Chippewa Legend)

A quarrel arose among the stars, when one of them was driven
from its home in the heavens, and descended to the earth. It
wandered from one path to another, and was seen hovering over the
campfires when the people were preparing to sleep. Among all the
people in the world, only one could be found who was not afraid of
this star, and this was a daughter of a Chippewa. She was not afraid
of the star, but admired and loved it. When she awoke in the night
she always beheld it, for the star loved the maiden. In midsummer
the young girl, on going into the woods for berries, lost her way,
when a storm arose. Her cries for rescue were answered only by the
frogs. A lonely night came, when she looked for her star in vain; the
storm overcast the sky, and at length caught her in its fury and bore
her away. Many seasons passed, during which the star was seen,
dimmed and wandering, in the sky. At length, one autumn, it
disappeared. Then a hunter saw a small light hanging over the water
within the marshland in which he was hunting. He returned to
announce the strange sight. “That,” said the old wise man, “was the
star driven from heaven, now wandering in search of our lost
maiden, our beautiful child of the Chippewas.”

THE DAUGHTERS OF THE STARS

(North American Indian)

Waupee, or the White Hawk, lived in a remote part of the forest,

where animals abounded. Every day he returned from the chase
with a large spoil, for he was one of the most skilful and lucky
hunters of his tribe. His form was like the cedar; the fire of youth
beamed from his eye; there was no forest too gloomy for him to
penetrate, and no track made by bird or beast of any kind which he
could not readily follow.
One day he had gone beyond any point which he had ever before
visited. He travelled through an open wood, which enabled him to
see a great distance. At length he beheld a light breaking through
the foliage of the distant trees, which made him sure that he was on
the borders of a prairie. It was a wide plain, covered with long blue
grass, and enamelled with flowers of a thousand lovely tints.
 After walking for some time without a path, musing upon the open
country, and enjoying the fragrant breeze, he suddenly came to a
ring worn among the grass and the flowers, as if it had been made
by footsteps moving lightly round and round. But it was strange—so
strange as to cause the White Hawk to pause and gaze long and
fixedly upon the ground—there was no path which led to this flowery
circle. There was not even a crushed leaf nor a broken twig, nor the
least trace of a footstep, approaching or retiring, to be found. He
thought he would hide himself and lie in wait to discover, if he could,
what this strange circle meant.
Presently he heard the faint sounds of music in the air. He looked
up in the direction they came from, and as the magic notes died
away he saw a small object, like a little summer cloud that
approaches the earth, floating down from above. At first it was very
small, and seemed as if it could have been blown away by the first
breeze that came along; but it rapidly grew as he gazed upon it, and
the music every moment came clearer and more sweetly to his ear.
As it neared the earth it appeared as a basket, and it was filled with
twelve sisters, of the most lovely forms and enchanting beauty.
As soon as the basket touched the ground they leaped out, and
began straightway to dance, in the most joyous manner, around the
magic ring, striking, as they did so, a shining ball, which uttered the
most ravishing melodies, and kept time as they danced.
The White Hawk, from his concealment, entranced, gazed upon
their graceful forms and movements. He admired them all, but he
was most pleased with the youngest. He longed to be at her side, to
embrace her, to call her his own; and unable to remain longer a
silent admirer, he rushed out and endeavored to seize this twelfth
beauty who so enchanted him. But the sisters, with the quickness of
birds, the moment they descried the form of a man, leaped back into
the basket, and were drawn up into the sky.
Lamenting his ill-luck, Waupee gazed longingly upon the fairy
basket as it ascended and bore the lovely sisters from his view.
“They are gone,” he said, “and I shall see them no more.”
 He returned to his solitary lodge, but he found no relief to his
mind. He walked abroad, but to look at the sky, which had
withdrawn from his sight the only being he had ever loved, was
painful to him now.
The next day, selecting the same hour, the White Hawk went back
to the prairie, and took his station near the ring; in order to deceive
the sisters, he assumed the form of an opossum, and sat among the
grass as if he were there engaged in chewing the cud. He had not
waited long when he saw the cloudy basket descend, and heard the
same sweet music falling as before. He crept slowly toward the ring;
but the instant the sisters caught sight of him they were startled,
and sprang into their car. It rose a short distance when one of the
elder sisters spoke.
“Perhaps,” she said, “it has come to show us how the game is
played by mortals.”
“Oh, no!” the youngest replied. “Quick, let us ascend.”
And all joining in a chant, they rose out of sight.
Waupee, casting off his disguise, walked sorrowfully back to his
lodge—but, ah! the night seemed very long to lonely White Hawk.
His whole soul was filled with the thought of the beautiful sister.
Betimes, the next day, he returned to the haunted spot, hoping
and fearing, and sighing as though his very soul would leave his
body in its anguish. He reflected upon the plan he should follow to
secure success. He had already failed twice; to fail a third time
would be fatal. Near by he found an old stump, much covered with
moss, and just then in use as the residence of a number of mice,
who had stopped there on a pilgrimage to some relatives on the
other side of the prairie. The White Hawk was so pleased with their
