Chapter 1

An Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

Introduction
Aerospace engineering is the primary branch of engineering
concerned with the research, design, development, construction,
testing, science and technology of aircraft and spacecraft. The field
also covers their aerodynamic characteristics and behaviors, airfoil,
control surfaces, lift, drag, and other properties. It is divided into two
major and overlapping branches: aeronautics and astronautics.
Aeronautics deals with aircraft that operate in Earth’s atmosphere, and
astronautics deals with spacecraft that operate outside the Earth’s
atmosphere, (see figures 1 . 1 and 1 .2)
Founded by pioneers such as Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the field
reached its maturity with launching of first artificial satellite, first man
in space and first step on the Moon. In fact, aeronautical engineering
was the original term for the field. As flight technology advanced to
include craft operating in outer space, the broader term '‘aerospace
engineering” has largely replaced it in common usage. Aerospace
engineering, particularly the astronautics branch, is often referred to
colloquially as “rocket science”, such as in popular culture.
2 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

Figure 1.1. Parts of an aircraft

Panneaux solaires Pare-soleil

Plateforme

Telescope
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Camera haute
resolution HRC

Miroirs HRMA
Module instruments
scientifrques ISIS R6&eaux de Propulseurs
diffraction
Spectrometre ACIS
Antenne fatble gain

Figure 1.2. Parts of a sample spacecraft

 An Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 3

1.1. Overview
Flight vehicles are subjected to demanding conditions such as those
produced by changes in atmospheric pressure and temperature, with
structural loads applied upon vehicle components. Consequently, they
are usually the products of various technological and engineering
disciplines including aerodynamics, propulsion, avionics, materials
science, structural analysis and manufacturing. The interaction
between these technologies is known as aerospace engineering.
Because of the complexity and number of disciplines involved,
aerospace engineering is carried out by teams of engineers, each
having their own specialized area of expertise.
The development and manufacturing of a modern flight vehicle
is an extremely complex process and demands careful balance and
compromise between abilities, design, available technology and costs.
Indeed, aerospace engineers design, test, and supervise the
manufacture of aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles. Moreover, aerospace
engineers develop new technologies for use in aviation, defense
systems, and space, (see figure 1.3)

Figure 1.3. A sample of modern aircraft cockpit (G600 avionics install)

4 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

1.2. History
The origin of aerospace engineering can be traced back to the aviation
pioneers around the late 1 9th to early 20th centuries, although the work
of Sir George Cayley dates from the last decade of the 18th to mid- 19th
century. One of the most important people in the history of aeronautics,
Cayley was a pioneer in aeronautical engineering and is credited as the
first person to separate the forces of lift and drag, which are in effect on
any flight vehicle. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was
largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other
branches of engineering. Scientists understood some key elements of
aerospace engineering, like fluid dynamics, in the 18th century. Many
years later after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, the 1910s
saw the development of aeronautical engineering through the design of
World War (I) military aircraft.
In fact, attempts to fly without any real aeronautical understanding
have been made from the earliest times, typically by constructing wings
and jumping from a tower with crippling or lethal results. Man-carrying
kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China. In
1282 the European explorer Marco Polo described the Chinese
techniques then current. The Chinese also constructed small hot air
balloons, or lanterns, and rotary-wing toys.
An early European to provide any scientific discussion of flight
was Roger Bacon, who described principles of operation for the
lighter-than-air balloon and the flapping- wing omithopter, which he
envisaged would be constructed in the future. The lifting medium for
his balloon would be an “aether” whose composition he did not know.
Meanwhile, wiser investigators sought to gain some rational
understanding through the study of bird flight. An early example
appears in ancient Egyptian texts. Later medieval Islamic scientists also
made such studies. The founders of modem aeronautics, Leonardo da
Vinci in the Renaissance and Cayley around 1800, both began their
investigations with studies of bird flight. In the late fifteenth century,
Leonardo da Vinci followed up his study of birds with designs for some
 An Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 5

of the earliest flying machines, including the flapping-wing ornithopter

and the rotating-wing helicopter, (see figure 1 .4)
Although his designs were rational, they were not based on
particularly good science. Many of his designs, such as a four-person
screw-type helicopter, have severe flaws. He did at least understand
that “An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to
the object.” (Newton would not publish the Third law of motion until
1687) His analysis led to the realization that manpower alone was not
sufficient for sustained flight, and his later designs included a
mechanical power source such as a spring. Da Vinci’s work was lost
after his death and did not reappear until it had been overtaken by the
work of George Cayley.

Figure 1.4. Designs for flying machines by Leonardo da Vinci, circa 1490
6 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

1.3. Foundation of modern aeronautics

Sir George Cayley (1773-1857) is widely acknowledged as the
founder of modem aeronautics. He was first called the “father of the
airplane” in 1 846 and Henson called him the “father of aerial
navigation.” He was the first true scientific aerial investigator to
publish his work, which included the underlying principles and forces
of flight for the first time (figure 1 .5).

Figure 1.5. Sir George Cayley (1773-1857)

In 1809 he began the publication of a landmark three-part treatise

titled “On Aerial Navigation” (1809-1810). He wrote the first
scientific statement of the problem, “The whole problem is confined
within these limits, to make a surface support a given weight by the
application of power to the resistance of air.” He identified the four
vector forces that influence an aircraft: thrust, lift, drag and weight
and distinguished stability and control in his designs. He developed
the modem conventional form of the fixed-wing airplane having a
stabilizing tail with both horizontal and vertical surfaces, flying
gliders both unmanned and manned (figure 1 .6).
Moreover, he introduced the use of the whirling arm test rig to
investigate the aerodynamics of flight, using it to discover the benefits
of the curved or cambered airfoil over the flat wing he had used for his
first glider. He also identified and described the importance of
dihedral, diagonal bracing and drag reduction, and contributed to the
 An Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 7

understanding and design of ornithopters and parachutes. Another

significant invention was the tension-spoked wheel, which he devised
in order to create a light, strong wheel for aircraft undercarriage.

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Figure 1.6. Cayley’s glider in Mechanics Magazine (1852)

1.4. Elements of aerospace engineering

Some of the elements of aerospace engineering are as follows:
• Mathematics: in particular, calculus, differential equations, and
linear algebra.
• Statics and Dynamics: the study of movement, forces, moments in
mechanical systems.
8 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

• Fluid mechanics: the study of fluid flow around objects.

