What is communication?

In the electronic world, it is the transfer of data and information from one location to
another. "Data communications" or "datacom" refers to digital transmission.
"Telecommunications" or "telecom" refers to voice or a mix of voice and data, both
analog and digital. Although all long distance trunks are digital, and digital lines get
closer to the end user all the time, there is still analog service into homes and offices.

The term "communications" may refer only to telecom-related subjects such as PBXs,
modems, call centers and the like. However, the word is also a common English word
such as in the "Analog Vs. Digital Communications" headline below. Thus,
"communications" is used specifically in some cases and generically in others.

Network Sizes

Networking involves the interconnection of workstations, terminals and other networked

devices, these include File Server, Printer server, Gateway, Modem, Bridges, Routers,
Multiplexer, Repeaters, Ethernet cards, Hubs, Co-axial and/or Optical cables (in some
cases), Dedicated Telephone Lines, e.t.c. In most cases the network allows computers
of different types to intercommunicate using a network protocol which is more important
to communication than their actual make.

Networking Methods

Networking is a complex part of computing that makes up most of the IT Industry.

Without networks, almost all communication in the world would cease to happen. It is
because of networking that telephones, televisions, the internet, etc. work.

There are two (broad) types of networks in existence at the moment. These are:

Local Area Network (LAN)

Local Area Networks (LANs): This is a group of computers and associated devices
that share a common communication line or wireless link and typically sharing the
resources of a single processor or server within a small geographic area (for example,
within an office building). In most cases they connect to a common electronic
connection-commonly known as a network backbone.

Usually the server has applications and data storage that are shared in common by
multiple computer users. A LAN may serve as few as two or three users (as in a
home network) or as many as thousands of user (as in as FDDI network)

Major LAN Technologies include:

 Ethernet
 Token Ring
 FDDI -Fibre Distributed Data Interface

Ethernet is by far the most commonly used LAN technology A number of corporations
use the Token Ring technology. FDDI is sometimes used as a backbone LAN
interconnecting Ethernet or Token Ring LANs. LANs can connect to other networks
either directly or through a WAN or MAN.

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A Local Area Network is a network that spans a relatively small space and provides
services to a small amount of people. Depending on the amount of people that use a
Local Area Network, a peer-to-peer or client-server method of networking may be used.
A peer-to-peer network is where each client shares their resources with other
workstations in the network.. Computers are linked via Ethernet Cable, can be joined
either directly (one computer to another), or via a network hub that allows multiple
connections.

Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN):

This normally connects networks around a town or city. It is larger than a LAN but
smaller than a WAN. It is relatively a new class of network that serves a role similar to a
ISP (Internet Service Provider), but for corporate users with large LANs.

There are three important features which discriminate MANs from LANs or WANs:

1. The network size falls intermediate between LANs and WANs. A MAN typically
covers an area between 5-50km in diameter. Many MANs may be as small as a group of
buildings or as large as, for example, the North of Scotland.

2. A MAN (like WAN) is not generally owned by a single organisation. The MAN, its
communication links and equipment are generally owned by either a consortium of users
or by a single network provider who sells the service to the users. This level of service
provided to each user must therefore be negotiated with the MAN operator, and some
performance guarantees are normally specified.

3. A MAN often act as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources
(similar to large LAN). It is also frequently used to provide a shared connection to other
networks using a link to a WAN.

A MAN connects Businesses to Businesses, and Businesses to WANs and the Internet.
It is typically a backbone optical network that spans the metropolitan area, usually in ring
configuration.

Wide Area Networks (WANs)

This is a computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area such as
between different buildings, towns or even countries. Typically, a WAN consists of two or
more LANs connected to each other. It is a geographically dispersed telecommunication
network.

WAN may be privately owned or rented, but the term usually connotes the inclusion of
public (shared user) networks. The requirement of leasing communication circuits from
telephone companies or other communication carriers is a major factor impacting WAN
design and performance. Transmission rates are typically 2Mbps, 34Mbps, 45Mbps,
155Mbps, 625Mbps (or sometimes considerably more).

A Wide Area Network is a network where a wide variety of resources are deployed
across a large domestic area or internationally. An example of this is a multinational
business that uses a WAN to interconnect their offices in different countries. The largest
and best example of a WAN is the Internet, which is the largest network in the world.

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Wireless Networks (WLAN)

A wireless network is basically the same as a LAN or a WAN but there are no wires
between hosts and servers. The data is transfered over sets of radio trancievers. These
types of networks are beneficial when it is to costly or inconvenient to run the necessary
cables. For more information, see Wireless LAN.

CLIENT/SERVER

An architecture in which the user's PC (the client) is the requesting machine and the
server is the supplying machine, both of which are connected via a local area network
(LAN) or wide area network (WAN). Throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s,
client/server was the hot buzzword as applications were migrated from centralized
minicomputers and mainframes to networks of desktop computers.

The Client

The client is the user's machine, which contains the user interface (Windows, Mac, etc.)
and can perform some or all of the application processing.

File Servers

File servers, which range in size from PCs to mainframes, store data and programs and
share those files with the clients. In this case, the server functions as a remote disk drive
to the clients.

True Client/Server

To be a true client/server environment, both client and server must share in the business
processing. For example, a database server processes requests from the client to look
up data or update data in its database. In this case, the server is performing a search at
its end to respond to the query received from a client. It is not acting as a remote disk
drive; it is fully participating in the transaction. To illustrate this concept, review the
examples below.

The Web Is Client/Server

Because of the Internet, terms such as "Web based" and "Web enabled" replaced the
1990s client/server buzzword, with "client/server" insinuating the old pre-Web way of
doing things.

A peer-to-peer system is a distributed system whose component nodes participate in

similar roles, and are therefore peers to each other. Peer-to-peer can be viewed as
decentralized network architecture. In contrast, a client-server architecture implies a
sharp distinction between the clients which request and consume services, and servers
which provide services.

Even though the nodes have similar roles, there may still be some structure to the peer-
to-peer system, and it usually possesses some degree of self-organization where each
node finds its peers and helps maintain the system structure. This makes a peer-to-peer
network node more complex than a client in client-server system. The main benefits of

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peer-to-peer system are scalability, fault-tolerance, and the lack of resource bottlenecks
in servers. The peer-to-peer concept is related to Distributed computing

WORKGROUP

Two or more individuals who share files and databases. Local networks (LANs) are
designed to provide electronic sharing of data within workgroups. In general, products
designed for workgroups support approximately 50 people, whereas departmental
devices support several hundred, and enterprise devices serve several thousand.

Centralization Computing

The star topology reduces the probability of a network failure by connecting all of the
peripheral nodes (computers, etc.) to a central node. When the physical star topology is
applied to a logical bus network such as Ethernet, this central node (usually a hub)
rebroadcasts all transmissions received from any peripheral node to all peripheral nodes
on the network, sometimes including the originating node. All peripheral nodes may thus
communicate with all others by transmitting to, and receiving from, the central node only.

Decentralization Computing
De-centralized resource and account management. All computer manage its own
network resources and account. There is only disadvantage of decentralized computing
is that you can not log on the same account from other computers.

In a mesh topology (i.e., a partially connected mesh topology), there are at least two
nodes with two or more paths between them to provide redundant paths to be used in
case the link providing one of the paths fails. This decentralization is often used to
advantage to compensate for the single-point-failure disadvantage that is present when
using a single device as a central node (e.g., in star and tree networks).

Network topology

It is the study of the arrangement or mapping of the elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a
network, especially the physical (real) and logical (virtual) interconnections between
nodes.

Any particular network topology is determined only by the graphical mapping of the
configuration of physical and/or logical connections between nodes - Network Topology
is, therefore, technically a part of graph theory. Distances between nodes, physical
interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ in two networks and
yet their topologies may be identical.

The most common of these basic types of topologies are (refer to the illustration at the
top right of this page):

 Bus (Linear, Linear Bus)

 Star
 Ring
 Mesh

partially connected mesh (or simply 'mesh')

fully connected mesh (or simply fully connected)
 Tree
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  Hybrid

Classification of Network Topologies

There are also three basic categories of network topologies:

 physical topologies
 signal topologies
 logical topologies

Physical Topologies

The mapping of the nodes of a network and the physical connections between them,
The layout of wiring, cables,

Signal Topology

The mapping of the actual connections between the nodes of a network, as evidenced
by the path that the signals take when propagating between the nodes.

Logical Topology

The mapping of the apparent connections between the nodes of a network, as

evidenced by the path that data appears to take when traveling between the nodes.

Logical topologies are often closely associated with media access control (MAC)
methods and protocols.

Logical topologies are able to be dynamically reconfigured by special types of equipment

such as routers and switches Logical topologies are able to be dynamically reconfigured
by special types of equipment such as routers and switches.

Bus:
Linear Bus:
The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are connected to a
common transmission medium which has exactly two endpoints (this is the 'bus', which
is also commonly referred to as the backbone, or trunk) – all data that is transmitted
between nodes in the network is transmitted over this common transmission medium
and is able to be received by all nodes in the network virtually simultaneously.

The two endpoints of the common transmission medium are normally terminated with a
device called a terminator that exhibits the characteristic impedance of the transmission
medium and which dissipates or absorbs the energy that remains in the signal to prevent
the signal from being reflected or propagated back onto the transmission medium in the
opposite direction,

Star:
The type of network topology in which each of the nodes of the network is connected to
a central node with a point-to-point link in a 'hub' and 'spoke' fashion, the central node
being the 'hub' and the nodes that are attached to the central node being the 'spokes'
(e.g., a collection of point-to-point links from the peripheral nodes that converge at a
central node) – all data that is transmitted between nodes in the network is transmitted to
this central node, which is usually some type of device that then retransmits the data to
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some or all of the other nodes in the network, although the central node may also be a
simple common connection point.