tidy little forms that he thought he, too, would be a mouse,
especially as they were by no means formidable to look at, and
would not be at all likely to create alarm.
He accordingly, having first brought the stump and set it near the
ring, without further notice became a mouse, and peeped and
sported about, and kept his sharp little eyes busy with the others;
but he did not forget to keep one eye up toward the sky, and one
ear wide open in the same direction.
It was not long before the sisters, at their customary hour, came
down and resumed their sport.
“But see,” cried the younger sister, “that stump was not there
before.”
She ran off, frightened, toward the basket. Her sisters only smiled,
and gathering round the old tree stump, they struck it, in jest, when
out ran the mice, and among them Waupee. They killed them all but
one, which was pursued by the younger sister. Just as she had
raised a silver stick which she held in her hand to put an end to it,
too, the form of the White Hawk arose, and he clasped his prize in
his arms. The other eleven sprang to their basket, and were drawn
up to the skies.
Waupee exerted all his skill to please his bride and win her
affections. He wiped the tears from her eyes; he related his
adventures in the chase; he dwelt upon the charms of life on the
earth. He was constant in his attentions, keeping fondly by her side,
and picking out the way for her to walk as he led her gently toward
his lodge. He felt his heart glow with joy as he entered it, and from
that moment he was one of the happiest of men.
Winter and summer passed rapidly away, and as the spring drew
near with its balmy gales and its many-colored flowers, their
happiness was increased by the presence of a beautiful boy in their
lodge. What more of earthly blessing was there for them to enjoy?
Waupee’s wife was a daughter of one of the stars, and as the
scenes of earth began to pall upon her sight, she sighed to revisit
her father. But she was obliged to hide these feelings from her
husband. She remembered the charm that would carry her up, and
while White Hawk was engaged in the chase, she took occasion to
construct a wicker basket, which she kept concealed. In the
meantime she collected such rarities from the earth as she thought
would please her father, as well as the most dainty kinds of food.
One day when Waupee was absent, and all was in readiness, she
went out to the charmed ring, taking with her her little son. As they
entered the car she commenced her magical song, and the basket
rose. The song was sad, and of a lowly and mournful cadence, and
as it was wafted far away by the wind, it caught her husband’s ear.
It was a voice which he well knew, and he instantly ran to the
prairie. Though he made breathless speed, he could not reach the
ring before his wife and child had ascended beyond his reach. He
lifted up his voice in loud appeals, but they were unavailing. The
basket still went up. He watched it till it became a small speck, and
finally it vanished in the sky. He then bent his head down to the
ground, and was miserable.
Through a long winter and a long summer Waupee bewailed his
loss, but he found no relief. The beautiful spirit had come and gone,
and he should see it no more!
He mourned his wife’s loss sorely, but his son’s still more; for the
boy had both the mother’s beauty and the father’s strength.
In the meantime his wife had reached her home in the stars, and
in the blissful employments of her father’s house she had almost
forgotten that she had left a husband upon the earth. But her son,
as he grew up, resembled more and more his father, and every day
he was restless and anxious to visit the scene of his birth. His
grandfather said to his daughter, one day:
“Go, my child, and take your son down to his father, and ask him
to come up and live with us. But tell him to bring along a specimen
of each kind of bird and animal he kills in the chase.”
She accordingly took the boy and descended. The White Hawk,
who was ever near the enchanted spot, heard her voice as she came
down the sky. His heart beat with impatience as he saw her form
and that of his son, and they were soon clasped in his arms.
 He heard the message of the Star, and he began to hunt with the
greatest activity, that he might collect the presents with all dispatch.
He spent whole nights, as well as days, in searching for every
curious and beautiful animal and bird. He only preserved a foot, a
wing, or a tail of each.
When all was ready, Waupee visited once more each favorite spot
—the hill-top whence he had been used to see the rising sun; the
stream where he had sported as a boy; the old lodge, now looking
sad and solemn, which he was to sit in no more; and, last of all,
coming to the magic circle, he gazed widely around him with tearful
eyes, and, taking his wife and child by the hand, they entered the
car and were drawn up—into a country far beyond the flight of birds,
or the power of mortal eye to pierce.
Great joy was manifested upon their arrival at the starry plains.
The Star Chief invited all his people to a feast; and when they had
assembled, he proclaimed aloud that each one might continue as he
was, an inhabitant of his own dominions, or select of the earthly
gifts such as he liked best. A very strange confusion immediately
arose; not one but sprang forward. Some chose a foot, some a wing,
some a tail, and some a claw. Those who selected tails or claws
were changed into animals, and ran off; the others assumed the
form of birds, and flew away. Waupee chose a white hawk’s feather.
His wife and son followed his example, and each one became a
white hawk. He spread his wings, and, followed by his wife and son,
descended with the other birds to the earth, where he is still to be
found, with the brightness of the starry plains in his eye and the
freedom of the heavenly breezes in his wings.
 CHAPTER VI
MYTHS OF THE SKY AND AIR

