Fundamentals of Python

DSC-100

LAB MANUAL
Name : Dipesh Jha
System ID: 2023340540
Roll no. : 2302040076
Program : MBA
Semester : 3rd
Specialization : Finance & Business Analytics
 INDEX OF EXPERIMENTS

S.No. Title Page No. Faculty Sign

1. Introduction to python programming 1

2. To study strings in Python 14

3. To study conditional statements in python 16

4. To study Loops in Python 18

5. To study python arrays, list, tuples, set, dictionary 20

6. To study functions in python 36

7. To study classes in python 38

 Assignment: 1

Aim:- Introduction to Python Programming.

Theory:- Python is a general-purpose interpreted, interactive, object-oriented, and high-level

programming language. It was created by Guido van Rossum during 1985- 1990. Like Perl, Python
source code is also available under the GNU General Public License (GPL). This tutorial gives
enough understanding on Python programming language.

Prerequisites
You should have a basic understanding of Computer Programming terminologies. A basic
understanding of any of the programming languages is a plus.

Python is a high-level, interpreted, interactive and object-oriented scripting language. Python is

designed to be highly readable. It uses English keywords frequently where as other languages use
punctuation, and it has fewer syntactical constructions than other languages.

• Python is Interpreted − Python is processed at runtime by the interpreter. You do not need to
compile your program before executing it. This is similar to PERL and PHP.
• Python is Interactive − You can actually sit at a Python prompt and interact with the interpreter
directly to write your programs.

• Python is Object-Oriented − Python supports Object-Oriented style or technique of programming

that encapsulates code within objects.

• Python is a Beginner's Language − Python is a great language for the beginner-level programmers
and supports the development of a wide range of applications from simple text processing to WWW
browsers to games.
History of Python
Python was developed by Guido van Rossum in the late eighties and early nineties at the National
Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer Science in the Netherlands.

Python is derived from many other languages, including ABC, Modula-3, C, C++, Algol-68,
SmallTalk, and Unix shell and other scripting languages.

Python is copyrighted. Like Perl, Python source code is now available under the GNU General
Public License (GPL).
Python is now maintained by a core development team at the institute, although Guido van
Rossum still holds a vital role in directing its progress.

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 Python Features
Python's features include −

• Easy-to-learn − Python has few keywords, simple structure, and a clearly defined syntax. This allows
the student to pick up the language quickly.
• Easy-to-read − Python code is more clearly defined and visible to the eyes.

• Easy-to-maintain − Python's source code is fairly easy-to-maintain.

• A broad standard library − Python's bulk of the library is very portable and cross-platform compatible
on UNIX, Windows, and Macintosh.

• Interactive Mode − Python has support for an interactive mode which allows interactive testing and
debugging of snippets of code.
• Portable − Python can run on a wide variety of hardware platforms and has the same interface on all
platforms.

• Extendable − You can add low-level modules to the Python interpreter. These modules enable
programmers to add to or customize their tools to be more efficient.
• Databases − Python provides interfaces to all major commercial databases.

• GUI Programming − Python supports GUI applications that can be created and ported to many system
calls, libraries and windows systems, such as Windows MFC, Macintosh, and the X Window system of
Unix.
• Scalable − Python provides a better structure and support for large programs than shell scripting.

Apart from the above-mentioned features, Python has a big list of good features, few are listedbelow −
• It supports functional and structured programming methods as well as OOP.

• It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for building large applications.
• It provides very high-level dynamic data types and supports dynamic type checking.
• It supports automatic garbage collection.

• It can be easily integrated with C, C++, COM, ActiveX, CORBA, and Java.

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First Python Program:

1. Open notepad and type following program

Print (“Hello World”)

2. Save above program with name.py

3. Open command prompt and change path to python program location

4. Type “python name.py” (without quotes) to run the program.

Operators are the constructs which can manipulate the value of operands.

Consider the expression 4 + 5 = 9. Here, 4 and 5 are called operands and + is called operator.

Python Variables: Declare, Concatenate, Global & Local

What is a Variable in Python?

A Python variable is a reserved memory location to store values. In other words, a variable in a python
program gives data to the computer for processing.

Every value in Python has a datatype. Different data types in Python are Numbers, List, Tuple, Strings,
Dictionary, etc. Variables can be declared by any name or even alphabets like a, aa, abc, etc.

