THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
2023/2024 ACADEMIC YEAR LECTURE NOTES

INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS PH 112

CHAPTER 7
OSCILLATIONS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand the concept of periodic motion and identify some examples of periodic motion.
• Understand terms associated with oscillations.
• Understand the concept of simple harmonic motion and describe physical characteristics of
simple harmonic motion.
• State the conditions for a body to be in simple harmonic motion.
• Describe simple harmonic motion mathematically including equations for position,
velocity and acceleration.
• Derive the expression for the period of simple harmonic motion.
• Derive and apply the expression for the period of a simple pendulum.
• Describe and carry out a laboratory experiment determine the value of ‘g’ using a simple
pendulum.
• Understand the concept of damped and undamped oscillations.
• Understand the concepts of forced oscillation and resonance.

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA ©2024 1

Figure 7.1 When a guitar string is plucked, the string oscillates up and down in periodic
motion. The vibrating string causes the surrounding air molecules to oscillate, producing
sound waves. (Credit: Yutaka Tsutano)

In this chapter, we study a special type of motion called periodic motion. This is a repeating
motion of an object in which the object continues to return to a given position after a fixed time
interval. Some examples of periodic motion are motion of planets around the sun, oscillation
of a simple pendulum and vibration of atoms. In addition, in nature, seasons occur periodically
after every one year. The back-and-forth movements of an object are called oscillations. We
will focus our attention on a special case of periodic motion called simple harmonic motion.

7.1 Variables of Oscillations

7.1.1 Displacement
During every periodic motion, a certain measurable physical quantity changes with time. The
physical quantity which undergoes a change with time in a periodic motion is called
displacement. A displacement is always measured as a function of time. In this chapter, we use
the term displacement in a more general sense. It refers to change with time of any physical
property under consideration. In other words, the term displacement is not always to be referred
in the context of position only. Displacement can be changes in physical quantities with time,
such as position, angle, voltage, pressure, electric field etc. For an oscillating simple pendulum,
the angle from the vertical as a function of time may be regarded as a displacement variable.
Generally, it is convenient to measure displacement of the body from its equilibrium position.
Note that the displacement variable may take both positive and negative values.
7.1.2 Amplitude (A)
It is the maximum displacement of the particle from the equilibrium point, i.e, the amplitude of
oscillation. For example, if a pendulum swings one centimeter from the equilibrium point
before beginning its return journey, the amplitude of oscillation is one centimeter. The

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA ©2024 2

displacement x can take values between – A and + A. This gives the physical significance of
the constant A.
7.1.3 Time Period (T)
A particle in simple harmonic motion repeats its motion after a regular time interval. Suppose
the particle is at a position x and its velocity is v at a certain time t. After some time, the position
of the particle will again be x and its velocity will again be v in the same direction. This part of
the motion is called one complete oscillation and the time taken in one complete oscillation is
called the time period T.
7.1.4 Frequency (f) and Angular Frequency (𝝎)
The reciprocal of time period is called the frequency. Physically, the frequency represents the
number of oscillations per unit time. It is measured in cycles per second also known as hertz
and written in symbols as 𝐻𝑧. The quantity 𝜔 is called the angular frequency and has units of
rad/s. It is a measure of how rapidly the oscillations are occurring-the more oscillations per unit
time, the higher is the value of 𝜔. Frequency and angular frequency are related by the equation

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓

7.2. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

When a body repeats its motion after regular time intervals, we say that it is in harmonic motion
or periodic motion. A particle is said to execute simple harmonic motion when it vibrates
periodically in such a way that at any instant the acceleration of the system, and therefore the
net force, is proportional to the displacement and acts in the opposite direction of the
displacement from a fixed point on its path and is always directed towards that point. The fixed
point is called the mean position or equilibrium position.

The following are the two conditions for the body to be in SHM:

(1) Acceleration and displacement are in opposite direction.

(2) Acceleration should always be directed towards its mean or fixed position.

Since acceleration is proportional to displacement, the force 𝐹(𝑥) is a restoring force directed
towards the mean position and is proportional to the displacement from the mean position.

𝐹(𝑥) ∝ −𝑥

𝐹(𝑥) = −𝑘𝑥

where 𝑘 is the force constant. We can use the equation 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 as the definition of SHM. The
resultant force on the particle is zero when it is at the equilibrium position. The motion of a
simple harmonic oscillating system can be described using cosine and sine functions.