The sky and the air are identified with the highest conceptions of divinity
reached in the myths either of savage or more cultured races. The Great Spirit
of the North American Indians was the god of the sky. Varuna, the all-seeing,
merciful god of the Hindoos, was the god of the vault of heaven. Zeus, the
supreme god of the Greeks, was the sky god; also Odin, the great god in
Norse mythology (although above him was a mysterious, unnameable god),
Ormuzd in Persian mythology, Rangi in Polynesian, in Japan the Invisible Lord
of the Middle Heaven. Closely related in power to the gods of the sky are the
gods of wind or storm. Sometimes the god of the sky is himself the wielder of
the thunder, as in the case of Zeus, and sometimes there is a special god of
storm or thunder, as the Indra of the Hindoos or the Thor of the Norsemen. In
Indian myths, Manabozho often wielded the thunder and lightning, and he
has contests with another god of the air, Paup-puk-keewiss, the wind, a
personage full of mischief, as wind gods are apt to be, like the Greek Hermes.
The personification of wind and thunder as birds is very common, and many a
quaint tale results from this mythical idea. The Sioux Indians believed in a
god, Wah-keen-yan, in the form of a large bird, whose flapping wings made
the thunder. He lived in the far, far west, on a mound rising from a mountain
top. To his tent there are four openings, in which there are sentinels clothed
in red down. At the east is a butterfly, at the west a bear; a fawn is at the
south, and a reindeer is at the north. He fashioned the first spear and
tomahawk, and attempted to kill the offspring of Oan-tay-hee, his bitter
enemy. If Oan-tay-hee came near the surface of the earth, then Wah-keen-
yan would fire a hot thunderbolt at him. Another of his enemies was Chaho-
ter’dah, the god of the forest. It was said that the god of thunder often came
racing along, hurling lightning at a tree, to kill the forest god, who, having
been warned, had taken refuge in the water. Then Chaho-ter’dah would
ascend a tree and hurl his lightning at his adversary to bring him down to
submission.
 Aurora. Guido Reni.