How to Declare and use a Variable

Let see an example. We will declare variable "a" and print it.
a=100
print a

Python 1 Example

# Declare a variable and initialize it

f=0
print f
# re-declaring the variable works
f = 'guru99'
print f

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 Python 2 Example

# Declare a variable and initialize it

f=0
print(f)
# re-declaring the variable works
f = 'guru99'
print(f)

List of some different variable types

x = 123 # integer

x = 123L # long integer

x = 3.14 # double float

x = "hello" # string

x = [0,1,2] # list

x = (0,1,2) # tuple

x = open(‘hello.py’, ‘r’) # file

Constants

A constant is a type of variable whose value cannot be changed. It is helpful to

think of constantsas containers that hold information which cannot be changed
later.

Non technically, you can think of constant as a bag to store some books and
those books cannotbe replaced once place inside the bag.

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Assigning value to a constant in Python

In Python, constants are usually declared and assigned on a module. Here, the module means anew file
containing variables, functions etc which is imported to main file. Inside the module, constants are
written in all capital letters and underscores separating the words.

Example 3: Declaring and assigning value to a constant

Create a constant.py
1. PI = 3.14
2. GRAVITY =
9.8
Create a main.py
1. import constant
2.
3. print(constant.PI)
4. print(constant.GRAVIT
Y)
When you run the program, the output will be:

3.14
9.8

Types of Operator
Python language supports the following types of operators.

• Arithmetic Operators
• Comparison (Relational) Operators
• Assignment Operators
• Logical Operators
• Bitwise Operators
• Membership Operators
• Identity Operators
Let us have a look on all operators one by one.

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Python Arithmetic Operators
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then −

Operator Descriptio Example

n

+ Addition Adds values on either side of the operator. a+b

=30

- Subtraction Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand. a–b=
10

* Multiplies values on either side of the operator a*b=

Multiplication 200

/ Division Divides left hand operand by right hand operand b/a=2

% Modulus Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and returns b%a=0
remainder

** Exponent Performs exponential (power) calculation on operators a**b =10

to the
power
20

// Floor Division - The division of operands where the result is 9//2 = 4

the quotient in which the digits after the decimal point are and

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 removed. But if one of the operands is negative, the result is 9.0//2.0
floored, i.e., rounded away from zero (towards negative = 4.0,
infinity) − 11//3 =
-4, -
11.0//3
= -4.0

Python Comparison Operators

These operators compare the values on either sides of them and decide the
relation among them.They are also called Relational operators.
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable
b holds 20, then −[ Show Example ]

Operator Description Example

== If the values of two operands are equal, then the condition (a == b) is

becomes true. not true.

!= If values of two operands are not equal, then condition becomes (a != b) is

true. true.

<> If values of two operands are not equal, then condition becomes (a <> b) is
true. true. This
is similar
to
!=
operator.

> If the value of left operand is greater than the value of right (a > b) is
operand, then condition becomes true. not true.

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 < If the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand, (a < b)
then condition becomes true. istrue.

>= If the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of (a >= b)
right operand, then condition becomes true. isnot
true.

<= If the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value ofright (a <= b)
operand, then condition becomes true. istrue.

Python Assignment Operators

Assume variable a holds 10 and variable
b holds 20, then −[ Show Example ]

Operator Description Example

= Assigns values from right side operands to left side operand c=a+b
assigns
value of a
+ b into c

+= Add AND It adds right operand to the left operand and assign the c += a is
result to left operand equivalent
to c = c +
a

-= Subtract It subtracts right operand from the left operand and assign c -= a is
AND the result to left operand equivalent
to c = c - a

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 *= It multiplies right operand with the left operand and assignthe
Multiply result to left operand c *= a is
AND equivalent

to c = c * a

/= Divide AND It divides left operand with the right operand and assign the c /= a is
result to left operand equivalent
to c = c /
ac /= a is
equivalent
to c = c / a

%= It takes modulus using two operands and assign the result to c %= a is

Modulus left operand equivalent
AND to c = c %
a

**= Exponent Performs exponential (power) calculation on operators and c **= a is

AND assign value to the left operand equivalent
to c = c **
a

//= Floor It performs floor division on operators and assign value tothe c //= a is
Division left operand equivalent
to c = c //
a