Specifically aerodynamics concerning the flow of air over bodies
such as wings or through objects such as wind tunnels.
• Astrodynamics: the study of orbital mechanics including prediction
of orbital elements when given a select few variables.
• Electro-technology: the study of electronics within engineering.
• Propulsion: the energy to move a vehicle through the air or in outer
space is provided by internal combustion engines, jet engines and
turbo machinery, or rockets. A more recent addition to this module
is electric propulsion and ion propulsion.
• Control engineering: the study of mathematical modeling of the
dynamic behavior of systems and designing them, usually using
feedback signals, so that their dynamic behavior is desirable
(stable, without large excursions, with minimum error). This
applies to the dynamic behavior of aircraft, spacecraft, propulsion
systems, and subsystems that exist on aerospace vehicles.
• Aircraft structures: design of the physical configuration of the craft
to withstand the forces encountered during flight. Aerospace
engineering aims to keep structures lightweight.
• Materials science: related to structures, aerospace engineering also
studies the materials of which the aerospace structures are to be
built. New materials with very specific properties are invented, or
existing ones are modified to improve their performance.
• Solid mechanics: closely related to material science is solid
mechanics which deals with stress and strain analysis of the
components of the vehicle. Nowadays there are several Finite
Element programs which aid engineers in the analytical process.
• Aero elasticity: the interaction of aerodynamic forces and structural
flexibility, potentially causing flutter, divergence, etc.
• Avionics: the design and programming of computer systems on
board an aircraft or spacecraft and the simulation of systems.
• Software: the specification, design, development, test, and
implementation of computer software for aerospace applications,
 An Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 9

including flight software, ground control software, test and

evaluation software, etc.
• Risk and reliability: the study of risk and reliability assessment
techniques and the mathematics involved in the quantitative
methods.
• Noise control: the study of the mechanics of sound transfer.
• Aero acoustics: the study of noise generation via either turbulent
fluid motion or aerodynamic forces interacting with surfaces.
• Flight test: designing and executing flight test programs in order to
gather and analyze performance and handling data in order to
determine if an aircraft meets its design and performance goals and
certification requirements.
The basis of most of these elements lies in theoretical physics,
such as fluid dynamics for aerodynamics or the equations of motion for
flight dynamics. There is also a large empirical component.
Historically, this empirical component was derived from testing of scale
models and prototypes, either in wind tunnels or in the free atmosphere.
More recently, advances in computing have enabled the use of
“Computational Fluid Dynamics” or CFD to simulate the behavior of
fluid, reducing time and expense spent on wind-tunnel testing.
Additionally, aerospace engineering addresses the integration of
all components that constitute an aerospace vehicle and its life cycle.
In fact, aeronautics (from the ancient Greek, which means “navigation
of the air”) is the science or art involved with the study, design, and
manufacturing of air flight capable machines, and the techniques of
operating aircraft and rockets within the atmosphere. The British
Royal Aeronautical Society identifies the aspects of “aeronautical art,
science and engineering” and “the profession of aeronautics” (which
expression includes astronautics). While the term, literally meaning
“sailing the air”, originally referred solely to the science of operating
the aircraft, it has since been expanded to include technology, business
and other aspects related to aircraft. The term “aviation” is sometimes,
used interchangeably with aeronautics, although “aeronautics”
10 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

includes lighter-than-air craft such as airships, and includes ballistic

vehicles while “aviation” technically does not. A significant part of
aeronautical science is a branch of dynamics called aerodynamics,
which deals with the motion of air and the way that it interacts with
objects in motion, such as an aircraft.

1.5. New words

(A)
Additionally: as an extra factor or circumstance
Aerial: existing, happening, or operating in the air
Aeronautics: the science or practice of travel through the air
Aether: (a variant spelling of ether); the element believed in ancient
and medieval civilizations to fill all space above the sphere of the
moon and to compose the stars and planets
Aim: the action of directing something at an object
Aid: help; assist
Allow: let someone have or do something
Altitude: the height of an object or point in relation to sea level or
ground level
Artificial: made or produced by human beings rather than occurring
naturally, typically as a copy of something natural
Ascent: climb or walk to the summit of a mountain or hill; rise
Assessment: evaluation
Astronautics: the science and technology of human space travel and
exploration
Atmospheric pressure: the pressure exerted by the weight of the
atmosphere
Aviation: the flying or operating of aircraft
Avionics: electronics as applied to aviation
Await: to wait for (an event)
 An Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 11

(B)
Ballast: heavy material, such as gravel, sand, iron, or lead, placed low
in a vessel to improve its stability
Ballistic: relating to projectiles or their flight
Ballonet: a separate gas- or air-filled compartment within the main
envelope of a balloon or airship, designed for the maintenance or
adjustment of the envelope’s shape, buoyancy, or orientation
Balloon: small colored rubber bag which is inflated with air and then
sealed at the neck, used as a child’s toy or a decoration
Bracing: support
Branch: an area of specialized skill or knowledge
Broad: wide

(C)
Calculus: The branch of mathematics that deals with the finding and
properties of derivatives and integrals of functions, by methods
originally based on the summation of infinite estimable differences
Cambered: the slightly convex or arched shape of a road or other
horizontal surface
Catch: take; capture
Certification: an official document attesting to a status or level of
achievement
Closely: nearly
Collapse: suddenly fall down (for a structure)
Colloquially: conversationally; informally
Compromise: an agreement or a settlement of a dispute that is
reached by each side making concessions
Composition: the nature of something’s ingredients or constituents
Concept: an abstract idea; a general notion
Concerned: worried; involved in something
Configuration: An arrangement of parts or elements in a particular
form, figure, or combination
Confined: restricted in area or volume; limited
12 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

Consequently: as a result
Constant: unchangeable
Constitute: be a part of a whole
Construction: structure
Container: an object for holding or transporting something
Conventional: based on or in accordance with what is generally done
or believed; customary
Credible: able to be believed; valid
Credit: publicly acknowledge someone as a participant in the
production of (something published or broadcast)
Crippling: Cause someone to become unable to walk or move
properly

(D)
Demand: an insistent request, order or command
Demonstration: an act of showing that something exists or is true by
giving proof or evidence
Desirable: favorable; eligible
Determine: fix or define the position, form, or configuration of
something
Devise: plan or invent (a complex procedure, system, or mechanism)
by careful thought
Dew: tiny drops of water that form on cool surfaces at night, when
atmospheric vapor condenses
Diagonal: (of a straight line) joining two opposite corners of a square,
rectangle, or other straight-sided shape
Differential equations: an equation involving derivatives of functions
Dihedral: an angle formed by two plane faces
Dirigible: able to be steered or directed
Discipline: the practice of training people to obey rules or a code of
behavior, using punishment to correct disobedience
Distinguished: eminent; outstanding
 An Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 13

Divergence: one kind of dynamic instability of an elastic structure in

a fluid flow
Drag: the resistance to the motion of a body passing through a fluid,
especially through air
Drop: let or make something fall vertically