After the special case of the point-to-point link, as in note 1.) above, the next simplest
type of network that is based upon the physical star topology would consist of one
central node – the 'hub' – with two separate point-to-point links to two peripheral nodes.

since this practice may lead to the misconception that a physical star network requires
the central node to be one of these special devices, which is not true because a simple
network consisting of three computers connected as in note 2.

Ring:
The type of network topology in which each of the nodes of the network is connected to
two other nodes in the network and with the first and last nodes being connected to each
other, forming a ring – all data that is transmitted between nodes in the network travels
from one node to the next node in a circular manner and the data generally flows in a
single direction only.

The type of network topology in which each of the nodes of the network is connected to
two other nodes in the network, with two connections to each of these nodes, and with
the first and last nodes being connected to each other with two connections, forming a
double ring, the data flows in opposite directions around the two rings, although,
generally, only one of the rings carries data during normal operation, and the two rings
are independent unless there is a failure or break in one of the rings.

MESH

The type of network topology in which each of the nodes of the network is connected to
each of the other nodes in the network with a point-to-point link – this makes it possible
for data to be simultaneously transmitted from any single node to all of the other nodes.

Note: The physical fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and complex
for practical networks, although the topology is used when there are only a small number
of nodes to be interconnected.

The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network are connected
to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link – this makes it
possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided by a physical fully
connected mesh topology without the expense and complexity required for a connection
between every node in the network.

Tree (also known as Hierarchical):

The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the hierarchy)
is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e.,
the second level) with a point-to-point link between each of the second level nodes and
the top level central 'root' node, while each of the second level nodes that are connected
to the top level central 'root' node will also have one or more other nodes that are one
level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level) connected to it, also with a point-to-point
link, the top level central 'root' node being the only node that has no other node above it
in the hierarchy – the hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical, each node in the network
having a specific fixed number, f, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the
hierarchy, the number, f, being referred to as the 'branching factor' of the hierarchical
tree.
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Hybrid Network Topologies

The hybrid topology is a type of network topology that is composed of one or more
interconnections of two or more networks that are based upon different physical
topologies or a type of network topology that is composed of one or more
interconnections of two or more networks that are based upon the same physical
topology, but where the physical topology of the network resulting from such an
interconnection does not meet the definition of the original physical topology of the
interconnected networks.

Star-Bus:
A type of network topology in which the central nodes of one or more individual networks
that are based upon the physical star topology are connected together using a common
'bus' network whose physical topology is based upon the physical linear bus topology,
the endpoints of the common 'bus' being terminated with the characteristic impedance of
the transmission medium where required – e.g., two or more hubs connected to a
common backbone with drop cables through the port on the hub that is provided for that
purpose (e.g., a properly configured 'uplink' port) would comprise the physical bus
portion of the physical star-bus topology.

Star-wired Ring:
A type of hybrid physical network topology that is a combination of the physical star
topology and the physical ring topology, the physical star portion of the topology
consisting of a network in which each of the nodes of which the network is composed
are connected to a central node with a point-to-point link in a 'hub'.

while the physical ring portion of the topology consists of circuitry within the central node
which routes the signals on the network to each of the connected nodes sequentially, in
a circular fashion.

Hybrid Mesh:

A type of hybrid physical network topology that is a combination of the physical partially
connected topology and one or more other physical topologies the mesh portion of the
topology consisting of redundant or alternate connections between some of the nodes in
the network – the physical hybrid mesh topology is commonly used in networks which
require a high degree of availability.

Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the
resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring,
etc.). For example, a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree network, but
two star networks connected together exhibit a hybrid network topology. A hybrid
topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies are connected.

DUPLEX (telecommunications)

A duplex communication system is a system composed of two connected parties or

devices which can communicate with one another in both directions. (The term duplex is
not used when describing communication between more than two parties or devices.)

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Half-Duplex

A half-duplex system provides for communication in both directions, but only one
direction at a time (not simultaneously). Typically, once a party begins receiving a signal,
it must wait for the transmitter to stop transmitting, before replying.

An example of a half-duplex system is a two-party system such as a "walkie-talkie" style

two-way radio, wherein one must use "Over" or another previously designated command
to indicate the end of transmission, and ensure that only one party transmits at a time,
because both parties transmit on the same frequency. A good analogy for a half-duplex
system would be a one lane road with traffic controllers at each end.

Full-Duplex

A full-duplex system allows communication in both directions, and unlike half-duplex,

allows this to happen simultaneously. Land-line telephone networks are full-duplex since
they allow both callers to speak and be heard at the same time. A good analogy for a
full-duplex system would be a two lane road with one lane for each direction.

Full-duplex Ethernet connections work by making simultaneous use of all four physical
pair of twisted cable (which are inside the insulation), where two pair are used for
receiving packets and two pair are using for sending packets to a directly connected
device. This effectively makes the cable itself a collision-free environment, and
theoretically doubles the maximum bandwidth that can be supported by the connection.

Time division duplex (TDD)

Is the application of time-division multiplexing to separate outward and return signals. It

emulated full duplex communication over a half duplex communication link. Time division
duplex has a strong advantage in the case where the asymmetry of the uplink and
downlink data speed is variable. As the amount of uplink data increases, more
bandwidth can dynamically be allocated to that and as it shrinks it can be taken away.

Frequency division duplex (FDD) is the application of frequency-division multiplexing

to separate outward and return signals. The uplink and downlink sub-bands are said to
be separated by the "frequency offset".

Another advantage of FDD is that it makes radio planning easier and more efficient since
base stations do not "hear" each other (as they transmit and receive in different sub-
bands) and therefore will normally not interfere each other.

Simplex communication

Is a name for a type of communication circuit. There are two (contradictory) definitions
that have been used for the term. In both cases, the other definition is referred to as half
duplex. According to the ITU-T definition, a simplex circuit is one where all signals can
flow in only one direction at a time.

The best example of Fire brigade system, the sensor of fire send a signal towards fire
station but don’t receive any signal from the station.

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Computers MEMORY

Space within a computer where information and program are stored while being actively
worked on; also called core. It is expressed in terms of the number of characters (Bytes)
that can be retained. The memory of the computer is in the form of read-only (ROM) and
Ram (Random-Access Memory) or read/write memory.

All program execution and data processing takes place in memory, often called "main
memory" to differentiate it from memory chips on other circuit boards in the machine.
The program's instructions are copied into memory from disk, tape or from the network
and then extracted from memory into the control unit circuit for analysis and execution.
The instructions direct the computer to input data into memory from a keyboard, disk,
tape, modem or network. It has many categories:

RAM

Random Access Module (usually known by its acronym, RAM) is a type of data
storage used in computers. It takes the form of integrated circuits that allow the stored
data to be accessed in any order.

The word "random" refers to the fact that any piece of data can be returned quickly, and
in a constant time, regardless of its physical location and whether or not it is related to
the previous piece of data. This contrasts with storage mechanisms such as tapes,
magnetic disks and optical disks.

Random access" is also the name of an indexing method: hence, disk storage is often
called "random access" because the reading head can move relatively quickly from one
piece of data to another, and does not have to read all the data in between. RAM is
usually writeable as well as readable, so "RAM" is often used interchangeably with
"read-write memory".

Types of RAM

SDRAM

(Synchronous DRAM) A type of DRAM memory chip that has been widely used since
the latter part of the 1990s. SDRAM chips eliminate wait states because they are fast
enough to be synchronized with the CPU's clock. The chip is divided into two cell blocks,
and data are interleaved between the two. While a bit in one block is accessed, a bit in
the other is prepared for access. This allows SDRAM to burst subsequent, contiguous
characters at a much faster rate than the first character.

DDR and DDR2

Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR) doubles transfer rates by transferring data on both the
rising and falling edges of the clock. DDR uses additional power and ground lines and is
packaged on a 184-pin DIMM module rather than the 168-pin DIMM used by the first
SDRAM chips. Laptops use 200-pin SODIMM modules.

DDR2 modules require 240-pin DIMM slots, and although they are the same length as
DDR, they are keyed differently and will not fit into the DDR slot.

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Chipsets on the motherboard may support two independent memory controllers, which
allow access to two memory modules simultaneously (upstream data on one 64-bit
channel; downstream data on the other).

EDO RAM

(Extended Data Out RAM) A type of dynamic RAM chip that improved the performance
of fast page mode (FPM) memory in the mid-1990s. As a subset of fast page mode, it
could be substituted for page mode chips. However, if the memory controller was not
designed for the faster EDO chips, the performance remained the same as fast page
mode.

EDO eliminated wait states by keeping the output buffer active until the next cycle
began. BEDO (Burst EDO) was a faster type of EDO that gained speed by using an
address counter for next addresses and a pipeline stage that overlapped operations.
EDO memory was superseded by SDRAM.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Read-only memory (often referred to as its acronym ROM) is a class of storage media
used in computers and other electronic devices. Because it cannot (easily) be written to,
its main uses lie in the distribution of firmware (software that is very closely related to
hardware, and not likely to need frequent upgrading).

Modern semiconductor called CMOS Complimentary metal oxide semi conductor ROMs
(BIOS) typically take the shape of IC packages. In computer use, device containing
instructions that do not need to be changed, such as the instructions for calculating
arithmetic functions. The computer can read instructions out of ROM, but no data can be
stored in ROM.

Types of ROM

(Non-volatile it does not need power for saving data.)

PROMs (Programmable Read-Only Memory) can be written to (programmed) via a

special device, a PROM programmer.

EPROMs (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) can be erased by exposure to

ultraviolet light then rewritten via an EPROM programmer.