Python Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit by bit operation. Assume if a
= 60; and b = 13;Now in binary format they will be as follows − a = 0011
1100 b = 0000 1101

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 a&b = 0000 1100

a|b = 0011 1101 a^b

= 0011 0001

~a = 1100 0011

There are following Bitwise operators supported

by Python language[ Show Example ]

Operator Description Example

& Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the result if it exists in both (a & b)
operands (means
0000 1100)

| Binary OR It copies a bit if it exists in either operand. (a | b) = 61

(means
0011 1101)

^ Binary XOR It copies the bit if it is set in one operand but not (a ^ b) = 49
both. (means
0011 0001)

~ Binary Ones It is unary and has the effect of 'flipping' bits. (~a ) = -61
Complement (means 1100
0011
in 2's
complement
form due to
a signed
binary
number.

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 << Binary Left Shift The left operands value is moved left by the numberof a << 2 = 240
bits specified by the right operand. (means
1111 0000)

>> Binary Right The left operands value is moved right by the a >> 2 = 15
Shift number of bits specified by the right operand. (means
0000 1111)

Python Logical Operators

There are following logical operators supported by Python language.
Assume variable a holds10 and variable b holds 20 then

[ Show Example ]
Operator Descriptio Example

and If both the operands are true then condition becomes true. (a and
Logical b) is
AND true.

or Logical OR If any of the two operands are non-zero then condition (a or b)

becomes true. is true.

not Used to reverse the logical state of its operand. Not(a

Logical and b) is
NOT false.

Used to reverse the logical state of its operand.

Python Membership Operators
Python’s membership operators test for membership in a sequence, such as
strings, lists, ortuples. There are two membership operators as explained
below −
[ Show Example ]

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Operator Description Example

In Evaluates to true if it finds a variable in the specified sequenceand

x in y,
false otherwise.
here inresults in

a 1 if x is a member
of sequencey.

not in Evaluates to true if it does not finds a variable in the specified x not in y,here not
sequence and false otherwise. in results in
a 1 if x is not a
member of
sequencey.

Python Identity Operators

Identity operators compare the memory locations of two objects. There are
two Identityoperators explained below −
[ Show Example ]
Operator Descriptio Example
n

Is Evaluates to true if the variables on either side of the x is y, here isresults

operatorpoint to the same object and false otherwise. in 1 ifid(x) equals
id(y).
is not Evaluates to false if the variables on either side of the x is not y, here is
operator point to the same object and true otherwise. notresults in 1 if
id(x) is
not equal toid(y).
Python Operators Precedence
The following table lists all operators from highest
precedence to lowest.[ Show Example ]

Sr.No. Operator & Description

**
1 Exponentiation (raise to the power)
~+- Page | 12
2
Complement, unary plus and minus (method names for the last two are +@ and -
@)
 <= < > >=
8
Comparison operators
<> == !=
9
Equality operators
= %= /= //= -= += *= **=
10
Assignment operators
Is, is not
11
Identity operators
In, not in
12
Membership operators
not, or, and
13 Logical operators

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 Assignment 2
Aim: To study strings in Python
Theory:
String Literals

String literals in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or double quotation marks.

is th'hello
e sa m' e as "hello".

You can display a string literal with the print() function:

Example
print("Hello") print('Hello')Assign String to a Variable

Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable name followed by an equal sign and the string:
Example
a = "Hello"print(a)

Multiline Strings

You can assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes:

Example

You can use three double quotes:

a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,consectetur adipiscing elit,

sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.""" print(a)
Or three single quotes: Example
a = '''Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscingelit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.''' print(a)

Strings are Arrays

Like many other popular programming languages, strings in Python are arrays of bytes representingunicode
characters.