(E)
Elongate: make something longer, especially unusually so in relation
to its width
Empirical: based on observation or experience rather than theory or
pure logic, experimental
Encounter: unexpectedly be faced with or experience something;
confront; face
Endurance: tolerance
Envisaged: contemplate, imagine
Era: a period of time considered as being of a distinctive character;
epoch
Evaluation: the making of a judgment about the amount, number, or
value of something; assessment
Excursion: a short journey or trip, especially one taken as a leisure
activity
Execute: carry out
Expertise: expert skill or knowledge in a particular field
Exploit: make full use of and derive benefit from a resource
Extremely: a very great degree

(F)
Fantasy: the activity of imagining impossible or improbable things
Feedback signals: the portion of the output so returned
Flapping: moving up and down when flying or preparing to fly
Flaw: a fault, or imperfection
Fluid dynamics: the science of investigating the dynamics of fluids
Flutter: a potentially dangerous oscillation of an aircraft, or part of an
14 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

aircraft, caused by the interaction of aerodynamic forces, structural

elastic reactions, and inertia
Found: establish or originate (an institution or organization)
Founder: organizer, establisher

(G)
Gain: acquire; achieve
Gas-tight: sealed so as to prevent the leakage of gas
Gather: come together; collect
Generation: belonging to a specified stage of development in
manufacture, usually implying improvement
Ground: the solid surface of the earth

(H)
Hanging: suspended in the air

(I)
Identify: indicate who or what someone or something is; recognize
Implementation: the process of putting a decision or plan into effect;
execution
Indeed: in fact
Integration: the act of combining or adding parts to make a unified
whole
Interact: interface; act reciprocally
Interchangeably: in a way that can be exchanged
Internal combustion engine: an engine which generates motive
power by the burning of petrol, oil, or other fuel with air inside the
engine, the hot gases produced being used to drive a piston or do other
work as they expand
Invent: create or design (something that has not existed before); be
the originator of
Investigator: a person who carries out a formal inquiry or
investigation
 An Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 15

Involved: associated with; concerned with

Ion: an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or
gain of one or more electrons

(L)
Lantern: a lamp with a transparent case protecting the flame or
electric bulb, and typically having a handle by which it may be carried
or hung
Launch: start or set in motion
Led to: past and past participle of lead to; to be the cause of
Lethal: deadly; fatal
Life cycle: the series of changes in the life of an organism including
reproduction
Lift: rise to a higher position or level; elevate
Linear algebra: the branch of algebra which deals with the properties
of entities, especially of vector spaces over the real or complex
numbers
Literally: accurately; exactly

(M)
Major: important; serious; significant
Maturity: the state, fact, or period of being mature; full development
Meanwhile: in the intervening period of time
Medieval: of the Middle Ages
Military: relating to soldiers or armed force
Modify: make partial or minor changes to something
Moments: a very brief period of time
Montgolfier: French aeronautic inventor who with his brother built
and ascended in the first practical hot-air balloon in 1 783
Moreover: as a further matter; besides

(N)
Navigation: the process or activity of accurately ascertaining or
directing the course of a ship, aircraft, spacecraft, etc.
16 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

Notable: worthy of attention or notice; remarkable

Novel: a fictitious prose narrative of book
Nowadays: At the present time

(O)
Ornithopter: a machine shaped like an aircraft that is held aloft and
propelled by wing movements
Overboard: over the side of a boat or ship
Overlap: extend over so as to cover partly
Overtaken: to pass or do better than, after catching up with

(P)
Parachutes: A cloth canopy which fills with air and allows a person
or heavy object attached to it to descend slowly when dropped from an
aircraft, or which is released from the rear of an aircraft on landing to
act as a brake regiment
Performance: an act of presenting a job
Pioneer: a person who is among the first to explore or settle a new
area
Primary: of chief importance; principal
Propulsion: the action of driving or pushing forward
Prototype: a first or preliminary version of a device or vehicle from
which other forms are developed
Prove: demonstrate the truth or existence of something by evidence or
argument

(Q)
Quantitative: relating to the quantity of something rather than its
quality

(R)
Rational: based on reason; logical
Realization: understanding
 An Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 17

Reappear: Appear again

Recent: having happened, begun, or been done not long ago
Reduce: decrease; make smaller
Reliability: the quality of being trustworthy or of performing
consistently well
Renaissance: The revival of European art and literature under the
influence of classical models in the 14th- 16th centuries
Replace: substitute
Resistance: a force that tends to oppose or retard motion
Rig: to set up or prepare ready for use
Rubberized: to coat, treat, or impregnate with rubber

(S)
Separate: forming or viewed as a unit apart or by itself
Severe: very great; intense
Short-lived: lasting only a short time
Silk: a fine, strong, soft lustrous fiber
Simulation: modeling
Smoky: filled with or smelling of smoke
Sought: Past and past participle of seek; search
Spark: a small fiery particle thrown off from a fire, or produced by
striking together two hard surfaces such as stone or metal
Sphere: a round solid figure, with every point on its surface
equidistant from its centre
Stable: (Of an object or structure) not likely to give way or overturn;
firmly fixed
Stabilize: to make stable
Structural loads : the load on a structure resulting from the
structure’s own weight
Substance: a particular kind of matter with uniform properties
Supervise: observe and direct the execution of (a task, project, or activity)
Supposed: assumed or believed to be the case
Sustain: to keep in existence; maintain, continue, or prolong
18 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

(T)
Tail: the rear part of an aircraft including the fin, and control surfaces;
empennage
Tendency: an inclination towards a particular characteristic or type of
behavior; attitude
Trace: find or discover by investigation; detect
Transfer: move from one place to another; convey
Treatise: a written work dealing formally and systematically with a
subject; booklet
Turbulent: characterized by conflict, disorder, or confusion; not
stable or calm

(V)
Via: by means of
Venting: an opening that allows air, gas, or liquid to pass out of or
into a confined space; outpour

(W)
Whirling: move rapidly around and around
Wiser: having or showing experience, knowledge, and good judgment
Withstand: Remain undamaged or unaffected by; resist

1.6. Vocabulary exercises

1 . Flying or operating of aircraft is called ...
a) pilot b) airplane
c) aviation d) none
2. “Electronics as applied to aviation” is called . . .
a) aeronautics b) aerial
c) altitude d) avionic
3. What is the synonym of “principal”?
a) primary b) minor
c) popular d) force
 An Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 19

4. “The action of driving or pushing forward” is called ...

a) propulsion b) drag
c) lift d) weight
5. “The resistance to the motion of a body passing through a fluid” is
called . ..
a) lift b) thrust
c) drag d) weight
6. What is the best description for “ion”?
a) an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or
gain of one or more electrons
b) the action of driving or pushing forward
c) an opening that allows air, gas, or liquid to pass out a confined
space
d) filled with or smelling of smoke
7. “What is the synonym of “desirable”?
a) allowable b) durable
c) favorable d) destiny
8. What is the meaning of “aim”?
a) help b) revolve
c) understand d) ignorance
9. What is the meaning of “ground”?
a) atmosphere in Air b) the solid surface of the earth
c) sea level d) orbit
10. What is the synonym of “tendency”?
a) propulsion b) drag
c) attitude d) Fuselage
1 1 . What is the best word in the blank of the following text:
“The origin of aerospace engineering can be back to the
aviation pioneers around the late 19th to early 20th centuries, although
the work of Sir George Cayley dates from the last decade of the 1 8th
to mid-19th century.”
a) aviation b) traced
c) aircraft d) able
20 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