If we plot the displacement as a function of time graph (See figure 9.2) for an object undergoing
simple harmonic motion, we would identify the period as the time between two consecutive
peaks or any two analogous points on two waves with the same phase. To locate the amplitude,

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA ©2024 3

we look at the highest peak in distance. As the cosine or sine function of time varies from +1
to –1, the displacement varies between the extremes 𝐴 and – 𝐴.

Figure 7.2 Displacement vs Time for a system in simple harmonic motion. From this graph, we
can identify the amplitude and period of oscillation.

7.3 Expression for the displacement of SHM

The displacement of a particle undergoing SHM may be given by

𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡
or
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡
where 𝐴 and 𝜔are constants.
Here 𝐴 is the amplitude of oscillation and 𝜔 is the angular frequency.

7.4 Expression for the velocity of the particle executing SHM

The displacement of a particle executing SHM at any instant is given by

𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡
Since the velocity of the particle at any instant is the rate of displacement, then;
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
𝑣= = (𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = 𝜔 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡
At extreme positions 𝑥 = 𝐴, and the velocity is zero. At the mean position, 𝑥 = 0, velocity is
maximum. The expression for the maximum velocity is given by
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔𝐴

7.5 Expression for the acceleration of the particle executing SHM

By definition, the acceleration of the particle at any instant is the rate of velocity, given by;

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA ©2024 4

 𝑑𝑣 𝑑
𝑎= = (𝜔 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 = −𝐴𝜔2 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡

Since 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡, then;

𝑎 = −𝜔2𝑥

The force acting on a particle of mass 𝑚 is given by the equation 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥, and therefore by
Newton’s second law of motion, the acceleration of the particle is
𝐹 −𝑘𝑥
𝑎= =
𝑚 𝑚
𝑘
𝑎=− 𝑥
𝑚
Combining the equation for the acceleration of the particle executing SHM and the above
equation, we get

𝑘
−𝜔2 𝑥 = − 𝑥
𝑚
𝑘
𝜔2 =
𝑚

𝑘
𝜔=√
𝑚

At extreme positions 𝑥 = 𝐴, and the acceleration is maximum.

𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −𝜔2 𝐴

or
𝑘
𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − 𝐴
𝑚
At the mean position, 𝑥 = 0, acceleration is zero.

7.6 Expression for the time period of SHM

The period may be expressed in terms of the mass 𝑚 of the particle and the force constant 𝑘.
Generally, the period of the motion is given by,
2𝜋
𝑇=
𝜔

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA ©2024 5

 𝑘
Since 𝜔 = √𝑚, hence, the period of a particle executing SHM is given by

2𝜋
𝑇=
√𝑘
𝑚
𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘
7.7. Simple pendulum
A simple pendulum is an example of a system that executes SHM. A simple pendulum consists
of a bob attached to the end of light inextensible string. When the bob is displaced to one side
and released it executes SHM. Let 𝑚 be the mass of the bob and 𝑙 be length of the pendulum
(Length of the pendulum is the distance between the point of suspension to the center of gravity
of the bob). Let the bob be displaced from the equilibrium position through an angle 𝜃. The
angle 𝜃 is very small, so that the length 𝑥 of the arc is approximately a straight line

Figure 7.3 A simple pendulum consists of a bob attached to the end of light inextensible
string
The force due to the weight of the bob 𝑚𝑔, acts vertically downwards. This can be resolved
into two rectangular components;
(i) 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃, acting radially and
(ii) 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃, acting tangentially.
From figure 9.4, it is clear that 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 is balanced by the tension 𝑇 along the string. Thus,

𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃
The component 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 acts towards the equilibrium position. Therefore, it is the restoring
force 𝐹. Thus,

𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃

Since 𝜃 is very small, sin 𝜃 = 𝜃. Then.

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA ©2024 6

 𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔𝜃
The distance of the particle from the equilibrium position along the arc is 𝑥 = 𝑙𝜃, and then
𝑥
𝜃=
𝑙
The expression for the restoring force now becomes
𝑥 𝑚𝑔
𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔 = − 𝑥
𝑙 𝑙
Comparing the above equation with the standard equation for SHM, 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥, where k is a
constant, it is seen that the oscillation of a simple pendulum is simple harmonic.
𝑚𝑔
∴𝑘=
𝑙
Hence the period of the simple pendulum is given by,

𝑚 𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋√ 𝑚𝑔
𝑘
𝑙

𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

7.7.1 Determination of g in Laboratory

A simple pendulum provides an easy method to measure the value of ‘g’ in a laboratory. A
small spherical ball with a hook is suspended from a clamp through a light thread as shown in
figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4 A small spherical ball with a hook suspended from a clamp through a light thread
The length OP of the thread is measured with a meter scale.
The bob is slightly pulled aside and gently released from rest. The pendulum starts making
oscillations. The time for a number of oscillations (say 20 or 50) is measured with a stop watch
and the time period is obtained. The value of g is calculated by equation,