EAROMs (Electrically Alterable Read-Only Memory) can be modified a bit at a time, but
writing is a slow process and uses non-standard voltages (usually higher voltages
around 12 volts).

EEPROM such as Flash memory (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only

Memory) allow the entire ROM (or selected banks of the ROM) to be electrically erased
(flashed back to zero) then written to without taking them out of the computer (camera,
MP3 player, etc.). Flashing is much slower (milliseconds) than writing to RAM
(nanoseconds) (or reading from any ROM).

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MOTHERBOARD

Also called the "system board," it is the main printed circuit board in an electronic device,
which contains sockets that accept additional boards. In a desktop computer, the
motherboard contains the CPU, chipset, PCI bus slots, AGP slot, memory sockets and
controller circuits for the keyboard, mouse, disks and printer. It may also have built-in
controllers for modem, sound, display and network, obviating the need to plug in a card.

A typical computer is built with the microprocessor, main memory, and other basic
components on the motherboard. Other components of the computer such as external
storage, control circuits for video display and sound, and peripheral devices are typically
attached to the motherboard via ribbon cables, other cables, and power connectors.

PC data buses

The bus in a PC is the common pathway between the CPU and peripheral devices.
Parallel buses use slots on the motherboard and provide multiple lines for data (32 bits,
64 bits) between the CPU and peripheral card. Cards plug into the bus inside the
cabinet. Serial buses have external ports, and the cable that plugs into them can
connect to multiple devices.

Parallel Buses (Current)

PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect

AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port

Serial Buses (Current)

USB - Universal Serial Bus

FireWire (IEEE 1394)

Parallel Buses (Earlier)

ISA - Industry Standard Architecture

EISA - Extended ISA

SYSTEM BUS

(1) The primary pathway between the CPU and memory. The speed is derived from the
number of parallel channels (16 bit, 32 bit, etc.)

Front Side Bus

In computers, the front side bus (FSB) or system bus is the physical bi-directional data
bus that carries all electronic signal information between the central processing unit
(CPU) and other devices within the system such as random access memory (RAM),

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BIOS

(Basic Input Output System) An essential set of routines stored in a chip that provides
an interface between the operating system and the hardware in a PC. The BIOS
supports all peripheral technologies including drives as well as internal services such as
the realtime clock (time and date). BIOS settings are maintained in a tiny battery-backed
memory.

The set of routines stored in read-only memory that enable a computer to start the
operating system and to communicate with the various devices in the system, such as
disk drives, keyboard, monitor, printer, and communications ports.

On startup, the BIOS tests the system and prepares the computer for operation by
querying its configuration settings. It searches for other BIOS's on the plug-in boards and
sets up pointers (interrupt vectors) in main memory to access those routines. BIOS
refers to the firmware code run by an IBM compatible PC when first powered on.

CHIPSET

A group of chips designed to work as a unit to perform a function. For example, a

modem chipset contains all the primary circuits for transmitting and receiving. A PC
chipset provides the electronic interfaces between all subsystems. A chipset is a group
of integrated circuits ("chips") that are designed to work together, and are usually
marketed as a single product. In computing, the term chipset is commonly used to refer
to the specialized motherboard chips on a computer or expansion card.

EISA

(Extended ISA) Pronounced "ee-suh." A PC bus standard that extends the 16-bit ISA
bus (AT bus) to 32 bits and provides bus mastering. ISA cards can plug into an EISA
slot. It was announced in 1988 as a 32-bit alternative to the Micro Channel that would
preserve investment in existing boards. However, EISA runs at the slow 8MHz speed of
the ISA bus in order to accommodate any ISA cards that may be plugged into it. EISA
has been superseded by PCI.

PCI

(Peripheral Component Interconnect) The most widely used I/O bus (peripheral bus).
Used in computers of all sizes, it provides a shared data path between the CPU and
peripheral controllers, such as network, display, SCSI and RAID cards.

PCI runs at 33MHz or 66MHz and supports 32 and 64-bit data paths and bus mastering.
There are generally three or four slots on the motherboard. Devices are required to
follow a protocol so that the interrupt lines can be shared. The PCI bus includes four
interrupt lines, all of which are available to each device.

PCI Express

A high-speed peripheral interconnect from Intel introduced in 2002. Note that although
sometimes abbreviated "PCX," PCI Express is not the same as "PCI-X". Initially used for
high-speed display adapters, and intending to eventually replace the PCI and AGP

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buses entirely, PCI Express was designed to match the higher speeds of today's CPUs.
It can accommodate Gigabit and 10 Gigabit Ethernet and even support chip-to-chip
transfers.

PCI Express provides a high-speed, switched architecture. Each PCI Express link is a
serial communications channel made up of two differential wire pairs that provide 2.5
Gbits/sec in each direction. Up to 32 of these "lanes" may be combined in x2, x4, x8, x16
and x32 configurations.

AGP

(Accelerated Graphics Port) A high-speed 32-bit port from Intel for attaching a display
adapter to a PC. It provides a direct connection between the card and memory, and only
one AGP slot is on the motherboard. AGP was introduced as a higher-speed alternative
to PCI display adapters, and it freed a PCI slot for another peripheral device. The brown
AGP slot is slightly shorter than the white PCI slot and is located about an inch farther
back. AGP is superseded by PCI Express.

AGP 1x, 2x, 4x and 8x

The original AGP standard (AGP 1x) provided a data transfer rate of 264 Mbytes/sec.
AGP 2x is 528 Mbytes/sec. AGP 4x is 1 Gbyte/sec. AGP 8x is 2 Gbytes/sec.

NETWORK MEDIAS

NETWORK ADAPTER

A printed circuit board that plugs into the bus of both user machines (clients) and servers
in a local area network (LAN). The adapters are wired to a network hub, switch or router,
typically using twisted wire pair cables, although optical fibers may be used for very fast
connections. In the case of a single home computer, the network adapter is often wired
to a router, which is connected to or includes a DSL or cable modem for Internet access

Network Adapters Are Ethernet

A "network ready" or "LAN ready" computer means that it has an RJ-45 port for a cable
to an Ethernet network. In the past, Token Ring and LocalTalk networks were widely
used, but Ethernet became the standard for LANs.

The card implements the electronic circuitry required to communicate using a specific
physical layer and data link layer standard such as Ethernet or token ring. A network
card typically has a twisted pair, BNC, or AUI socket where the network cable is
connected, and a few LEDs to inform the user of whether the network is active.

SWITCH

A concentrator is a device that provides a central connection point for cables from
workstations, servers, and peripherals. In a star topology, twisted-pair wire is run from
each workstation to a central switch/hub. Most switches are active, that is they
electrically amplify the signal as it moves from one device to another. Switches no longer
broadcast network packets as hubs did in the past, they memorize addressing of
computers and send the information to the correct location directly. Switches are:

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  Usually configured with 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports
 Often used in a star or star-wired ring topology
 Sold with specialized software for port management
 Also called hubs
 Usually installed in a standardized metal rack that also may store netmodems,
bridges, or routers

Are fundamental part of many networks because they speed things up. Switches allow
different nodes (a network connection point, typically a computer) of a network to
communicate directly with one another in a smooth and efficient manner.

There are many different types of switches and networks. Switches that provide a
separate connection for each node in a company's internal network are called LAN
switches. Essentially, a LAN switch creates a series of instant networks that contain
only the two devices communicating with each other at that particular moment. In this
article, we will focus on Ethernet networks that use LAN switches. You will learn what a
LAN switch is and how transparent bridging works, as well as about VLANs, trunking
and spanning trees.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Is a cell relay, Circuit switching network and data link layer protocol which encodes data
traffic into small (53 bytes; 48 bytes of data and 5 bytes of header information) fixed-
sized cells. ATM provides data link layer services that run over SONET (Synchronous
Optical Networking) Layer 1 links. This differs from other technologies based on packet-
switched networks (such as the Internet Protocol or Ethernet), in which variable sized
packets (sometimes known as frames) are used. ATM is a connection-oriented
technology, in which a logical connection is established between the two endpoints
before the actual data exchange begins.

DSL networks, where its compromises fit DSL's low-data-rate needs well. In turn, DSL
networks support IP (and IP services such as VoIP) via PPP over ATM.

At the time ATM was designed, 155 Mbit/s SDH (135 Mbit/s payload) was considered a
fast optical network link, and many PDH links in the digital network were considerably
slower, ranging from 1.544 to 45 Mbit/s.

Structure of an ATM cell

An ATM cell consists of a 5 byte header and a 48 byte payload. The payload size of 48
bytes was a compromise between the needs of voice telephony and packet networks,
obtained by a simple averaging of the US proposal of 64 bytes and European proposal
of 32 bytes.

ATM traffic contracts are part of the mechanism by which "Quality of Service" (QoS) is
ensured. There are four basic types (and several variants) which each have a set of
parameters describing the connection.

 CBR - Constant bit rate: you specify a Peak Cell Rate (PCR), which is constant.
 VBR - Variable bit rate: you specify an average cell rate, which can peak at a certain
level for a maximum interval before being problematic.
 ABR - Available bit rate: you specify a minimum guaranteed rate.
 UBR - Unspecified bit rate: your traffic is allocated all remaining transmission
capacity.

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Traffic policing

To maintain network performance it is possible to police virtual circuits against their

traffic contracts. If a circuit is exceeding its traffic contract, the network can either drop
the cells or mark the Cell Loss Priority (CLP) bit (to identify a cell as discardable further
down the line).

Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a radio standard and communications protocol primarily designed for low
power consumption, with a short range (power-class-dependent: 1 metre, 10 metres,
100 metres) based on low-cost transceiver microchips in each device. Bluetooth lets
these devices communicate with each other when they are in range. The devices use a
radio communications system, so they do not have to be in line of sight of each other, and
can even be in other rooms, as long as the received transmission is powerful enough.