12. “Existing, happening, or operating in the air” is called ....

a) capital b) terrestrial
c) marine d) aerial
13. “The slightly convex or arched shape of a road or other
horizontal surface” is ...
a) smooth b) cambered
c) diagonal d) tapered
14. What is the best description for “dihedral”?
a) bracing
b) the action of inventing something, typically a process or device
c) restricted in area or volume
d) an angle formed by two plane faces
15. What is the synonym of “endurance”?
a) tolerance b) strong
c) final d) curve
16. “A small colored rubber bag which is inflated with air and
then sealed at the neck, used as a child’s toy or a decoration” is
called . ..
a) glider b) balloons
c) tire d) airplane
17. “The field of astronautics reached its maturity with launching of
first artificial satellite, first man in space and first step on the
Moon.” In this sentence “maturity” means:
a) one who paves the way b) full development
c) lived in the distant past d) moment
18. According to question 17, “launching” means :
a) travel b) forward
c) sending out d) manage
19. According to question 17, “artificial” means:
a) simulated b) natural
c) old d) type of satellite
 An Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 21

20. “Aerospace engineering addresses the integration of all

components that constitute an aerospace vehicle and its life
cycle”. According to this sentence, “constitute” means ...
a) distinct b) invent
c) discover d) make up
21 . What is the meaning of “branch”?
a) field b) shape
c) type d) group
22. What is the synonym of “major”?
a) force b) great
c) distance d) minor
23. That kind of engine which is powered by an explosion of fuel and
air is called ...
a) Jet b) aircraft
c) electromotor d) Internal combustion engine
24. “Electrically charged” is called ...
a) Neutron b) molecule
c) ion d) orbital
25. The action of move rapidly around and around is ...
a) whirl b) turbulent
c) transfer d) converge

1.7. Descriptive questions

According to the passage, answer the following questions:
1 . What is the best definition for “aerospace engineering”?
2. What is the difference between “aeronautics” and “astronautics”?
3. What are the recent advances in the field of aerospace sciences?
4. What are the main categories of aerospace engineering?
5. What is the best definition for “astrodynamics”?
6. Who did work on flying machines in the late fifteenth century and
what was his invention?
7. What is the origin of aerospace engineering?
8. What are the most important works of Sir George Cayley?
22 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

9. What was the development of aircraft in 1910s?

10. Explain the most important elements of aerospace engineering?
1 1 . How can a vehicle move through the air or outer space?
12. Read the following passage about the “history of balloon flight”:

“The modem era of lighter-than-air flight began early in the 17th

century with Galileo’s experiments in which he showed that air has
weight. Around 1650 Cyrano de Bergerac wrote some fantasy novels
in which he described the principle of ascent using a substance (dew)
he supposed to be lighter than air, and descending by releasing a
controlled amount of the substance. Francesco Lana de Terzi
measured the pressure of air at sea level and in 1670 proposed the first
scientifically credible lifting medium in the form of hollow metal
spheres from which all the air had been pumped out (figure 1.7).
These would be lighter than the displaced air and able to lift an
airship. His proposed methods of controlling height are still in use
today; by carrying ballast which may be dropped overboard to gain
height, and by venting the lifting containers to lose height. In practice,
de Terzi’s spheres would have collapsed under air pressure, and
further developments had to wait for more practicable lifting gases.

Figure 1.7. Francesco Lana de Terzi’s flying boat concept, circa 1670
 An Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 23

From the mid-18th century the Montgolfier brothers in France

began experimenting with balloons. Their balloons were made of
paper, and early experiments using steam as the lifting gas were short¬
lived due to its effect on the paper as it condensed. Mistaking smoke
for a kind of steam, they began filling their balloons with hot smoky
air which they called “electric smoke” and, despite not fully
understanding the principles at work, made some successful launches
and in 1783 were invited to give a demonstration to the French
Academic Sciences.
Meanwhile, the discovery of hydrogen led Joseph Black in
1780 to propose its use as a lifting gas, though practical
demonstration awaited a gas-tight balloon material. On hearing of
the Montgolfier Brothers’ invitation, the French Academy member
Jacques Charles offered a similar demonstration of a hydrogen
balloon. Charles and two craftsmen, the Robert brothers, developed a
gas-tight material of rubberized silk for the envelope. The hydrogen
gas was to be generated by chemical reaction during the filling
process, (see figure 1.8)
The Montgolfier designs had several shortcomings, not least the
need for dry weather and a tendency for sparks from the fire to set
light to the paper balloon. The manned design had a gallery around the
base of the balloon rather than the hanging basket of the first,
unmanned design, which brought the paper closer to the fire. On their
free flight, De Rozier and d’Arlandes took buckets of water and
sponges to douse these fires as they arose. On the other hand, the
manned design of Charles was essentially modem. As a result of these
exploits, the hot-air balloon became known as the Montgolfier type
and the hydrogen balloon which called the Charliere.
24 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

Figure 1.8. The Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier designs

Charles and the Robert brothers’ next balloon, La Caroline, was a

Charl iere that followed Jean Baptiste Meusnier’s proposals for an
elongated dirigible balloon, and was notable for having an outer envelope
with the gas contained in a second, inner ballonet. On 19 September
1784, it completed the first flight of over 100 km, between Paris and
Beuvry, despite the man-powered propulsive devices proving useless.
In an attempt the next year to provide both endurance and
controllability, de Rozier developed a balloon having both hot air and
hydrogen gas bags, a design which was soon named after him as the
Rozier. The principle was to use the hydrogen section for constant lift
and to navigate vertically by heating and allowing the hot air section
to be cooled, in order to catch the most favorable wind at whatever
altitude it was blowing. The first flight ended in disaster and the
approach has seldom been used since.”