However, Python does not have a character data type, a single character is simply a string with a length

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 of 1. Square brackets can be used to access elements of the string.
Example

Get the character at position 1 (remember that the first character has the position 0):

a = "Hello, World!" print(a[1])

Example

Substring. Get the characters from position 2 to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"print(b[2:5])

In-bulit Functions in Python:

1. Strip():Removes all leading whitespace in string.

2. len(string):Returns the length of the string
3. upper():Converts lowercase letters in string to uppercase.
4. Lower(): Vice versa
5. split(str="", num=string.count(str)):Splits string according to delimiter str
(space if not provided)and returns list of substrings; split into at most num
substrings if given.
6. replace(old, new [, max]):Replaces all occurrences of old in string with
new or at most maxoccurrences if max given.
7. find(str, beg=0 end=len(string)):Determine if str occurs in string or in
a substring of string ifstarting index beg and ending index end are given
returns index if found and -1 otherwise

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 Assignment: 3

Aim: To study conditional statements in python

Theory:

Decision making is anticipation of conditions occurring while execution of the program

and specifying actions taken according to the conditions.

Decision structures evaluate multiple expressions which produce TRUE or FALSE as

outcome. You need to determine which action to take and which statements to execute if
outcome is TRUE or FALSE otherwise.

Following is the general form of a typical decision- making structure found in

mostof the programming languages −

Python programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null values as TRUE,
and if it iseither zero or null, then it is assumed as FALSE value.

Python programming language provides following types of decision making statements.

Click thefollowing links to check their detail.

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 Sr. No. Statement & Description

if statements
1
An if statement consists of a boolean expression followed by one or
morestatements.
if...else statements
2
An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement,
which executeswhen the boolean expression is FALSE.
nested if statements
3
You can use one if or else if statement inside another if or else
ifstatement(s).
Let us go through each decision making briefly −Single Statement Suites
If the suite of an if clause consists only of a single line, it may go on the same line as the
header
statement.

Here is an example of a one-line if clause −

var = 100 if ( var == 100 ) : print "Value of

expression is 100" print "Good bye!"

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

Value of expression is 100 Good

bye!

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 Assignment: 4
Aim: To study Loops in Python
Theory:

In general, statements are executed sequentially: The

first statement in a function is executed first,
followed by the second, and so on. There may be a
situation when you need to execute a block of code
several number of times.

Programming languages provide various control

structures that allow for more complicated execution
paths.
A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or
group of statements multiple times. The following
diagram illustrates a loop statement −
Python programming language provides following
types of loops to handle looping requirements.

Sr. No. Loop Type & Description

1 while loop
Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is
TRUE. It teststhe condition before executing the loop body.

for loop
2
Executes a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the
code thatmanages the loop variable.
nested loops
3
You can use one or more loop inside any another while, for or do..while
loop.

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Loop Control Statements
Loop control statements change execution from its normal sequence. When execution
leaves ascope, all automatic objects that were created in that scope are destroyed.
Python supports the following control statements. Click the following links to check their
detail.Let us go through the loop control statements briefly

Sr. No. Control Statement & Description

1
break statement

Terminates the loop statement and transfers execution to the statement

immediately following the loop.

2
continue statement
Causes the loop to skip the remainder of its body and immediately retest its
conditionprior to reiterating.

3 pass statement
The pass statement in Python is used when a statement is required
syntacticallybut youdo not want any command or code to execute.

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 Assignment 5
Aim: To study python arrays, list, tuples, set, dictionary
Theory: What is an Array?

An array is a special variable, which can hold more than one value at a time. If you have
a list ofitems (a list of car names, for example), storing the cars in single variables could
look like this:

car1 = "Ford" car2

= "Volvo" car3 ="BMW"

However, what if you want to loop through the cars and find a specific one? And what if
you hadnot 3 cars, but 300?

The solution is an array!

An array can hold many values under a single name, and you can access the values by
referring toan index number.

Access the Elements of an Array

You refer to an array element by referring to the index number.

Example

Get the value of the first array item:

x = cars[0]

Example

Modify the value of the first array item:

cars[0] = "Toyota"

The Length of an Array

Use the len() method to return the length of an array (the number of elements in an array).
Example

Return the number of elements in the cars array:

x = len(cars)

Note: The length of an array is always one more than the highest array index.
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 Looping Array Elements

You can use the for in loop to loop through all the elements of an array.
Example

Print each item in the cars array:

for x in cars:print(x)

Adding Array Elements

You can use the append() method to add an element to an array.

Example

Add one more element to the cars array:

cars.append("Honda")

Removing Array Elements

You can use the pop() method to remove an element from the array.
Example

Delete the second element of the cars array:

cars.pop(1)

You can also use the remove() method to remove an element from the array.
Example

Delete the element that has the value "Volvo":

cars.remove("Volvo")

Note: The remove() method only removes the first occurrence of the specified value.