Maximum Permitted Power Range

Class
(mW/dBm) (approximate)
Class 1 100 mW (20 dBm) ~100 meters
Class 2 2.5 mW (4 dBm) ~10 meters
Class 3 1 mW (0 dBm) ~1 meter

List of applications
More prevalent applications of Bluetooth include:

Cell phone
Hands-free headset
mouse, keyboard ,printer.

Bluetooth is most commonly used with phones and hand-held computing devices, either
using a Bluetooth headset or transferring files from phones/PDAs to computers.

MODEM
A modem is a modulator/demodulator. It converts digital signals from a computer to
analog signals so they can be sent over a telephone line. The receiving computer will
normally have a modem which will convert the analog signals back to digital signals. A
modem may be an internal modem which is a card inside your computer or it may be
external with a connection to a serial RS-232 line on your computer. The telephone jack
that will plug into the modem is called an RJ-11 jack. Speed of the modem is measured
in bits per second (bps). A modem transmits data in bits per second (bps), with the
fastest modems transmitting at 56K (kilobits per second). An internal modem is housed
within the computer itself, while an external modern is a separate device that is
connected to the computer via a cable.
 V.22bis - 2400bps
 V.32 - 9600bps
 V.32bis -14,400bps
 V.32terbo - 19,200bps
 V.FastClass (V.FC) - 28,800bps
 V.34 - 28,800bps
 V.42 - 57,600bps

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These are data compression standards which enable the transmission to operate at a
higher speed. Due to data compression used on modems in recent years baud rates and
bps when referring to modem speed are no longer the same. Now, more than one bit
can be sent with each sound wave oscillation (baud). In the past, only one bit could be
sent per sound wave oscillation.

Communications software enables a modem to perform the many tasks necessary to

complete a session of sending and receiving data. The term modem is a contraction of
the two main functions of such a unit, modulation and demodulation. The device is also
called a data set.

The transmitter section contains a modulator as well as filtering, wave-shaping, and

signal control circuitry that converts digital pulses (often input as a direct-current signal
with one level representing a digital one and another level a digital zero) into analog,
wave-shaped signals that can be transmitted over a telephone circuit. The receiver
section contains a demodulator and associated circuitry that is used to reverse the
modulation process by converting the received analog signals back into a series of
digital pulses.

Modem Types

Asynchronous

The common modem used today. Each byte is placed between a stop and a start bit.
Each modem must operate with the same start and stop bit sequence, operate at the
same baud rate and have the same parity settings for the data checking in order to
communicate correctly. Define parity checking.

Synchronous

Synchronous modems can be faster than asynchronous. They depend on timing to

communicate. Data is transmitted in frames with synchronization bits which are used to
be sure the timing of the transmission and reception of data is accurate. Synchronous
modems are normally used on dedicated leased lines. Synchronous modems are one of
binary synchronous communications protocol (bisync), high level data link control
(HDLC), or synchronous data link control (SLDC). Three methods can be used to control
synchronization:

o Additional clock signal

o Guaranteed state change - Clocking is part of the data signal.
o Oversampling - The reciever samples the signal much faster than the data is
sent. The extra samples can be used to be sure the clock is synchronized.
 Digital Modems - These are used with ISDN services and are not actually modems,
although they are called modems. They can provide connection speeds of 128Kbps.

DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)

Broadband digital communications connection that operates over standard copper

telephone wires. It requires a DSL modem, which splits transmissions into two frequency
bands: the lower frequencies for voice (ordinary telephone calls) and the upper band for
digital data, especially for connection to the Internet. Data can be transferred via DSL at
much higher rates than with ordinary dial-up modem service; the range of DSL signals,

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however, is very small. Connections can be made only within a few miles of the nearest
transmitting station. DSL and "xDSL" are umbrella terms under which a variety of
protocols and technologies fall. ADSL (Asymmetric DSL) is a popular type of DSL in
which most of the bandwidth of the connection is devoted to downloading data from the
network to the user, leaving only a small-scale connection for uploading data. In HDSL
(High bit-rate DSL) and SDSL (Symmetric DSL) the data stream is symmetric; that is,
the upstream and downstream rates are the same. UDSL (Unidirectional DSL), VDSL
(Very high data rate DSL), and others still under development are intended to offer even
greater rates of data transmission.

ISDN Integrated services digital network

It announced in the early 1980s, An international standard for switched, digital dial-up
telephone service for voice and data. Analog telephones and fax machines are used
over ISDN lines, but their signals are converted into digital by the ISDN terminal adapter.

A generic term referring to the integration of communications services transported over

digital facilities such as wire pairs, coaxial cables, optical fibers, microwave radio, and
satellites. ISDN provides end-to-end digital connectivity between any two (or more)
communications devices. Information enters, passes through, and exits the network in a
completely digital fashion.

Channels

ISDN uses 64 Kbps "B" (bearer) channels to carry voice and data. A separate "D" (delta)
channel is used for control. The D channel signals the carrier's voice switch to make
calls, put them on hold and activate features such as conference calling and call
forwarding. It also receives caller ID data. Because the D channel connects directly to
the telephone system's SS7 signaling network, ISDN calls are dialed much faster than
regular telephone calls.

There are three ISDN implementations. Basic rate interface (BRI) — also Basic rate
access (BRA) — consists of two B channels, each with bandwidth of 64 kbit/s, and one
D channel with a bandwidth of 16 kbit/s. Together these three channels can be
designated as 2B+D. Primary rate interface (PRI) — also Primary rate access (PRA)
— contains a greater number of B channels and a D channel with a bandwidth of 64
kbit/s. The number of B channels for PRI varies according to the nation: in North
America and Japan it is 23B+1D, with an aggregate bit rate of 1.544 Mbit/s (T1); in
Europe, India and Australia it is 30B+1D, with an aggregate bit rate of 2.048 Mbit/s (E1).
Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network (BISDN) is another ISDN
implementation and it is able to manage different types of services at the same time. It is
primarily used within network backbones and employs ATM.

ROUTER

A network device that forwards packets from one network to another. Based on internal
routing tables, routers read each incoming packet and decide how to forward it. The
destination address in the packets determines which interface on the router outgoing
packets are directed to. In large-scale enterprise routers, the current traffic load,
congestion, line costs and other factors determine which outgoing line to forward to.

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Routers used to be called "gateways," which is why the term "default gateway" means
the router in your network.

A router acts as a junction between two or more networks to buffer and transfer data
packets among them. A router is different from a switch and a hub: a router is working
on layer 3 of OSI model, a switch on layer 2 and a hub on layer 1. This makes them
work for different situations: a switch connects devices to form a Local area network
(LAN) (which might, in turn, be connected to another network via a router).

a router at home connects the Internet Service Provider's (ISP) network (usually on an
Internet address) together with the LAN in the home (typically using a range of private IP
addresses, see network address translation) and a single broadcast domain. The switch
connects devices together to form the LAN. Sometimes the switch and the router are
combined together in one single package sold as a multiple port router.

It is used between Two LANS, WAN Network, Internet Access, Remote Access.

REPEATER

(1) A communications device that amplifies (analog) or regenerates (digital) the data
signal in order to extend the transmission distance. Available for both electronic and
optical signals, repeaters are used extensively in long distance transmission. They are
also used to tie two LANs of the same type together. Repeaters work at layer 1 of the
OSI model. it also refer to a multiport repeater, which is a hub in a 10BaseT network..

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a weak or low-level signal and

retransmits it at a higher level or higher power, so that the signal can cover longer
distances without degradation.

The term "repeater" originated with telegraphy and referred to an electromechanical

device used to regenerate telegraph signals. Use of the term has continued in telephony
and data communications.

Wireless Media

Transmission of waves take place in the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. The carrier
frequency of the data is expressed in cycles per second called hertz(Hz). Low frequency
signals can travel for long distances through many obstacles but can not carry a high
bandwidth of date while high frequency signals can travel for shorter distances through
few obstacles and carry a narrow bandwidth. Also the noise effect on the signal is
inversely proportional to the power of the radio transmitter. The three broad categories of
wireless media are:

1. Radio - 10 Khz to 1 Ghz. It is broken into many bands including AM, FM, and
VHF bands. The Federal communications Commission (FCC) regulates the
assignment of these frequencies. Frequencies for unregulated use are:
o 902-928Mhz - Cordless phones, remote controls.
o 2.4 Ghz
o 5.72-5.85 Ghz
2. Microwave
o Terrestrial - Used to link networks over long distances but the two
microwave towers must have a line of sight between them. The frequency

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 is usually 4-6GHz or 21-23GHz. Speed is often 1-10Mbps. The signal is
normally encrypted for privacy. Two nodes may exist.
o Satellite - A satellite orbits at 22,300 miles above the earth which is an
altitude that will cause it to stay in a fixed position relative to the rotation
of the earth. This is called a geosynchronous orbit. A station on the
ground will send and receive signals from the satellite. The signal can
have propagation delays between 0.5 to 5 seconds due to the distances
involved. The transmission frequency is normally 11-14GHz with a
transmission speed in the range of 1-10Mbps.
3. Infared - Infared is just below the visible range of light between 100Ghz and
1000Thz. A light emitting diode (LED) or laser is used to transmit the signal. The
signal cannot travel through objects. Light may interfere with the signal. The
types of infared are
o Point to point - Transmission frequencies are 100GHz-1,000THz .
Transmission is between two points and is limited to line of sight range. It
is difficult to eavesdrop on the transmission. The speed is 100Kbps to
16Mbps
o broadcast - The signal is dispersed so several units may receive the
signal. The unit used to disperse the signal may be reflective material or a
transmitter that amplifies and retransmits the signal. Normally the speed
is limited to 1Mbps. The transmission frequency is normally 100GHz-
1,000THz with transmission distance in 10's of meters. Installation is easy
and cost is relatively inexpensive for wireless.