According to this passage, answer the following questions:

12.1. What was the most important work of Montgolfier brothers?
12.2. When did the discovery of hydrogen led to use it as a lifting gas
in the balloons?
12.3. What are the different types of balloons?
 Chapter 2

Aerodynamics

Introduction
Aerodynamics is a branch of dynamics concerned with studying the
motion of air, particularly when it interacts with a solid object, such as
an airplane’s wing. Aerodynamics is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and
gas dynamics, and many aspects of aerodynamics theory are common
to these fields. The term “aerodynamics” is often used synonymously
with “gas dynamics”, with the difference being that “gas dynamics”
applies to the study of the motion of all gases, not limited to air.
Formal aerodynamics study in the modem sense began in the
eighteenth century, although observations of fundamental concepts
such as aerodynamic drag have been recorded much earlier. Most of
the early efforts in aerodynamics worked towards achieving heavier-
than-air flight, which was first demonstrated by Wilbur and Orville
Wright in 1903. Since then, the use of aerodynamics through
mathematical analysis, empirical approximations, wind tunnel
experimentation, and computer simulations has formed the scientific
basis for ongoing developments in heavier-than-air flight and a
number of other technologies. Recent work in aerodynamics has
focused on issues related to compressible flow, turbulence, and
boundary layers, and has become increasingly computational
in nature.
26 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

2.1. History
Modern aerodynamics only dates back to the seventeenth century, but
aerodynamic forces have been harnessed by humans for thousands of
years in sailboats and windmills throughout recorded history of
ancient Greek legends. Fundamental concepts of continuum, drag, and
pressure gradients, appear in the work of Aristotle and Archimedes.
In 1726, Sir Isaac Newton became the first person to develop a
theory of air resistance, making him one of the first aerodynamicists.
Dutch-Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli followed in 1738 with
“hydrodynamica”, in which he described a fundamental relationship
between pressure, density, and flow velocity for incompressible flow
known today as Bernoulli’s principle, which provides one method for
calculating aerodynamic lift. In 1757, Leonhard Euler published the
more general Euler equations, which could be applied to both
compressible and incompressible flows. The Euler equations were
extended to incorporate the effects of viscosity in the first half of the
1800s, resulting in the Navier-Stokes equations. The Navier-Stokes
equations are the most general governing equations of fluid flow and
are difficult to solve.
Tn 1799, Sir George Cayley became the first person to identify
the four aerodynamic forces of flight (weight, lift, drag, and thrust), as
well as the relationships between them, outlining the work towards
achieving heavier-than-air flight for the next century. In 1871, Francis
Herbert Wenham constructed the first wind tunnel, allowing precise
measurements of aerodynamic forces.
As aircraft speed increased, designers began to encounter
challenges associated with air compressibility at speeds near or greater
than the speed of sound. The differences in air flows under these
conditions led to problems in aircraft control, increased drag due to
shock waves, and structural dangers due to aeroelastic flutter. The
ratio of the flow speed to the speed of sound was named the Mach
number after Ernst Mach, who was one of the first to investigate the
properties of supersonic flow.
 Aerodynamics 27

By the time the sound barrier was broken, much of the subsonic
and low supersonic aerodynamics knowledge had matured. The Cold
War fueled an ever evolving line of high performance aircraft.
Computational fluid dynamics began as an effort to solve for flow
properties around complex objects and has rapidly grown to the point
where entire aircraft can be designed using a computer, with wind¬
tunnel tests followed by flight tests to confirm the computer predictions.
Knowledge of supersonic and hypersonic aerodynamics has also
matured since the 1960s, and the goals of aerodynamicists have shifted
from understanding the behavior of fluid flow to understanding how to
engineer a vehicle to interact appropriately with the fluid flow.
Designing aircraft for supersonic and hypersonic conditions, as well as
the desire to improve the aerodynamic efficiency of current aircraft and
propulsion systems, continues to fuel new research in aerodynamics,
while work continues to be done on important problems in basic
aerodynamic theory related to flow turbulence and the existence and
uniqueness of analytical solutions to the Navier-Stokes equations.

2.2. Fundamental concepts

Understanding the motion of air around an object (often called a flow
field) enables the calculation of forces and moments acting on the
object. In many aerodynamics problems, the forces of interest are the
fundamental forces of flight: lift, drag, thrust, and weight (figure 2.1).
Of these, lift and drag are aerodynamic forces, i.e. forces due to air
flow over a solid body. Calculation of these quantities is often
founded upon the assumption that the flow field behaves as a
continuum. Continuum flow fields are characterized by properties
such as flow velocity, pressure, density and temperature, which may
be functions of spatial position and time. These properties may be
directly or indirectly measured in aerodynamics experiments, or
calculated from equations for the conservation of mass, momentum,
and energy in air flows. Density, flow velocity, and an additional
property, viscosity, are used to classify flow fields.
28 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

Figure 2.1. Forces of flight on an airfoil

2.3. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil

The geometric figure obtained as a cross section of an airplane wing is
referred to as airfoil. An airfoil -shaped body moved through a fluid
produces an aerodynamic force. The component of this force
perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift. The component
parallel to the direction of motion is called drag. In order to be able to
calculate the movement of an airplane, an important issue is to
determine the forces and torques around the center of gravity
produced by the effects of air (figure 2.3).

Figure 2.2. Aerodynamic forces and torques over an airfoil with angle
of attack

The main parts of an aerodynamic airfoil are: the chord, c, which

is the segment joining the leading edge and the trailing edge of
the airfoil.
 Aerodynamics 29

The lift in an airfoil comes, basically, from the pressure forces.

The drag in an airfoil comes from both the friction forces (shear
stress) and the pressure forces. Regarding drag forces, it is important
to remember the already mentioned about the boundary layer. The
thicker the boundary layer is, the greater the drag due to pressure
effects is. In particular, when the flow drops off along the airfoil and
becomes turbulent (boundary layer transition), the drag due to
pressure effects increases dramatically. Furthermore, friction forces
exist, which are greater in turbulent flow rather than in laminar flow.
Typically, the contribution to drag of friction forces is lower than the
contribution of pressure forces. Therefore, a smart design of an airfoil
regarding the behavior of the boundary layer is an important key to
minimize drag forces.
The lift forces are due to the camber, the angle of attack, and the
thickness of the airfoil, which conform an airfoil shape so that the
pressures in the extrados are lower that pressures in the intrados.
Therefore, this simplified statement of the equations of fluid
mechanics gives a qualitative idea of the aerodynamic forces.
However, the resolution of the equations of fluid mechanics (Navier-
Stokes equations) is extremely difficult, even though counting with
the most powerful numerical tools. From the theoretical point of view
they are studied using simplifications. From the experimental point of
view, it is common practice to test scale-models in wind tunnels. The
wind tunnel is experimental equipment able to produce a controlled air
flow into a testing chamber.

2.4. Branches of aerodynamics

Aerodynamic problems are classified by the flow environment or
properties of the flow, including flow speed, compressibility, and
viscosity. External aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid
objects of various shapes. Evaluating the lift and drag on an airplane
or the shock waves that form in front of the nose of a rocket are
examples of external aerodynamics. Internal aerodynamics is the
30 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

study of flow through passages in solid objects. For instance, internal

aerodynamics encompasses the study of the airflow through a jet
engine or through an air conditioning pipe.
Aerodynamic problems can also be classified according to
whether the flow speed is below, near or above the speed of sound. A
problem is called subsonic if all the speeds in the problem are less
than the speed of sound, transonic if speeds both below and above the
speed of sound are present (normally when the characteristic speed is
approximately the speed of sound), supersonic when the characteristic
flow speed is greater than the speed of sound, and hypersonic when
the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound.
Aerodynamicists disagree over the precise definition of hypersonic
flow; a rough definition considers flows with Mach numbers above 5
to be hypersonic (figure 2.4).