Array Methods

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists/arrays.

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 Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

Returns the number of elements with the specified
count()
value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end
of the current list

Returns the index of the first element with the

index()
specified value

Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can be used
instead

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the first item with the specified value

reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

Python List:
The list is a most versatile datatype available in Python which can be written as a list of
comma separated values (items) between square brackets. Important thing about a list is
that items in a list need not be of the same type.
Creating a list is as simple as putting different comma-separated values between square
brackets.For example −

list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];

list2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ]; list3 = ["a", "b", "c", "d"]
Similar to string indices, list indices start at 0, and lists can be sliced, concatenated and so
on.
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Accessing Values in Lists
To access values in lists, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or
indices to obtain value available at that index. For example −

list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];

list2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ];

print "list1[0]: ", list1[0]

print "list2[1:5]: ", list2[1:5]

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

list1[0]: physics list2[1:5]:
[2, 3, 4, 5]
Updating Lists
You can update single or multiple elements of lists by giving the slice on the left-hand side
of the assignment operator, and you can add to elements in a list with the append()
method. For example −

list = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];

print "Value available at index 2 : " print

list[2] list[2] = 2001; print "New value

available at index 2 : " print list[2]

Note − append() method is discussed in subsequent section. When the above code is
executed, it produces the following result −
Value available at index 2 :
1997
New value available at index 2 :
2001
Delete List Elements
To remove a list element, you can use either the del statement if you know exactly which
element(s) you are deleting or the remove() method if you do not know. For example −

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list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000]; print list1

del list1[2]; print "After deleting value

at index 2 : " print list1

When the above code is executed, it produces following result −

['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000] After deleting value at index 2 :

['physics', 'chemistry', 2000]
Note − remove() method is discussed in subsequent section.
Basic List Operations
Lists respond to the + and * operators much like strings; they mean concatenation and
repetitionhere too, except that the result is a new list, not a string.
In fact, lists respond to all of the general sequence operations we used on strings in the
priorchapter.

Python Results Description

Expression

len([1, 2, 3]) 3 Length

[1, 2, 3] + [4, 5, [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] Concatenation

6]

['Hi!'] * 4 ['Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!', Repetition

'Hi!']

3 in [1, 2, 3] True Membership

for x in [1, 2, 3]: 123 Iteration

print x,

Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes

Because lists are sequences, indexing and slicing work the same way for lists as they
do forstrings.
Assuming following input −

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 Python Results Description
Expression

L[2] SPAM! Offsets start at

zero

L[-2] Spam count from the

right

L[1:] ['Spam', Slicing fetches

'SPAM!'] sections
Built-in List Functions & Methods
Python includes the following list functions −

Sr. No. Function with Description

1
cmp(list1, list2)

Compares elements of both lists.

2
len(list)
Gives the total length of the list.

3
max(list)
Returns item from the list with max value.

4
min(list)
Returns item from the list with min value.

5
list(seq)
Converts a tuple into list.

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Python includes following list methods

Sr.No. Methods with Description

1 list.append(obj)

Appends object obj to list

list.count(obj)
2 Returns count of how many times obj occurs in list

list.extend(seq)
3 Appends the contents of seq to list

list.index(obj)
4 Returns the lowest index in list that obj appears

list.insert(index, obj)
5 Inserts object obj into list at offset index

list.pop(obj=list[-1])
6 Removes and returns last object or obj from list

list.remove(obj)
7 Removes object obj from list

list.reverse()
8 Reverses objects of list in place

list.sort([func])
9 Sorts objects of list, use compare func if given

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Python Tuple:
A tuple is a sequence of immutable Python objects. Tuples are sequences, just like lists.
The differences between tuples and lists are, the tuples cannot be changed unlike lists and
tuples use parentheses, whereas lists use square brackets.
Creating a tuple is as simple as putting different comma-separated values. Optionally you
can putthese comma-separated values between parentheses also. For example −

tup1 = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000);

tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ); tup3 = "a", "b", "c", "d";
The empty tuple is written as two parentheses containing nothing −
tup1 = ();
To write a tuple containing a single value you have to include a comma, even though there
is onlyone value −

tup1 = (50,);
Like string indices, tuple indices start at 0, and they can be sliced, concatenated, and so
on.
Accessing Values in Tuples
To access values in tuple, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or
indices toobtain value available at that index. For example −

tup1 = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000); tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ); print