Categories of LAN Radio Communications

 Low power, single frequency - Distance in 10s of meters. Speed in 1-10Mbps.
Susceptible to interference and eavesdropping.
 High power, single frequency - Require FCC licensing and high power transmitter.
Speed in 1-10Mbps. Susceptible to interference and eavesdropping.
 Spread spectrum - It uses several frequencies at the same time. The frequency is
normally 902-928MHz with some networks at 2.4GHz. The speed of 902MHz
systems is between 2 and 6Mbps. If frequency-hopping is used, the speed is
normally lower than 2Mbps. Not as susceptable to EMI, but still susceptable. Two
types are:
 Direct sequence modulation - The data is broken into parts and transmitted
simultaneously on multiple frequencies. Decoy data may be transmitted for better
security. The speed is normally 2 to 6 Mbps.
 Frequency hopping - The transmitter and receiver change predetermined
frequencies at the same time (in a synchronized manner). The speed is normally
1Gbps.

Wireless Media Comparisons

Media Speed
900 Mhz Spread spectrum 2-6Mbps
6 Ghz Spread Spectrum 2-6Mbps
23Ghz Microwave 6Mbps at 50 kilometers
Intra building Infared 10Mbps
Medium distance inter building Infared 10Mbps at 500 meters
155Mbps at 500 meters, Less than 20Mbps at
Long distance inter building Infared
1200 meters.

SWITCHING

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CIRCUIT SWITCHING
A networking technology that provides a temporary, but dedicated, connection between
two stations no matter how many switching devices the data are routed through. Circuit
switching was originally developed for the analog-based telephone system in order to
guarantee steady, consistent service for two people engaged in a phone conversation.
Analog circuit switching (FDM) has given way to digital circuit switching (TDM), and the
digital counterpart still maintains the connection until broken (one side hangs up). This
means bandwidth is continuously reserved and "silence is transmitted" just the same as
digital audio. For call setup and control (and other administrative purposes), it is possible
to use a separate dedicated signalling channel from the end node to the network.

TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)

A technology that transmits multiple signals simultaneously over a single transmission

path. Each lower-speed signal is time sliced into one high-speed transmission. In the
simplest example, three incoming 1,000 bps signals (A, B and C) can be interleaved into
one outgoing 3,000 bps signal as ABCABCABCABC. The receiving end divides the
single stream back into its original signals.

TDM enabled the telephone companies to migrate from analog to digital on all their long
distance trunks, and later to the local loops. TDM is widely used to combine multiple 64
Kbps streams into the 1.544 Mbps capacity of a T1 channel. For example, a channel
bank converts 24 analog voice conversations into digital and then multiplexes them via
TDM onto the T1.

FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)

Transmitting multiple data signals simultaneously over a single wire by using multiple
carriers, each having a unique center frequency. Each data stream (text, voice, video, etc.)
is placed into a separate carrier that is modulated by various methods, In the 1930s, the
telephone companies began to use FDM to combine multiple analog voice signals over
one line to maximize efficiency of their long distance trunks. During the 1960s, FDM was
replaced with TDM, its digital counterpart.

Cable TV companies use FDM to transmit hundreds of channels of analog and digital TV
as well as Internet over a single coaxial cable. The cable modem both modulates and
demodulates the appropriate carriers to provide bi-directional operation for Internet
access.

ANALOG SIGNAL

An analog or analogue signal is any variable signal continuous in both time and
amplitude. It differs from a digital signal in that small fluctuations in the signal are
meaningful. Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal, often such a signal
is a measured response to changes in physical phenomena, such as sound, light,
temperature, position, or pressure, In an analog sound recording, the variation in
pressure of a sound striking a microphone creates a corresponding variation in the
voltage amplitude of a current passing through it. Clocks with hands are called analog;
those that display digits are called digital. However, many analog clocks are actually
digital since the hands do not move in a smooth continuous motion, but in small steps
every second or half a second, or every minute.

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Disadvantage of analog signals

The primary disadvantage of analog signaling is that any system has noise – i.e.,
random variation. As the signal is copied and re-copied, or transmitted over long
distances, these random variations become dominant. Electrically, these losses can be
diminished by shielding, good connections, and several cable types such as coaxial or
twisted pair.

FREQUENCY

Everywhere in daily life, there are frequencies of sound and electromagnetic waves,
constantly changing and creating the features of the visible and audible world familiar to
everyone. Some aspects of frequency can only be perceived indirectly, yet people are
conscious of them without even thinking about it: a favorite radio station, for instance,
may have a frequency of 99.7 MHz, and fans of that station knows that every time they
turn the FM dial to that position, the station's signal will be there. Of course, people
cannot "hear" radio and television frequencies—part of the electromagnetic spectrum—
but the evidence for them is everywhere.

Amplitude

There are certain properties of waves, such as wavelength, or the distance between
waves, that are not properties of oscillation.

Period and Frequency

Unlike amplitude, period is directly related to frequency. For a transverse wave, a period
is the amount of time required to complete one full cycle of the wave.

DIGITAL SIGNAL

A signal in which the original information is converted into a string of bits before being
transmitted. A radio signal, for example, will be either on or off. Digital signals can be
sent for long distances and suffer less interference than Analog signals. The
communications industry worldwide is in the midst of a switch to digital signals.Sound
storage in a compact disk is in digital form.

the term digital signal is used to refer to more than one concept. It can refer to discrete-
time signals that are digitized, or to the waveform signals in a digital system.

A discrete signal or discrete-time signal is a time series, perhaps a signal that has
been sampled from a continuous-time signal. Unlike a continuous-time signal, a discrete-
time signal is not a function of a continuous-time argument, but is a sequence of
quantities; that is, a function over a domain of discrete integers. Each value in the
sequence is called a sample.

Analog Vs. Digital Communications

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Prior to the Internet, the world's largest communications system was the telephone
network, a mix of analog and digital communications. The system, which used to be
entirely analog transmitting only voice frequencies, is now almost entirely digital. The
only analog part is the line between your telephone and a digital conversion point (digital
loop carrier) within a mile or so of your house. Analog systems are error prone, because
the electronic frequencies get mixed together with unwanted signals (noise) that are
nearby.

Amplifiers Boost the Noise

In analog telephone networks, amplifiers were placed in the line every few miles to boost
the signal, but they could not distinguish between signal and noise. Thus, the noise was
amplified along with the signal. By the time the receiving person or machine got the
signal, it may have been impossible to decipher.

Repeaters Regenerate

In a "digital" network, only two (binary) distinct frequencies or voltages are transmitted.
Instead of amplifiers, repeaters are used, which analyze the incoming signal and
regenerate a new outgoing signal. Any noise on the line is filtered out at the next
repeater. When data are made up of only two signals (0 and 1), they can be more easily
distinguished from the garble. Digital is simple.

INTERNETWORKING

The Network layer is responsible for routing through an internetwork and for network
addressing. This means that the Network layer is responsible for transporting traffic
between devices that are not locally attached. Routers, or other layer-3 devices, are
specified at the Network layer and provide the routing services in an internetwork. When
a packet is received on a router interface, the destination IP address is checked. If the
packet is not destined for the router, then the router will look up the destination network
address in the routing table. Once an exit interface is chosen, the packet will be sent to
the interface to be framed and sent out on the local network.

ROUTER

In packet-switched networks such as the Internet, a router is a device or, in some cases,
software in a computer, that determines the next network point to which a packet should
be forwarded toward its destination. The router is connected to at least two networks and
decides which way to send each information packet based on its current understanding
of the state of the networks it is connected to.

A router may create or maintain a table of the available routes and their conditions and
use this information along with distance and cost algorithms to determine the best route
for a given packet. Typically, a packet may travel through a number of network points
with routers before arriving at its destination.

BRIDGE

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Bridges

A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two smaller, more
efficient networks. If you are adding to an older wiring scheme and want the new
network to be up-to-date, a bridge can connect the two.

A bridge monitors the information traffic on both sides of the network so that it can pass
packets of information to the correct location. Most bridges can "listen" to the network
and automatically figure out the address of each computer on both sides of the bridge.
The bridge can inspect each message and, if necessary, broadcast it on the other side
of the network.

The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on both sides of the
network. You might say that the bridge is like a traffic cop at a busy intersection during
rush hour. It keeps information flowing on both sides of the network, but it does not allow
unnecessary traffic through. Bridges can be used to connect different types of cabling, or
physical topologies. They must, however, be used between networks with the same
protocol. A bridge is sometimes combined with a router in a product called a brouter.

GATEWAY

A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. On the

Internet, a node or stopping point can be either a gateway node or a host (end-point)
node. Both the computers of Internet users and the computers that serve pages to users
are host nodes. The computers that control traffic within your company's network or at
your local Internet service provider (ISP) are gateway nodes.

In the network for an enterprise, a computer server acting as a gateway node is often
also acting as a proxy server and a firewall server. A gateway is often associated with
both a router, which knows where to direct a given packet of data that arrives at the
gateway, and a switch, which furnishes the actual path in and out of the gateway for a
given packet.

Network Repeater

A repeater connects two segments of your network cable. It retimes and regenerates the
signals to proper amplitudes and sends them to the other segments. When talking about,
ethernet topology, you are probably talking about using a hub as a repeater. Repeaters
require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation
delay which can affect network communication when there are several repeaters in a
row. Many network architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a row.
Repeaters work only at the physical layer of the OSI network model.

Brouter

There is a device called a brouter which will function similar to a bridge for network
transport protocols that are not routable, and will function as a router for routable
protocols. It functions at the network and data link layers of the OSI network model.