Critical Mach Number

-
M 0 72 Manmum Local Velocity
a Less Than Sonic

Figure 2.3. Sketch of transonic flow patterns on an aircraft wing

showing the effects at critical Mach

The influence of viscosity in the flow dictates a third

classification. Some problems may encounter only very small viscous
effects on the solution, in which case viscosity can be considered to be
 Aerodynamics 31

negligible. The approximations to these problems are called inviscid

flows. Flows for which viscosity cannot be neglected are called
viscous flows.

2.5. Aerodynamics in other fields

Aerodynamics is important in a number of applications other than
aerospace engineering. It is a significant factor in any type of vehicle
design, including automobiles. It is important in the prediction of
forces and moments in sailing. It is used in the design of mechanical
components such as hard drive heads. Structural engineers also use
aerodynamics, and particularly aeroelasticity, to calculate wind loads
in the design of large buildings and bridges. Urban aerodynamics
seeks to help town planners and designers improve comfort in outdoor
spaces, create urban microclimates and reduce the effects of urban
pollution. The field of environmental aerodynamics studies the ways
atmospheric circulation and flight mechanics affect ecosystems. The
aerodynamics of internal passages is important in heating/ventilation,
gas piping, and in automotive engines where detailed flow patterns
strongly affect the performance of the engine (figure 2.5). In addition,
a few aerodynamic equations are used as part of numerical weather
prediction.

Figure 2.4. Application of aerodynamics in automobile industries

32 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

2.6. Practical objectives of aerodynamics

A distinction between solids, liquids, and gases can be made in a
simplistic sense as follows. Put a solid object inside a larger, closed
container. The solid object will not change; its shape and boundaries
will remain the same. Now put a liquid inside the container. The liquid
will change its shape to conform to that of the container and will take
on the same boundaries as the container up to the maximum depth of
the liquid. Now put a gas inside the container. The gas will completely
fill the container, taking on the same boundaries as the container.
The word fluid is used to denote either a liquid or a gas. A more
technical distinction between a solid and a fluid can be made as
follows. When a force is applied tangentially to the surface of a solid,
the solid will experience a finite deformation, and the tangential force
per unit area -the shear stress- will usually be proportional to the
amount of deformation. In contrast, when a tangential shear stress is
applied to the surface of a fluid, the fluid will experience a
continuously increasing deformation, and the shear stress usually will
be proportional to the rate of change of the deformation.
The most fundamental distinction between solids, liquids, and
gases is at the atomic and molecular level. In a solid, the molecules
are packed so closely together that their nuclei and electrons form a
rigid geometric structure, glued together by powerful intermolecular
forces. In a liquid, the spacing between molecules is larger, and
although intermolecular forces are still strong they allow enough
movement of the molecules to give the liquid its fluidity. In a gas, the
spacing between molecules is much larger (for air at standard
conditions, the spacing between molecules is, on the average, about 10
times the molecular diameter). Hence, the influence of intermolecular
forces is much weaker, and the motion of the molecules occurs rather
freely throughout the gas. This movement of molecules in both gases
and liquids leads to similar physical characteristics, the characteristics
of a fluid-quite different from those of a solid. Therefore, it makes
sense to classify the study of the dynamics of both liquids and gases
 Aerodynamics 33

under the same general heading, called fluid dynamics. On the other
hand, certain differences exist between the flow of liquids and the
flow of gases; also, different species of gases like N2, He, etc., have
different properties. Therefore, fluid dynamics is subdivided into three
areas as follows:
• Hydrodynamics: flow of liquids
• Gas dynamics: flow of gases
• Aerodynamics: flow of air
These areas are by no means mutually exclusive; there are many
similarities and identical phenomena between them. Also, the word
“aerodynamics” has taken on a popular usage that sometimes covers
the other two areas. As a result, some authors tend to interpret the
word aerodynamics very liberally, and its use throughout the books
does not always limit the discussions just to air.
Aerodynamics is an applied science with many practical
applications in engineering. No matter how elegant an aerodynamic
theory may be, or how mathematically complex a numerical solution
may be, or how sophisticated an aerodynamic experiment may be, all
such efforts are usually aimed at one or more of the following
practical objectives:
1 . The prediction of forces and moments on, and heat transfer to,
bodies moving through a fluid (usually air). For example, we are
concerned with the generation of lift, drag, and moments on
airfoils, wings, fuselages, engine nacelles, and most importantly,
whole airplane configurations. We want to estimate the wind force
on buildings, ships, and other surface vehicles. We are concerned
with the hydrodynamic forces on surface ships, submarines, and
torpedoes. We need to be able to calculate the aerodynamic heating
of flight vehicles ranging from the supersonic transport to a
planetary probe entering the atmosphere of Jupiter. These are but a
few examples.
34 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

2. Determination of flows moving internally through ducts. We wish

to calculate and measure the flow properties inside rocket and air-
breathing jet engines and to calculate the engine thrust. We need to
know the flow conditions in the test section of a wind tunnel. We
must know how much fluid can flow through pipes under various
conditions. A recent, very interesting application of aerodynamics
is high-energy chemical and gas-dynamic lasers, which are nothing
more than specialized wind tunnels that can produce extremely
powerful laser beams.
The applications in the first item come under the heading of
external aerodynamics since they deal with external flows over a
body. In contrast, the applications in second item involve internal
aerodynamics because they deal with flows internally within ducts.
In external aerodynamics, in addition to forces, moments, and
aerodynamic heating associated with a body, we are frequently
interested in the details of the flow field away from the body. For
example, the communication blackout experienced by the space
shuttle during a portion of its reentry trajectory is due to a
concentration of free electrons in the hot shock layer around the
body. We need to calculate the variation of electron density
throughout such flow fields. Another example is the propagation of
shockwaves in a supersonic flow; for instance, does the shockwave
from the wing of a supersonic airplane impinge upon and interfere
with the tail surfaces? Yet another example is the flow associated
with the strong vortices trailing downstream from the wing tips of
large subsonic airplanes such as the Boeing 747. What are the
properties of these vortices, and how do they affect smaller aircraft
which happen to fly through them? This is just a sample of the
myriad applications of aerodynamics.
 Aerodynamics 35

2.7. New words

(A)
Aerodynamicist: a man or woman who experts in aerodynamic
science
Aeroelasticity: stretchiness, elastic quality
Air condition: cool and control the humidity and temperature in a
room or building
Ancient: very old, antique, archaic
Appropriately: properly, in a fitting manner; suitably
Approximation: approach; estimate
Associate: connect; relate
Assumption: supposition; guess; deduction