"tup1[0]: ", tup1[0]; print "tup2[1:5]: ", tup2[1:5];

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

tup1[0]: physics tup2[1:5]:
[2, 3, 4, 5]
Updating Tuples
Tuples are immutable which means you cannot update or change the values of tuple
elements. You are able to take portions of existing tuples to create new tuples as the
following example demonstrates −

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 tup1 = (12, 34.56); tup2
= ('abc', 'xyz');

# Following action is not valid for tuples

# tup1[0] = 100;

# So let's create a new tuple as follows

tup3 = tup1 + tup2; print

tup3;

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

(12, 34.56, 'abc', 'xyz')

Delete Tuple Elements

Removing individual tuple elements is not possible. There is, of course, nothing
wrong withputting together another tuple with the undesired elements discarded.
To explicitly remove an entire tuple, just use the del statement. For example −

tup = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000); print tup; del tup; print "After

deleting tup : "; print tup;

This produces the following result. Note an exception raised, this is because after del tup
tupledoes not exist any more −
('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000) After
deleting tup :
Traceback (most recent call last): File
"test.py", line 9, in <module> print
tup;
NameError: name 'tup' is not defined

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Basic Tuples Operations
Tuples respond to the + and * operators much like strings; they mean concatenation
andrepetition here too, except that the result is a new tuple, not a string.
In fact, tuples respond to all of the general sequence operations we used on strings in the
priorchapter −

Python Expression Results Description

len((1, 2, 3)) 3 Length

(1, 2, 3) + (4, 5, 6) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) Concatenation

('Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!',

('Hi!',) * 4 Repetition
'Hi!')

3 in (1, 2, 3) True Membership

for x in (1, 2, 3):

print x, 123 Iteration

Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes

Because tuples are sequences, indexing and slicing work the same way for tuples as they
do forstrings. Assuming following input −

L = ('spam', 'Spam', 'SPAM!')

Python Results Description

Expression

L[2] 'SPAM!' Offsets start at

zero

L[-2] 'Spam' count from the

right

L[1:] ['Spam', Slicing fetches

'SPAM!'] sections

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No Enclosing Delimiters
Any set of multiple objects, comma-separated, written without identifying symbols, i.e.,
brackets for lists, parentheses for tuples, etc., default to tuples, as indicated in these short
examples −

print 'abc', -4.24e93, 18+6.6j, 'xyz';

x, y = 1, 2; print "Value of x , y : ",

x,y;

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

abc -4.24e+93 (18+6.6j) xyz Value
of x , y : 1 2

Built-in Tuple Functions

Python includes the following tuple functions –

Sr.No. Function with Description

cmp(tuple1, tuple2)
1
Compares elements of both tuples.
len(tuple)
2 Gives the total length of the tuple.

max(tuple)
3 Returns item from the tuple with max value.

min(tuple)
4 Returns item from the tuple with min value.

5
tuple(seq)
Converts a list into tuple.

Python Sets:

A set is a collection which is unordered and unindexed. In Python sets are written
with curlybrackets.

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 Example

Create a Set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}print(thisset)

Note: Sets are unordered, so the items will appear in a random order.
Access Items

You cannot access items in a set by referring to an index, since sets are unordered the
items hasno index.
But you can loop through the loop, or ask if a specified
setitems using a f valueis present in a

r
set, by using thein keyword.

Example

Loop through the set, and

printthe values:
thisset = {"apple",
"banana","cherry"}

for x in thisset:print(x)

Example

Check if "banana" is present in the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}print("banana" in thisset)

Change Items

Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.

Add Items

To add one item to a set use the add() method.

To add more than one item to a set use the update() method.
Example

Add an item to a set, using the add() method:

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thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}thisset.add("orange")

print(thisset)

Example

Add multiple items to a set, using the update() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"} thisset.update(["orange", "mango", "grapes"])

print(thisset)

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Get the Length of a Set

To determine how many items a set has, use the len() method.
Example

Get the number of items in a set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}print(len(thisset)

Remove Item

To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard() method.

Example

Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}thisset.remove("banana") print(thisset)

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.