HUB

A concentrator that joins multiple clients by means of a single link to the rest of the LAN.
A hub has several ports to which clients are connected directly, and one or more ports
Page 23 of 41
that can be used to connect the hub to the backbone or to other active network
components. A hub functions as a multiport repeater; signals received on any port are
immediately retransmitted to all other ports of the hub. Hubs function at the physical
layer of the OSI Reference Model.

IRQ (Interrupt ReQuest)

A hardware interrupt on a PC. There are 16 IRQ lines used to signal the CPU that a
peripheral event has started or terminated. Except for PCI devices, two devices cannot
use the same line. If a new expansion board is preset to the IRQ used by an existing
board, one of them must be changed. This was an enormous headache in earlier
machines.

Starting with the 286 (introduced in 1982), two 8259A controller chips have been
cascaded together for a total of 16 IRQs (the first PCs had only one chip and eight
IRQs). However, IRQ 2 is lost because it is used to connect to the second chip. IRQ 9
may be available for general use as most VGA cards do not require an IRQ.

PCI to the Rescue

The PCI bus allows IRQs to be shared, which helps to solve the problem of limited IRQs
available on a PC. For example, if there were only one IRQ left over after ISA devices
were given their required IRQs, all PCI devices could share it. In a PCI-only machine,
there cannot be insufficient IRQs, as all can be shared

Networking Models

The layers are arranged here from the lower levels starting with the physical (hardware)
to the higher levels.

1. Physical Layer - The actual hardware. Concerned with the connection between the
computer and the network.
2. Data Link Layer - Data transfer method (802x ethernet). Puts data in frames and
ensures error free transmission. Also controls the timing of the network transmission.
IEEE divided this layer into the two following sublayers.
1. Media Access Control (MAC) - Used to coordinate the sending of data
between computers. The 802.3, 4, 5, and 12 standards apply to this layer. If
you hear someone talking about the MAC address of a network card, they are
referring to the hardware address of the card.
2. Logical Link control (LLC) - Maintains the Link between two computers by
establishing Service Access Points (SAPs) which are a series of interface
points. IEEE802.2.
3. Network Layer - IP network protocol. Routes messages using the best path
available. Concerned with message priority, status, and data congestion.
4. Transport Layer - TCP, UDP. Provides properly sequenced and error free
transmission. Recombines fragmented packets.
5. Session Layer - Determines when the session is begun or opened, how long it is
used, and when it is closed. concerned with security and name recognition.
6. Presentation Layer - ASCII or EBCDEC data syntax. Makes the type of data
transparent to the layers around it. Used to translate date to computer specific format
such as byte ordering. It may include compression. It prepares the data, either for the
network or the application depending on the direction it is going.
7. Application Layer - Provides the ability for user applications to interact with the
network..
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Network Access Methods
 Contention
o Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) -
Used by Ethernet
o Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance.
o Used by local area network.
 Token Passing
 Demand Priority - Describes a method where intelligent hubs control data
transmission. A computer will send a demand signal to the hub indicating that it
wants to transmit. The hub will respond with an acknowledgement that will allow
the computer to transmit. The hub will allow computers to transmit in turn. An
example of a demand priority network is 100VG-AnyLAN (IEEE 802.12). It uses a
star-bus and token ring topology.

 Polling - A central controller, also called the primary device will poll computers,
called secondary devices, to find out if they have data to transmit. Of so the
central controller will allow them to transmit for a limited time, then the next
device is polled, this technique is used by Mainframe computers.

COMMUNICATIONS PROTOCOL

Hardware and software standards that govern data transmission between computers.
The term "protocol" is very generic and is used for hundreds of different communications
methods. A protocol may define the packet structure of the data transmitted or the
control commands that manage the session, or both. A protocol suite such as TCP/IP is
made up of several levels of functionality. Learning the 7-layer protocol hierarchy, known
as the "OSI model," is essential for understanding protocols.

TCP/IP

(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) A communications protocol developed

under contract from the U.S. Department of Defense to internetwork dissimilar systems.
TCP/IP was developed in the 1970s and adopted as the protocol standard for ARPANET
(the predecessor to the Internet) in 1983. Invented by Vinton Cerf and Bob Kahn, this de
facto Unix standard is the protocol of the Internet and the global standard for
communications. Standard Internet communications protocols that allow digital
computers to communicate over long distances. The Internet is a packet-switched
network, in which information is broken down into small packets, sent individually over
many different routes at the same time, and then reassembled at the receiving end. TCP
is the component that collects and reassembles the packets of data, while IP is
responsible for making sure the packets are sent to the right destination.

Reliable and Unreliable

The TCP/IP suite provides two transport methods. TCP ensures that data arrive intact
and complete, while UDP just sends out packets. TCP is used for everything that must
arrive in perfect form, and UDP is used for streaming media, VoIP and
videoconferencing, where there is no time to retransmit erroneous or dropped packets in
realtime.

IP Makes It Routable
Page 25 of 41
TCP/IP is a routable protocol, and the IP "network" layer in TCP/IP provides this
capability. The header prefixed to an IP packet contains not only source and destination
addresses of the hosts, but source and destination addresses of the networks they
reside in. Data transmitted using TCP/IP can be sent to multiple networks within an
organization or around the globe via the Internet, the world's largest TCP/IP network.
The terms "TCP/IP network" and "IP network" are synonymous.

NetBEUI

(NetBIOS Extended User Interface) Pronounced "net-boo-ee." The transport part of the
original networking protocol for DOS and Windows PCs. NetBEUI is a non-routable
protocol that was designed for a single LAN segment. It does not contain a network
address for routing to different networks. NetBEUI was originally named "NetBIOS," but
because NetBIOS was not routable, the programming interface (API) to the protocol was
later separated from the transport to allow NetBIOS applications to use routable
protocols such as TCP/IP and SPX/IPX. This protocol is non-routable protocol without
IP.

NWLINK IPX/SPX

IPX/SPX stands for Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange. It is a

networking protocol used by the Novell NetWare operating systems. Like UDP, IPX is a
datagram protocol used for connectionless communications. IPX and SPX are derived
from Xerox Network Services' IDP and SPP protocols. SPX is a transport layer protocol
(layer 4 of the OSI Model) used in Novell Netware networks. The SPX layer sits on top of
the IPX layer (layer 3 - the network layer) and provides connection-oriented services
between two nodes on the network. SPX is used primarily by client/server
applications.Novell is largely responsible for the use of IPX as a popular computer
networking protocol due to their dominance in the network operating system software
market (with Novell Netware) from the late 1980s through to the mid-1990s.

IPX usage has declined in recent years as the rise of the Internet has made TCP/IP
ubiquitous. Novell's initial attempt to support TCP/IP as a client protocol, called
NetWare/IP, simply "tunnelled" IPX within IP packets, allowing NetWare clients and
servers to communicate over pure TCP/IP networks. NetWare/IP was largely ignored
except as a mechanism to route IPX through TCP/IP-only routers and WAN links.

Network Troubleshooting Techniques

Troubleshooting can account for up to 90 percent of a network administrator's job, so

effective troubleshooting skills will help administrators respond quickly in a crisis
situation, and keep their networks running smoothly. It can be a quantum leap from
network administrator to troubleshooting guru, but knowing how to implement the right
technique at the right time can help administrators take their skills to the next level. The
Real- World Network Troubleshooting Manual focuses on the methodology and process
of network troubleshooting, and how to apply them in real-life situations. Designed to
make any network administrator a troubleshooting expert, the book starts with an
overview of some readily available, basic troubleshooting tools. From there, multiple
real-world troubleshooting scenarios are covered, from basic problems to more
advanced, including what to do if a workstation is unable to surf the Internet, wireless
users cannot connect to the network, or a hacker attacks the Web site. Although the
primary focus is on the Windows workstation and server environment, many of the

Page 26 of 41
troubleshooting scenarios are non-operating system specific and can be applied to any
computing environment.

Features
 Discusses real-world scenarios, from basic to advanced, including what to do if
Windows services don't start, servers disappear from the network, workstations drop
off of the network, or inbound external e-mail stops working
 Features proven, field-tested, troubleshooting techniques that can help you fix your
network and prevent problems from happening in the first place
 Covers Windows Server 2003, Cisco routers, WANs, firewalls, spam, IP routing,
DNS, IIS, disaster recovery, and more.

Emphasizes concepts and processes rather than memorization and final outcome.

Page 27 of 41
Ms-Dos (Microsoft Disk Operating System)

MS-DOS (short for MicroSoft Disk Operating System) is an operating system

commercialized by Microsoft. It was the most commonly used member of the DOS family
of operating systems and was the dominant operating system for the PC compatible
platform during the 1980s.

MS-DOS employs a command line interface and a batch scripting facility via its
command interpreter, COMMAND.COM. MS-DOS was designed so users could easily
substitute a different command line interpreter, but the MSDOS.SYS and IO.SYS

Beginning with version 4.0, MS-DOS included DOS Shell, a file manager program with a
quasi-graphical text user interface (TUI) that featured menus, split windows, color
themes, mouse support and program shortcuts using character mode graphics.

MS-DOS was not designed to be a multi-user or multitasking operating system,

Difference Between Dos and windows

DOS was an older version by Microsoft which was entirely text and command based.
Windows has a GUI (Graphical User Interface) which means you can use a mouse, view
pictures, have icons, etc. If you've ever seen something like "c:\>_" in white text on a
black background, chances are that that was DOS or a version of it.
On Windows XP, you can get a version of it by pressing Start -> All Progs ->
Accessories -> Command Prompt. This is an updated version of the original DOS which
would run in fullscreen and be the only thing on the computer. You can get started by
typing HELP <return> to see a list of commands.