Another thunder bird is Sootooch, believed in by the natives of Vancouver’s

Island. He is a mighty bird, dwelling aloft and far away, the flap of whose
wings makes the thunder, and his tongue is the forked lightning. There were
once four of these birds in the land, and they fed on whales. But the great
deity Quawteaht, entering into a whale, enticed one thunder bird after
another to swoop down and seize him with its talons. Then he would plunge
to the bottom of the sea and drown it. Thus three of them perished, but the
last one spread his wings and flew to the distant height, where he has since
remained.
The Dakotahs say that thunder is a large bird flying through the air. Its
bright tracks are seen in the air before you hear the clapping of its wings. The
old bird begins the thunder, but its rumbling noise is caused by an immense
quantity of young birds or thunders that do the mischief. They are like the
young, mischievous men that will not listen to good counsel. The old Thunder
is wise and good, and does not kill anybody nor do any kind of mischief.
The chief god of the Brazilians is a large bird who sweeps over the heavens,
watching his children and watering their crops. He warns them of his presence
by the mighty sound of his voice, the rushing of his wings, and the flash of his
eye. This interesting bird is worshipped in a way befitting his nature. A dry
gourd is filled with pebbles and decked with feathers and arrows, which is
rattled vigorously to symbolize the drama of the storm. This curious
implement has another element of interest in the fact that it is one of the
earliest forms of musical instrument.
 An equally remarkable variety of bird is the wind bird, who wings his way
through all mythologies in one form or another. Although the wind in Greece
had risen to man’s estate, it was still represented as having wings. Even the
wind god Hermes, far removed as he is from the savage idea of the wind,
could not get along without wings for his feet and head. Zeus, also, has a
raven for his messenger, and Odin has the ravens Hugin and Munin, who fly
every day over the whole world and report to him on their return what they
have seen. Besides, there is a Norse god of the winds—a giant who sits in the
northern extremity of heaven, clad in eagle’s plumes. When he spreads out
his wings for flight the winds arise from under them.
The thunder, however, like the wind, even among savages, is sometimes
personified as men, as in the following Algonquin stories:

HOW A HUNTER VISITED THE THUNDER SPIRITS

WHO DWELL IN MOUNT KATAHDIN
(Passamaquoddy)

N’karnayoo. Of old times. Once an Indian went forth to hunt. And he

departed from the east branch of the Penobscot, and came to the head of
another branch that leads into the east branch, and this he followed even to
the foot of Mount Katahdin. And there he hunted many a day alone, and met
none, till one morning in midwinter he found the track of snowshoes. So he
returned to his camp; but the next day he met with it again in a far-distant
place. And thus it was that, wherever he went, this track came to him every
day. Then noting this, as a sign to be observed, he followed it, and it went up
the mountain Katahdin, which, being interpreted, means “the great
mountain,” until at last it was lost in a hard snowshoe road made by many
travellers. And since it was hard and even, he took off his agahmook (P.), or
snowshoes, and went ever on and up with the road; and it was a strange path
and strange was its ending, for it stopped just before a high ledge, like an
immense wall, on a platform at its foot. And there were many signs there, as
of many people, yet he saw no one. And as he stayed it seemed to grow
stranger and stranger. At last he heard a sound as of footsteps coming, yet
within the wall, when lo! a girl stepped directly out of the precipice upon the
platform. But though she was beautiful beyond belief, he was afraid. And to
his every thought she answered in words, and that so sweetly and kindly and
cleverly that he was soon without fear, though he saw that she had powerful
m’téoulin, or great magic power. And they being soon pleased one with the
other, and wanting each other, she bade him accompany her, and that by
walking directly through the rock. “Have no fear,” said she, “but advance
boldly!” So he obeyed, and lo! the rock was as the air, and it gave way as he
went on. And ever as they went the maiden talked to him, answering his
thoughts, so that he spoke not aloud.
And anon they came to a great cavern far within, and there was an old man
seated by a fire, and the old man welcomed him. And he was very kindly
treated by the strange pair all day: in all his life he had never been so happy.
Now as the night drew near, the old man said to his daughter, “Can you hear
aught of your brothers?” Then she went out to the terrace, and, returning,
said, “No.” Then anon he asked her again, and she, going and returning as
before, replied, “Now I hear them coming.” Then they listened, when lo! there
came, as at the door without, a crash of thunder with a flash of lightning, and
out of the light stepped two young men of great beauty, but like giants,
stupendous and of awful mien. And, like their father, their eyebrows were of
stone, while their cheeks were as rocks.
And the hunter was told by their sister that when they went forth, which
was every few days, their father said to them: “Sons, arise! it is time now for
you to go forth over the world and save our friends. Go not too near the
trees, but if you see aught that is harmful to those whom we love, strike, and
spare not!” Then when they went forth they flew on high, among the clouds:
and thus it is that the Thunder and Lightning, whose home is in the mighty
Katahdin, are made. And when the thunder strikes, the brothers are shooting
at the enemies of their friends.
Now when the day was done the hunter returned to his home, and when
there found he had been gone seven years. All this I have heard from the old
people who are dead and gone.