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA ©2024 7

 𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

The length of the thread is varied and the experiment is repeated a number of times to minimize
the effect of random errors

7.8 Undamped Oscillations

An undamped oscillation is an oscillation in which, when displaced from its equilibrium point,
experiences a restoring force which is proportional to the displacement. So, in the undamped
oscillation system, the magnitude of the oscillations never fades and the magnitude of the
oscillation remains the same. An example of undamped oscillation is alternating current.

7.9 Damped Oscillations

Damped oscillations are periodic oscillations with gradually decreasing amplitude. A particle
will execute a simple harmonic motion with a constant amplitude if the resultant force on it is
proportional to the displacement and is directed opposite to it. Nature provides a large number
of situations in which such restoring force acts. The spring-mass system and the simple
pendulum are examples. However, in many of the cases some kind of damping force is also
present with the restoring force. The damping force may arise due to friction between the
moving parts, air resistance or several other causes. The damping force is a function of speed
of the moving system and is directed opposite to the velocity. Energy is lost due to the negative
work done by the damping force and the system comes to a halt in due course. The amplitude
decreases with time and finally becomes zero. Figure 7.5 shows qualitatively the displacement
of the particle as a function of time.

Figure 7.5 Time – displacement curve for a damped harmonic motion

If the damping is large the system may not oscillate at all. If displaced, it will go towards the
mean position and stay there without overshooting on the other side. The damping for which
the oscillation just ceases is called critical damping.

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA ©2024 8

7.10 Forced Oscillations and Resonance
In certain situations, apart from the restoring force and the damping force, there is yet another
force applied on the body which itself changes periodically with time. If an external periodic
force is applied on a harmonic oscillator, then the oscillating system is called forced (or driven)
harmonic oscillator and its oscillations are called forced (or driven) oscillations. In forced
oscillation the energy lost due to the damping force is compensated by the work done by the
applied force. The oscillations with constant amplitude are, therefore, sustained
The phenomenon in which the amplitude of the driven oscillator becomes maximum at a
particular frequency is called resonance. This frequency is called resonant frequency. It is the
same as the natural frequency of the oscillator. Figure 7.6 shows the amplitude as a function
of the applied frequency. We see that the amplitude is large if the damping is small. Also, the
resonance is sharp in this case, that is the amplitude rapidly falls if 𝜔 is different from 𝜔0.

Figure 7.6 Variation of the amplitude with the angular frequency 𝜔 of the periodic force.
If the damping were ideally zero, the amplitude of the forced vibration at resonance would be
infinity. Some damping is always present in mechanical systems and the amplitude remains
finite. However, the amplitude may become very large if the damping is small and the applied
frequency is close to the natural frequency. This effect is important in designing bridges and
other civil constructions.

EXERCISES
1. A particle of mass 200 g executes a simple harmonic motion. The restoring force is
provided by a spring of spring constant 80 N m–1. Find the time period. [𝜋⁄10 s]
2. The position and acceleration of a particle executing simple harmonic motion are found to
have magnitudes 2 cm and 10 m/s2 respectively at a certain instant. Find the time period of
the motion. [0.28 s]

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA ©2024 9

3. A particle having mass 10 g oscillates according to the equation 𝑥 = 2 sin 100𝑡, where x is
in centimeter and t in second. Find
(a) the amplitude, the time period and the spring constant. [2 cm; 0.063 s; 100 N/m]
(b) the position, the velocity and the acceleration at t = 1. [-1cm; 1.72 m/s; -100 m/s2]
4. The equation of motion of a particle started at t = 0 is given by x = 5 sin 20t, where x is in
centimeter and t in second. When does the particle
(a) first come to rest? [𝜋⁄40 s]
(b) first have zero acceleration? [𝜋⁄20 s]
(c) first have maximum speed? [𝜋⁄20 s]
5. Calculate the time period of a simple pendulum of length one meter. The acceleration due
to gravity at the place is π2 ms−2. [2 s]
6. A simple pendulum is taken at a place where its distance from the earth’s surface is equal
to the radius of the earth. Calculate the time period of small oscillations if the length of the
string is 1 m. Take 𝑔 = 𝜋 2 ms−2 at the surface of the earth. [4 s]

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA ©2024 10