There are two types of command in MS-Dos. Internal & External

Internal command

cls
Clears the screen.
cls
Equivalent to the Unix command clear.

copy
Copies files from one location to another. The destination defaults to the current
directory. If multiple source files are indicated, the destination must be a directory, or an
error will result.

copy filespec [destination]

Files may be copied to devices (e.g. "copy file lpt1" would send the file to the printer on
lpt1. "copy file con" would output to screen, which would be the same as type.

Most useful to note that "copy file.txt+file2.txt file_cat.txt" will concatenate the files and
output them as file_cat.txt. Which is just like the "cat" command.

copy /a alpha.txt + beta.txt gamma.txt

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Text mode - which will copy the text content of the file, stopping when it reaches the
EOF character.

copy /b alpha.mpg + beta.mpg gamma.mpg

Binary mode - which will concatenate files in their entirety, ignoring EOF characters.

copy device
copy device filename

In this usage, data is written from the given device to the file until the end-of-file
character (ASCII character 26, which may be typed as ctrl-Z) is encountered. The most
commonly used device is named con, which is short for "console"; thus, copy con
filename would allow the user to type directly into a file, and press ctrl-Z when finished.

del or erase
Deletes files.
del filename
erase filename Erase the file from the hard disk or any media.

dir
Displays contents of a directory.

Options :

 /w : Wide list format

 /p : Pause at every page
 /s : Also look in subdirectories
 /a[xx] : Display files with the specified attributes only
 /o[xx] : Modifies sort order
 /L Uses lowercase.

dir [options] [filespec]

DIR [drive:][path][filename] [/A[[:]attributes]] [/B] [/C] [/D] [/L] [/N] [/O[[:]sortorder]] [/P] [/Q]
[/S]

[drive:][path][filename] Specifies drive, directory, and/or files to list.

/A for Displays All files with specified attributes.

AD =Directories AR = Read-only files AH = Hidden files

Sorting the Directory (DIR [/O] N, S, E, D)

/ON Name sort /OE Extension sort /OS Size Sort

/OD Date Sort

? for a single character DIR ???P*.*

* means may be any character (many)

Page 29 of 41
MD command

Make a folder/ directory on the Media.

MD subdirectory name /folder name

CD Command Changed the directory

CD subdirectory name /folder

CD \ Out from the Directory structure.
CD .. Out from the directory one by one.

Rmdir or RD command

Used to remove empty directory from the Media.

RD subdirectory name

Ren Command
Renames a file. Unlike the move command, this command cannot be used to rename
subdirectories, or rename files across drives.

ren filename newname

A more useful function of this command is to mass rename files by the use of wildcards.
For example, the following command will change the extension of all files in the current
directory from htm to html:

time and date

Set / display the system date and time that is working in the BIOS with the help of
battary.

date
time

type Command
Display a file. The more command is frequently used in conjunction with this command,

type long-text-file | more.

type filename.extension

ver
Shows the version of MS-DOS you are using.
Some versions of MS-DOS support an undocumented /r switch, which will show the
revision as well as the version.

Path Command

Page 30 of 41
It is used for setting up the directory maps mostly used in Batch files and autoexec.bat
file. And also set the direction of sub directory.

Path = C:\dos; c:\tc\bin

External Commands

Attrib command
Change or view the attributes of one or more files. It defaults to displaying the attributes
of all files in the current directory.

Options:

 To add an attribute attach a '+' in front of it.

 To remove an attribute attach a '-' in front of it
 Attributes include
o R - Read-only
o A - Archive
o S - System
o H - Hidden

attrib [+|-ahrs] [filespec]

chkdsk command
Verifies a hard disk or a floppy disk for file system integrity.

Options:

 /F : Fixes errors on the disk

 /V : Displays the full path and name of every file on the disk

chkdsk drive [[path]filename] [/F] [/V]

deltree command
Deletes a directory along with all of the files and subdirectories that it contains.
Normally, it will ask for confirmation of such a drastic action.
deltree [/y] directory

The /y parameter if present tells the deltree command to carry out without first prompting
for confirmation.

The deltree command is not included in recent Microsoft Windows operating systems.

Format command
Delete all the files on the disk and reformat it for MS-DOS
In most cases, this should only be used on floppy drives or other removable
media. This command can potentially erase everything on a computer's hard
disk.

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 /autotest and /backup are undocumented features. Both will format the drive
without a confirmation prompt.

format [options] drive

FORMAT drive: [/V[:label]] [/Q] [/F:size] [/B | /S] [/C]
FORMAT drive: [/V[:label]] [/Q] [/T:tracks /N:sectors] [/B | /S] [/C]
FORMAT drive: [/V[:label]] [/Q] [/1] [/4] [/B | /S] [/C]
FORMAT drive: [/Q] [/1] [/4] [/8] [/B | /S] [/C]

/V[:label] Specifies the volume label.

/Q Performs a quick format.
/F:size Specifies the size of the floppy disk to format (such
as 160, 180, 320, 360, 720, 1.2, 1.44, 2.88).
/B Allocates space on the formatted disk for system files.
/S Copies system files to the formatted disk.
/T:tracks Specifies the number of tracks per disk side.
/N:sectors Specifies the number of sectors per track.
/1 Formats a single side of a floppy disk.
/4 Formats a 5.25-inch 360K floppy disk in a high-density drive.
/C Tests clusters that are currently marked "bad."

Known as a joke among UNIX users of that time since every user on the machine could
easily cause damage with just one command.

fdisk
Manipulates hard disk partition tables. The name derives from IBM's habit of calling hard
drives fixed disks. When run from the command line, it displays a menu of various
partitioning operations:

1. Create DOS partition or Logical DOS Drive

2. Set active partition
3. Delete partition or Logical DOS Drive
4. Display partition information
5. Change current fixed disk drive

FDISK /MBR installs a standard master boot record on the hard drive.

Label command
Changes the label on a logical drive, such as a hard disk partition or a floppy
disk.

Mem command
Displays memory usage.
mem

move command
Moves files or renames directories.

move filename newname

move driveletter:\olddir driveletter:\newdir

scandisk
Disk diagnostic utility
Page 32 of 41
Scandisk is a replacement for the chkdsk utility. Its primary advantages over chkdsk is
that it is more reliable and has the ability to run a surface scan which finds and marks
bad clusters on the disk. It is present on 16/32-bit MS-DOS-based versions of Windows
like Windows 95, 98, 98SE, and Me. chkdsk has surface scan and bad cluster detection
functionality built in on Windows NT based operating systems.

xcopy
Copy entire directory trees.

xcopy directory [destination-directory]

source Specifies the file(s) to copy.

destination Specifies the location and/or name of new files.

/P Prompts you before creating each destination file.

/S Copies directories and subdirectories except empty ones.
/Q Does not display file names while copying.
/T /E includes empty directories and subdirectories.

Copies files and directory trees. In Unix, similar functionality is provided by the cp
command. However, some functionality of xcopy is not available in the cp command.
The pattern mechanism of cp is restricted to expand only the names of the files in the
source directory. For example, let's suppose that the temp/ directory had the files a.txt
and b.txt, and the subdirectory temp/sub/ had the files c.txt and d.txt.

DOS CONFIG.SYS

CONFIG.SYS is a configuration file made up of DOS commands that DOS looks for in
the root directory upon startup. It is used to load drivers and change system settings.
Adding a new peripheral to a DOS computer usually requires installing the driver
program to make it operate. The install program that comes with the peripheral often
does this for you by copying the driver to your hard disk and modifying the CONFIG.SYS
file to activate it upon startup.

Manual changes to CONFIG.SYS are done with a text editor such as the DOS Edit and
the Windows Notepad utilities.

Common
Commands Purpose
DEVICE Names a driver to be loaded.

FILES Files open at one time (8-255). Default

is 8, but this is often set to 20-40.
Some apps open a lot of files.

BUFFERS 528-byte areas of RAM reserved for input

and output (1-99). Default is usually
15, but this is often set to 20 or 30.
The more buffers, the faster the I/O.
/x switch in 4.01 puts buffers in EMS.

LASTDRIVE Last drive letter (see DOS Subst).

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Look up DOS Loadhigh for storing drivers in high memory in DOS 5 and up.

Following is an example of the contents of a CONFIG.SYS file for a 386 and higher PC:

device=c:\dos\himem.sys
device=c:\dos\emm386.exe ram
device=c:\dos\ansi.sys
device=c:\mouse\mouse.sys
files=30
buffers=40
dos=high,umb

Common
Drivers Purpose
ansi.sys Screen and keyboard control.
display.sys Supports code-page switching.
driver.sys Allows copying from/to same drive.
mouse.sys Mouse driver.
printer.sys Code-page support for printers.
himem.sys Extended memory (XMS) manager.
emm386.exe 386 EMS manager.
qemm386.sys Quarterdeck's 386 EMS manager.
ramdrive.sys RAM disk (extended or EMS memory).
smartdrv.sys Disk cache (extended or EMS memory).

AUTOEXEC.BAT

(AUTOmatic EXECute BATch) A DOS batch file that is executed when the computer is
started.

AUTOEXEC.BAT is the name of a system file found originally on the MS-DOS operating
system. It is a plain-text batch file that is located in the root directory of the boot device.
The name of the file is a portmanteau of the words "automatic" and "execution", which
describes its function in automatically executing commands on system startup; the
portmanteau was coined in response to the 8.3 filename limitations of the FAT file
system family.

Later versions were often much expanded with numerous third party device drivers. The
following is a basic DOS 5.x type AUTOEXEC.BAT configuration, consisting only of
essential commands:

@ECHO OFF
PROMPT $P$G
PATH=C:\DOS;C:\WINDOWS
SET TEMP=C:\TEMP
SET BLASTER=A220 I7 D1 T2
LH SMARTDRV.EXE
LH DOSKEY
LH MOUSE.COM /Y
WIN

Page 34 of 41
OSI Layers

The Open Systems Interconnection Basic Reference Model (OSI Reference Model or
OSI Model for short) is a layered, abstract description for communications and computer
network protocol design, developed as part of Open Systems Interconnection initiative.
In 1977, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), began to develop its
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) networking suite.