THE THUNDER AND LIGHTNING MEN

(Passamaquoddy)

This is truly an old Indian story of old time. Once an Indian was whirled up
by the roaring wind: he was taken up in a thunder-storm, and set down again
in the village of the Thunders. In after times he described them as very like
human beings: they used bows and arrows (tah-bokque), and had wings.
But these wings can be laid aside, and kept for use. And from time to time
their chief gives these Thunders orders to put them on, and tells them where
to go. He also tells them how long they are to be gone, and warns them not
to go too low, for it is sure death for them to be caught in the crotch of a
tree.
The great chief of the Thunders, hearing of the stranger’s arrival, sent for
him, and received him very kindly, and told him that he would do well to
become one of them. To which the man being willing, the chief soon after
called all his people together to see the ceremony of thunderifying the Indian.
Then they bade him go into a square thing, or box, and while in it he lost
his senses and became a Thunder. Then they brought him a pair of wings,
and he put them on. So he flew about like the rest of the Thunders; he
became quite like them, and followed all their ways. And he said that they
always flew toward the sou’ n’ snook, or south, and that the roar and crash of
the thunder was the sound of their wings. Their great amusement is to play at
ball across the sky. When they return they carefully put away their wings for
their next flight. There is a big bird in the south, and this they are always
trying to kill, but never succeed in doing so.
They made long journeys, and always took him with them. So it went on for
a long time, but it came to pass that the Indian began to tire of his strange
friends. Then he told the chief that he wished to see his family on earth, and
the sagamore listened to him and was very kind. Then he called all his people
together, and said that their brother from the other world was very lonesome,
and wished to return. They were all very sorry indeed to lose him, but
because they loved him they let him have his own way, and decided to carry
him back again. So bidding him close his eyes till he should be on earth, they
carried him down.
The Indians saw a great thunder-storm drawing near; they heard such
thunder as they never knew before, and then something in the shape of a
human being coming down with lightning; then they ran to the spot where he
sat, and it was their long-lost brother, who had been gone seven years.
He had been in the Thunder-world. He told them how he had been playing
ball with the Thunder-boys; yes, how he had been turned into a real Thunder
himself.

HOW GLOOSKAP BOUND WUCHOWSEN, THE GREAT

WIND-BIRD, AND MADE ALL THE WATERS IN ALL
THE WORLD STAGNANT
 (Passamaquoddy)