Example

Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}thisset.discard("banana") print(thisset)

You can also use thepop(), method to remove an item, but this method will remove item
ts are unordered, so you will not know what item that gets last
removed

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, discard() will NOT raise an error.

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The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.
Example

Remove the last item by using the pop() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}x = thisset.pop()

print(x) print(thisset)

thisset.clear()print(thisset)

Dictionary

A dictionary is a collection which is unordered, changeable and indexed. In Python

dictionariesare written with curly brackets, and they have keys and values.

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 Example

Create and print a dictionary:

thisdict = { "brand": "Ford",

"model": "Mustang","year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)

Accessing Items

You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside square
Example

Get the value of the "model" key:

brackets:
x = thisdict["model"]

There is also a method called get() that will give you the same result:

Example

Get the value of the "model" key:

x = thisdict.get("model")

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 Assignment:6
Aim: To study functions in python
Theory:

A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called. You can pass data,
known asparameters, into a function. A function can return data as a result.

Creating a Function

In Python a function is defined using the def keyword:

Example

my_function(): print("Hello from a function")

Calling a Function

To call a function, use the function name followed by parenthesis:

Example

def my_function(): print("Hello from a function") my_function()

Parameters

Information can be passed to functions as parameter. Parameters are specified after the
function name, inside the parentheses. You can add as many parameters as you want, just
separate them with a comma. The following example has a function with one parameter
(fname). When the function is called, we pass along a first name, which is used inside the
function to print the full name:

Example

def my_function(fname): print(fname + " Refsnes")

my_function("Emil") my_function("Tobias")
my_function("Linus") Default Parameter

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 Value

The following example shows how to use a default parameter value. If we call the
functionwithout parameter, it uses the default value:

Example

def my_function(country = "Norway"):

print("I am from " + country)

my_function("Sweden") my_function("India") my_function()my_function("Brazil")

Passing a List as a Parameter

You can send any data types of parameter to a function (string, number, list, dictionary
etc.), and it will be treated as the same data type inside the function. E.g. if you send a List
as a parameter,it will still be a List when it reaches the function:

Example

def my_function(food): for x in food:print(x)

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]my_function(fruits)

Return Values

To let a function return a value, use the return statement:

Example

def my_function(x):
return 5 * x

print(my_function(3)) print(my_function(5))print(my_function(9)) Recursion

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Python also accepts function recursion, which means a defined function can call itself.
Recursion is a common mathematical and programming concept. It means that a function
calls itself. This has the benefit of meaning that you can loop through data to reach a
result.

The developer should be very careful with recursion as it can be quite easy to slip into
writing a function which never terminates, or one that uses excess amounts of memory or
processor power. However, when written correctly recursion can be a very efficient and
mathematically elegant approach to programming.

In this example, tri_recursion() is a function that we have defined to call itself ("recurse").
We use the k variable as the data, which decrements-1) every time we recurse. The
recursion ends when

the condition is not greater than 0 (i.e. when it is 0).

To a new developer it can take some time to work out how exactly this works, best way
to findout is by testing and modifying it.
Example

Recursion Example

def tri_recursion(k):
if(k>0):
result = k+tri_recursion(k-1)print(result)
else: result
=0
return result

print("\n\nRecursion Example Results") tri_recursion(6)

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 Assignment:7
Aim: To study classes in python
Theory:
Python Classes/Objects

Python is an object oriented programming language.

Almost everything in Python is an object, with its properties and methods.A Class is like

an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.

Create a Class
To create a class, use the keyword class:

Example

Create a class named MyClass, with a property named x:

class MyClass:
x=5

Create Object
Now we can use the class named myClass to create objects:
Example

Create an object named p1, and print the value of x:

p1 = MyClass()print(p1.x)

The init () Function

The examples above are classes and objects in their simplest form, and are not really
useful inreal life applications.

To understand the meaning of classes we have to understand the built-in init ()

function. All classes have a function called init (), which is always executed when
the class is beinginitiated.

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Use the init () function to assign values to object properties, or other
operations that arenecessary to do when the object is being created:
Example

Create a class named Person, use the init () function to assign values for name and age:

class Person:
def init (self, name, age):self.name = name
self.age = age

p1 = Person("John", 36) print(p1.name) print(p1.age)

X–X-X

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