Physical Layer 1

The physical layer is responsible for passing bits onto and receiving them from the
connecting medium. This layer has no understanding of the meaning of the bits, but
deals with the electrical and mechanical characteristics of the signals and signaling
methods. It comprises the RTS (Receive to send) and CTS signals in an RS-232
environment, as well as TDM and FDM techniques for multiplexing data on a line.
SONET also provides layer 1 capability.

Data Link Layer 2

The data link is responsible for node to node validity and integrity of the transmission.
The transmitted bits are divided into frames; for example, an Ethernet, Token Ring or
FDDI frame in local area networks (LANs). Frame relay and ATM are also at Layer 2.
Layers 1 and 2 are required for every type of communications. It comprises over two
sub-protocols MAC (Media Access Control) and LLC (Logical Link Control). It is also
used two sub protocols called CSMA/CA and CSMA/CD.

CSMA/CD

(Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) A method of controlling multi-access

computer networks in which each station on the network senses traffic and waits for it to
clear before sending a message, and two devices that try to send concurrent messages
must both step back and try again. Abbreviation for carrier-sense multiple access with
collision detection.

The LAN access method used in Ethernet. When a device wants to gain access to the
network, it checks to see if the network is quiet (senses the carrier). If it is not, it waits a
random amount of time before retrying. If the network is quiet and two devices access the
line at exactly the same time, their signals collide. When the collision is detected, they
both back off and each wait a random amount of time before retrying. Methods for
collision detection are media dependent, but on an electrical bus such as Ethernet,
collisions can be detected by comparing transmitted data with received data. CSMA/CD
is a layer 2 protocol in the OSI model.

CSMA/CA

(Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance) A transmission technology that

attempts to avoid collisions rather than detect them as in CSMA/CD. CSMA/CA used in
wireless Ethernet LAN (802.11) and Apple's LocalTalk, when a device needs to transmit,
it listens to the network (senses the carrier) and waits for it to be free. In computer
networking, CSMA/CA belongs to a class of protocols called multiple access methods. In
CSMA/CA, a station wishing to transmit has to first listen to the channel for a
Page 35 of 41
predetermined amount of time so as to check for any activity on the channel. If the
channel is sensed "idle" then the station is permitted to transmit. If the channel is sensed
as "busy" the station has to defer its transmission. This is the essence of the "collision
avoidance" part of the protocol.

CSMA/CA can optionally be supplemented by the exchange of a Request to Send

(RTS) packet sent by the sender S, and a Clear to Send (CTS) packet sent by the
intended receiver R, alerting all nodes within range of either the sender, the receiver, or
both, to keep quiet for the duration of the main packet.

Network Layer 3

The network layer establishes the route between the sender and receiver across
switching points, which are typically routers. The most ubiquitous example of this layer is
the IP protocol in TCP/IP (see TCP/IP). IPX, SNA and AppleTalk are other examples of
routable protocols, which means that they include a network address and a station
address in their addressing system. This layer is also the switching function of the dial-
up telephone system.

3 Above layers called (Lower Layers) Physical layer, Data Link and network are
responsible for moving packets from the sending station to the receiving station.

Transport Layer 4

This layer is responsible for overall end to end validity and integrity of the transmission.
The lower layers may drop packets, but the transport layer performs a sequence check
on the data and ensures that if a 12MB file is sent, the full 12MB is received.

"OSI transport services" include layers 1 through 4, collectively responsible for delivering
a complete message or file from sending to receiving station without error.

Session Layer 5

Provides coordination of the communications in an orderly manner. It determines one-

way or two-way communications and manages the dialog between both parties; for
example, making sure that the previous request has been fulfilled before the next one is
sent. It also marks significant parts of the transmitted data with checkpoints to allow for
fast recovery in the event of a connection failure.

In practice, this layer is often not used or services within this layer are sometimes
incorporated into the transport layer.

Presentation Layer 6

When data are transmitted between different types of computer systems, the
presentation layer negotiates and manages the way data are represented and encoded.
For example, it provides a common denominator between ASCII and EBCDIC machines
as well as between different floating point and binary formats. Sun's XDR and OSI's
ASN.1 are two protocols used for this purpose. This layer is also used for encryption and
decryption.

Application Layer 7

Page 36 of 41
This top layer defines the language and syntax that programs use to communicate with
other programs. The application layer represents the purpose of communicating in the
first place. For example, a program in a client workstation uses commands to request
data from a program in the server. Common functions at this layer are opening, closing,
reading and writing files, transferring files and e-mail messages, executing remote jobs
and obtaining directory information about network resources.

Upper Layers

Layers 7 through 4 comprise the upper layers of the OSI protocol stack. They are more
geared to the type of application than the lower layers, which are designed to move
packets, no matter what they contain, from one place to another.

What is Network Cabling?

Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device
to another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. In
some cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a
variety of cable types. The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's
topology, protocol, and size. Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable
and how they relate to other aspects of a network is necessary for the development of a
successful network.

The following sections discuss the types of cables used in networks and other related
topics.

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Coaxial Cable
 Fiber Optic Cable
 Wireless LANs
 Cable Installation Guides

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded. Unshielded twisted
pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school networks.

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable.
The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different
number of twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other
electrical devices. The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and
the greater the cost per foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry
Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has established standards of UTP
and rated five categories of wire.

Page 37 of 41
Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair
Type Use

Category 1 Voice Only (Telephone Wire)

Category 2 Data to 4 Mbps (LocalTalk)

Category 3 Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)

Category 4 Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring)

Category 5 Data to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)

Buy the best cable you can afford; most schools purchase Category 3 or Category 5. If
you are designing a 10 Mbps Ethernet network and are considering the cost savings of
buying Category 3 wire instead of Category 5, remember that the Category 5 cable will
provide more "room to grow" as transmission technologies increase. Both Category 3
and Category 5 UTP have a maximum segment length of 100 meters. In Florida,
Category 5 cable is required for retrofit grants. 10BaseT refers to the specifications for
unshielded twisted pair cable (Category 3, 4, or 5) carrying Ethernet signals. Category 6
is relatively new and is used for gigabit connections.

Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This
is a plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector. A slot allows the
RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the
connector follows a standard borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard
designates which wire goes with each pin inside the connector.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency

interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical
interference; however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded
twisted pair is often used on networks using Token Ring topology.

Page 38 of 41
Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides
insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield (See fig. 3). The
metal shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and
other computers.

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference.

In addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted
pair cable. The two types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.

Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for
thin coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum
segment length being 200 meters. In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185
meters. Thin coaxial cable is popular in school networks, especially linear bus networks.

Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications
for thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment
length being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that
helps keep moisture away from the center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great
choice when running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick
coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone-Neill-
Concelman (BNC) connector (See fig. 4). Different types of adapters are available for
BNC connectors, including a T-connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors
on the cable are the weakest points in any network. To help avoid problems with your
network, always use the BNC connectors that crimp, rather than screw, onto the cable.

Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of
protective materials (See fig. 5). It transmits light rather than electronic signals
eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain
environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made it
the standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the
effects of moisture and lighting.

Page 39 of 41
Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than
coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater
speeds. This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as
video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable
to copper cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the
specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.

Facts about fiber optic cables:

 Outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or PVC.
 Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent breakage.
 A plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center.
 Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.

Fiber Optic Connector

The most common connector used with fiber optic cable is an ST connector. It is barrel
shaped, similar to a BNC connector. A newer connector, the SC, is becoming more
popular. It has a squared face and is easier to connect in a confined space.

Ethernet Cable Summary

Specification Cable Type Maximum length

10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters

10Base2 Thin Coaxial 185 meters

10Base5 Thick Coaxial 500 meters

10BaseF Fiber Optic 2000 meters

100BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters

100BaseTX Unshielded Twisted Pair 220 meters

Wireless LANs

Not all networks are connected with cabling; some networks are wireless. Wireless LANs
use high frequency radio signals, infrared light beams, or lasers to communicate
between the workstations and the file server or hubs. Each workstation and file server on
a wireless network has some sort of transceiver/antenna to send and receive the data.
Information is relayed between transceivers as if they were physically connected. For
longer distance, wireless communications can also take place through cellular telephone
technology, microwave transmission, or by satellite.

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Wireless networks are great for allowing laptop computers or remote computers to
connect to the LAN. Wireless networks are also beneficial in older buildings where it may
be difficult or impossible to install cables.

The two most common types of infrared communications used in schools are line-of-
sight and scattered broadcast. Line-of-sight communication means that there must be an
unblocked direct line between the workstation and the transceiver. If a person walks
within the line-of-sight while there is a transmission, the information would need to be
sent again. This kind of obstruction can slow down the wireless network.

Scattered infrared communication is a broadcast of infrared transmissions sent out in

multiple directions that bounces off walls and ceilings until it eventually hits the receiver.
Networking communications with laser are virtually the same as line-of-sight infrared
networks.

Wireless LANs have several disadvantages. They provide poor security, and are
susceptible to interference from lights and electronic devices. They are also slower than
LANs using cabling.

Installing Cable - Some Guidelines

When running cable, it is best to follow a few simple rules:

 Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty of slack.
 Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it is brand new, it may have
problems that will be difficult to isolate later.
 Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes and other sources of
electrical interference.
 If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover the cable with cable
protectors.
 Label both ends of each cable.
 Use cable ties (not tape) to keep cables in the same location together.

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