The Indians believe in a great bird called by them Wochowsen or

Wuchowsen, meaning Wind-Blow or the Wind-Blower, who lives far to the
North, and sits upon a great rock at the end of the sky. And it is because
whenever he moves his wings the wind blows they of old times called him
that.
When Glooskap was among men he often went out in his canoe with bow
and arrows to kill sea-fowl. At one time it was every day very windy; it grew
worse; at last it blew a tempest, and he could not go out at all. Then he said:
“Wuchowsen, the Great Bird, has done this!”
He went to find him; it was long ere he reached his abode. He found sitting
on a high rock a large white Bird.
“Grandfather,” said Glooskap, “you take no compassion on your Koosesek,
your grandchildren. You have caused this wind and storm; it is too much. Be
easier with your wings!”
The Giant Bird replied: “I have been here since ancient times; in the earliest
days, ere aught else spoke, I first moved my wings; mine was the first voice—
and I will ever move my wings as I will.”
Then Glooskap rose in his might; he rose to the clouds; he took the Great
Bird-giant Wuchowsen as though he were a duck, and tied both his wings,
and threw him down into a chasm between deep rocks, and left him lying
there.
The Indians could now go out in their canoes all day long, for there was a
dead calm for many weeks and months. And with that all the waters became
stagnant. They were so thick that Glooskap could not paddle his canoe. Then
he thought of the Great Bird, and went to see him.
As he had left him he found him, for Wuchowsen is immortal. So, raising
him, he put him on his rock again, and untied one of his wings. Since then the
winds have never been so terrible as in the old time.