(B)
Barrier: limit; obstacle
Beam: a ray or shaft of light
Blackout: a temporary electrical power failure or cut
Boundary layer: the region of a fluid flowing in the immediate
vicinity of a body, with the flow reduced by adhesion and viscosity

(C)
Challenge: invite to engage in a contest; test one’s ability
Characterize: to describe the qualities or peculiarities of; categorize
Comfort: a state of ease or well-being
Complex: made up of interconnected parts; complicated
Component: ingredient; part; constituent
Compressible: capable of being compacted or condensed
Concentration: intense mental application; complete attention
Concerned: involved in something; worried
Confirm: approve; verify; show to be true
Continuum: continuous sequence; connected series
36 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

(D)
Deal with: to take action on
Deformation: an alteration of shape, as by pressure or stress
Demonstrate: exhibit; present; show or illustrate through examples
Depth: the extent, measurement, or dimension downward
Desire: want; wish for; request
Dictate: command; order
Distinction: the condition or fact of being dissimilar; difference
Downstream: toward or closer to the mouth of a stream; in the
direction of the current

(E)
Efficiency: skillfulness in avoiding wasted time and effort
Effort: physical or mental exertion; labor; attempt
Elegant: cleverly simple; ingenious
Encompass: surround; enclose
Encounter; face; meet by chance
Entire: whole
Evaluate: estimate; analyze; get the measure of
Evolve: develop or achieve gradually
Exclusive: not accompanied by others; single or sole
Existence: state of being
Extend: enhance; develop

(E)
Flow: stream; smooth motion characteristic of fluids
Fluidity: of, relating to, or characteristic of a fluid
Flutter: a potentially dangerous oscillation of an aircraft, or part of an
aircraft, caused by the interaction of aerodynamic forces, structural
elastic reactions, and inertia
Formal: regular; conventional
Founded: established
Frequently: often
 Aerodynamics 37

Fueled: filled with fuel; feed

Fuselage: the central body of an aircraft, to which the wings and tail
assembly are attached and which accommodates the crew, passengers,
and cargo

(G)
Glue: to stick, fasten, or cause to adhere
Gradient: the rate of change with respect to distance of a variable
quantity, as temperature or pressure, in the direction of maximum change

(H)
Harness: control; utilize
Hypersonic: very faster than the speed of sound (greater than about 5
time of speed of sound)

(I)
Identical: exactly equal and alike
Identify: recognize; detect
Impinge: to collide or strike against something
Incorporate: include as a part or member of a united whole
Instance: example; illustration
Interact: interface; act reciprocally
Interpret: to explain the meaning of something
Inviscid: not viscous
Involve: include

(L)
Legend: tale; myth; fable
Liberally: the act of being open to new ideas

(M)
Mach number: number which shows the ratio of the speed of an
object to the speed of sound in the surrounding medium
38 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

Measurement: calculation of size or extent; assessment of capacity or

dimension
Microclimate: climate within a small specific area; climate within a
closed environment
Moment: product of a force and the distance from its action to a point
Momentum: force of movement; product of the mass of a body
multiplied by its velocity
Mutually: directed and received by each toward the other; reciprocal
Myriad: a large; indefinite number; innumerable

(N)
Nacelle: a separate streamlined enclosure on an aircraft or spacecraft
for sheltering the crew or cargo or for housing an engine and usually
its related components
Negligible: tiny; insignificant; can be disregarded
Nuclei: plural form of nucleus; core

(O)
Occur: to take place; come about
Ongoing: continuous; in progress
Outline: indicate main headings and points of a work

(P)
Pattern: sample; model; form; shape; configuration
Performance: act; working; operation; capability
Pollution; contamination; dirtying
Precise: exact; not more and not less; meticulous
Prediction: forecasting; act of foretelling
Propagation: the process of spreading to a larger area or greater
number; dissemination
Proportional: forming a relationship with other parts or quantities
Propulsion: act of pushing; act of propelling; thrust; driving force
 Aerodynamics 39

(R)
Rapidly: quickly; fast
Reentry: the return of a missile or spacecraft into the atmosphere
Resistance: opposition; act of withstanding the effects of
Rough: approximate; unclear, without attention to detail or accuracy

(S)
Sailboat: boat equipped with sails that catch wind to create propulsion
Sense: meaning
Significant: important; of a considerable amount
Simplistic: naive; not complicated
Sophisticated: very complex or complicated
Spatial: of or pertaining to space; occurring in space
Subsonic: of or pertaining to a speed that is less than that of sound in
air; infrasonic; inaudible
Supersonic: greater than the speed of sound; ultrasonic
Synonymously: with the same meaning

(T)
Trail: to follow behind; pursue
Thrust: drive by applying pressure; push; propelling force
Torpedoes: a cylindrical self-propelled weapon carrying explosives
that is launched from aircraft, ships, or submarines and follows an
underwater path to hit its target
Trajectory: the path of a projectile or other moving body through space

(V)
Unique: singular; incomparable
Urban: pertaining to or characteristic of a city

(V)
Ventilation: providing with fresh air; freshening
Vortices: plural of vortex; a region in a fluid in which the flow is
rotating around an axis line
40 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

(W)
Wave: a disturbance on the surface of a liquid body
Windmill: device which harnesses the power of the wind by means of
large blades which rotate around a shaft from the force of the wind
(especially used to pump water, power a millhouse, or generate
electricity)

2.8. Vocabulary exercises

1 . What is the meaning of specified word in the following text:
“Most of the early efforts in aerodynamics worked towards
achieving heavier-than-air flight, which was first demonstrated by
Wilbur and Orville Wright in 1903.”
a) attempt b) convert
c) absolute d) connect
2. What is the meaning of “measurement”?
a) competition b) pressure
c) calculation universal
3. What is the meaning of specified word in the following text:
“Fundamental concepts of continuum, drag, and pressure
gradients, appear in the work of Aristotle and Archimedes.”
a) adjective b) the rate of change
c) distraction d) continue
4. What is the synonym of “rapidly”?
a) rationally b) usually
c) quickly d) completely
5. What is the best meaning of the specified word in the following
text:
“The Euler equations were extended to incorporate the effects of
viscosity in the first half of the 1 800s, resulting in the Navier-Stokes
equations.”
a) developed b) exhibited
c) purposed d) suggested
 Aerodynamics 41