THE WONDERFUL EXPLOITS OF PAUP-PUK-KEEWISS

A man of large stature found himself standing alone on a prairie. He
thought to himself: “How came I here? Are there no beings on this earth but
myself? I must travel and see. I must walk till I find the abodes of men.”
 So soon as his mind was made up he set out, he knew not whither, in
search of habitations. He was a resolute fellow, and no difficulties could turn
him from his purpose: neither prairies, rivers, woods, nor storms had the
effect to daunt his courage or turn him back. After travelling a long time he
came to a wood, in which he saw decayed stumps of trees, as if they had
been cut in ancient times, but no other trace of men. Pursuing his journey, he
found more recent marks of the same kind; after this he came upon fresh
traces of human beings; first their footsteps, and then the wood they had
felled, lying in heaps. Pushing on, he emerged toward dusk from the forest,
and beheld at a distance a large village of high lodges standing on rising
ground.
“I am tired of this dog-trot,” he said to himself. “I will arrive there on a run.”
He started off with all his speed. On coming to the first lodge, without any
especial exertion, he jumped over it, and found himself standing by the door
on the other side. Those within saw something pass over the opening in the
roof, and then they heard a thump upon the ground. “What is that?” they all
said, and one ran out to see and invited him in. He found himself in company
with an old chief and several men who were seated in the lodge. Meat was set
before him, after which the old chief asked him whither he was going, and
what was his name. He answered that he was in search of adventures, and
that his name was “Paup-puk-keewiss.”
They all opened their eyes upon the stranger with a broad stare.
“Paup-puk-keewiss!” whispered one to another, and a general titter went
round.
They invited him to stay with them, which he was inclined to do, for it was
a pleasant village, but so small as constantly to embarrass Paup-puk-keewiss.
He was in perpetual trouble; whenever he shook hands with a stranger to
whom he might be introduced, such was the abundance of his strength,
without meaning it, he wrung his arm off at the shoulder. Once or twice, in
mere sport, he cuffed the boys about the lodge by the side of the head, and
they flew out of sight as though they had been shot from a bow; nor could
they ever be found again, though they were searched for in all the country
round, far and wide. If Paup-puk-keewiss proposed to himself a short stroll in
the morning, he was at once miles out of town. When he entered a lodge, if
he happened for a moment to forget himself, he walked straight through the
leathern, or wooden, or earthen walls as if he had been merely passing
through a bush. At his meals he broke in pieces all the dishes, set them down
as lightly as he would; and, putting a leg out of bed when he rose, it was a
common thing for him to push off the top of the lodge.
He wanted more elbow-room, and after a short stay, in which, by the
accidental letting go of his strength, he had nearly laid waste the whole place,
and filled it with demolished lodges and broken pottery and one-armed men,
he made up his mind to go farther, taking with him a young man who had
formed a strong attachment for him, and who might serve him as his pipe-
bearer; for Paup-puk-keewiss was a huge smoker, and vast clouds followed
him wherever he went, so that people could say, “Paup-puk-keewiss is
coming!” by the mighty smoke he raised.
They set out together, and when his companion was fatigued with walking,
Paup-puk-keewiss would put him forward on his journey a mile or two by
giving him a cast in the air and lighting him in a soft place among the trees,
or in a cool spot in a water-pond, among the sedges and water-lilies. At other
times he would lighten the way by showing off a few tricks, such as leaping
over trees, and turning round on one leg till he made the dust fly; at which
the pipe-bearer was mightily pleased, although it sometimes happened that
the character of these gambols frightened him. For Paup-puk-keewiss would,
without the least hint of such an intention, jump into the air far ahead, and it
would cost the little pipe-bearer half a day’s hard travel to come up with him;
and then the dust Paup-puk-keewiss raised was often so thick and heavy as
completely to bury the poor little pipe-bearer, and compel Paup-puk-keewiss
to dig diligently and with might and main to get him out alive.
One day they came to a very large village, where they were well received.
After staying in it some time (in the course of which Paup-puk-keewiss, in a fit
of abstraction, walked straight through the sides of three lodges without
stopping to look for the door), they were informed of a number of wicked
spirits, who lived at a distance, and who made it a practice to kill all who
came to their lodge. Attempts had been made to destroy them, but they had
always proved more than a match for such as had come out against them.
Paup-puk-keewiss determined to pay them a visit, although he was strongly
advised not to do so. The chief of the village warned him of the great danger
he would incur, but finding Paup-puk-keewiss resolved, he said:
“Well, if you will go, being my guest I will send twenty warriors to serve
you.”
Paup-puk-keewiss thanked him for the offer, although he suggested that he
thought he could get along without them, at which the little pipe-bearer
grinned, for his master had never shown in that village what he could do, and
the chief thought that he, Paup-puk-keewiss, would be likely to need twenty
warriors, at the least, to encounter the wicked spirits with any chance of
success. Twenty young men made their appearance. They set forward, and
after about a day’s journey they descried the lodge of the Manitoes.
Paup-puk-keewiss placed his friend, Pipe-bearer, and the warriors near
enough to see all that passed, while he went alone to the lodge.
As he entered, Paup-puk-keewiss saw five horrid-looking Manitoes in the act
of eating. It was the father and his four sons. They were really hideous to
look upon. Their eyes were swimming low in their heads, and they glared
about as if they were half starved. They offered Paup-puk-keewiss something
to eat, which he politely refused, for he had a strong suspicion that it was the
thigh-bone of a man.
“What have you come for?” said the old one.
“Nothing,” answered Paup-puk-keewiss.
They all stared at him.
“Do you not wish to wrestle?” they all asked.
“Yes,” replied Paup-puk-keewiss, “I don’t mind if I do take a turn.”
Pipe-bearer, who stood near enough to overhear the conversation, grinned
from ear to ear when he caught this remark. A hideous smile came over the
faces of the Manitoes.
“You go,” they said to the eldest brother.
The two got ready—the Manito and Paup-puk-keewiss—and they were soon
clinched in each other’s arms for a deadly throw. Paup-puk-keewiss knew their
object—his death; they wanted a taste of his body, and he was determined
they should have it, perhaps in a different sense from that they intended.
“Haw! haw!” they cried, and soon the dust and dry leaves flew about as if
driven by a strong wind. The Manito was strong, but Paup-puk-keewiss
thought he could master him; and all at once, giving him a sly trip as the
wicked spirit was trying to finish his breakfast with a piece out of his shoulder,
he sent the Manito headforemost against a stone, and, calling aloud to the
three others, he bade them come and take the body away.
The brothers now stepped forth in quick succession, but Paup-puk-keewiss,
having got his blood up and limbered himself by exercise, soon dispatched the
three—sending one this way, another that, and the third straight up into the
air so high that he never came down again.