6. What is the synonym of “negligible”?

a) single b) mistake
c) insignificant d) important
7. What is the synonym of “uniqueness”?
a) equation b) singularity
c) direction d) error
8. What is the best meaning of specified word in the following text:
“The Cold War fueled an ever evolving line of high performance
aircraft.”
a) efficiency b) numerical
c) complex d) large
9. What is the synonym of “encounter”?
a) edge b) wrestling
c) sting d) face
10. What is the meaning of the specified word in the following text:
“Evaluating the lift and drag on an airplane or the shock waves
that form in front of the nose of a rocket are examples of external
aerodynamics.”
a) guidance b) floating
c) estimating d) connecting
1 1 . What is the synonym of “pattern”?
a) propulsion b) model
c) judgment d) linear
12. What is the meaning of “rough”?
a) approximate b) soft
c) volume d) regular
13. What is the meaning of specified word in the following text:
“For instance, internal aerodynamics encompasses the study of
the airflow through a jet engine or through an air conditioning pipe.”
a) insulate b) sample
c) sensitive d) approach
14. What is the synonym of “dictate”?
a) reduce b) distance
c) command d) indicate
42 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

15. What is the meaning of the word “Comfort”?

a) flight b) income
c) drag d) convenience
16. What is the meaning of “incorporate”?
a) interest b) improve
c) combine d) entire
1 7. “The cold war fueled an ever evolving line of high performance
aircraft.” In this sentence “evolving” means ...
a) developing b) prominent
c) expanding d) a & c
18. “The special number which shows the speed of an object in
relation to the speed of sound” is called ...
a) Euler b) Mach
c) viscosity d) Navier-Stokes
19. “Aerodynamic is a significant factor in any type of vehicle design,
including automobiles.” In this sentence “significant” means ...
a) important b) singular
c) large d) enough
20. The force of movement is known as ...
a) momentum b) drag
c) lift d) moment
21. “Aerodynamics is a branch of dynamics concerned with studying
the motion of air.” In this sentence “concerned” means ...
a) concept b) insured
c) involved d) relief
22. “Formal aerodynamics study in the modern sense began in the
eighteenth century.” In this sentence “sense” means ...
a) meaning b) rough
c) effort d) origin
23. “The device which harnesses the power of the wind by means
of large blades which rotate around a shaft” is called . ..
a) ship b) sailboat
c) windmill d) turbine
 Aerodynamics 43

24. Which one is not a synonym of “legend”?

a) fable b) myth
c) tale d) life
25. “Newton became the first person to develop a theory of air
resistance.” Here, “resistance” means ...
a) opposition b) prediction
c) temperature d) rescue
26. In aerodynamic forces “thrust” means ...
a) propelling force b) resistance force
c) upward force d) gravity force
27. The word “complex” means ...
a) comfort b) component
c) complicated d) concave
28. What is the synonym of “confirm”?
a) control b) verify
c) large d) soft
29. “Internal aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages in
solid objects for instance it encompasses the study of the air flow
through a jet engine.”
Here, “encompass” means ...
a) surround b) design
c) calculate d) count
30. “product of a force and the distance from its action to a point”
is called ...
a) momentum b) moment
c) work d) power

2.9, Descriptive questions

According to the passage, answer the following questions:
1 . What is the best definition of “aerodynamics”?
2. What is the recent work in aerodynamics?
3. What is the definition of “Mach number”?
44 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

4. Define the Subsonic, transonic, supersonic and hypersonic

problems.
5. What is the field of “environmental aerodynamics”?
6. What is the difference between “gas dynamics” and
“aerodynamics”?
7. What are the aerodynamic forces of flight?
8. Which parameters are used to classify “flow field”?
9. What is the difference between “External aerodynamics” and
“Internal aerodynamics”?
10. What is the classification of the flows in aerodynamic problems
with the influence of viscosity?
1 1 . When did formal aerodynamics begin in the modern sense?
12. What was the role of Sir Isaac Newton in aerodynamics
development?
13. What are the main problems of scientists in study of air motion
around an object?
14. Read the following passage about the “Mach number” and
translate it into Farsi:
“The critical Mach number Mcnr is the free stream Mach number at
which the local flow Mach number just reaches unity at some point on
the airframe. In general, 1 and is typically in the order of 0.9.
Subsonic flight commonly refers to local aerodynamic flow
conditions where M<1.0. Practically, this means that the free stream
Mach number is less than approximately 0.8. Transonic flight usually
refers to generally subsonic flight but where the local flow Mach
number M>1. Transonic flight conditions are assumed when the free
stream Mach number lies in the range 0.8<M<1.2. The greatest degree
of aerodynamic unpredictability is associated with this Mach number
range. Supersonic flight commonly refers to aerodynamic flow
conditions when M>1 everywhere in the local flow field. As with
transonic conditions, supersonic flow conditions are assumed when
the free stream Mach number is greater than approximately 1.2.”
 Chapter 3

Propulsion

Introduction
The word “propulsion” is derived from two Latin words: pro meaning
before or forwards and pellere meaning to drive. Propulsion means to
push forward or drive an object forward. A propulsion system is a
machine that produces thrust to push an object forward. On airplanes,
thrust is usually generated through some application of Newton’s third
law of action and reaction. A gas, or working fluid, is accelerated by
the engine, and the reaction to this acceleration produces a force on
the engine.
A general derivation of the thrust equation shows that the amount
of thrust generated depends on the mass flow through the engine and
the exit velocity of the gas. Different propulsion systems generate
thrust in slightly different ways. We will discuss four principal
propulsion systems: the propeller, the turbine (or jet) engine,
the ramjet, and the rocket.
In fact, propulsion is a means of creating force leading to
movement. A propulsion system has a source of mechanical power
(some type of engine or motor, muscles), and some means of using
this power to generate force, such as wheel and axles, propellers, a
propulsive nozzle, wings, fins or legs (figure 3.1).
46 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

Fig. 3.1. Armadillo Aerospace’s quad rocket vehicle showing visible

banding (shock diamonds) in the exhaust plume from its propulsion
system

Other components such as clutches, gearboxes and so forth may

be needed to connect the power source to the force generating
component.

3.1. Vehicular propulsion

An aircraft propulsion system generally consists of an aircraft engine
and some means to generate thrust, such as a propeller or a propulsive
nozzle.
An aircraft propulsion system must achieve two things. First, the
thrust from the propulsion system must balance the drag of the
airplane when the airplane is cruising. And second, the thrust from the
propulsion system must exceed the drag of the airplane for the
airplane to accelerate. In fact, the greater the difference between the
thrust and the drag, called the excess thrust, the faster the airplane will
accelerate.
Some aircraft, like airliners and cargo planes, spend most of their
life in a cruise condition. For these airplanes, excess thrust is not as
important as high engine efficiency and low fuel usage. Since thrust
depends on both the amount of gas moved and the velocity, we can
 Propulsion 47

generate high thrust by accelerating a large mass of gas by a small

amount, or by accelerating a small mass of gas by a large amount.
Because of the aerodynamic efficiency of propellers and fans, it is
more fuel efficient to accelerate a large mass by a small amount. That
is why we find high bypass fans and turboprops on cargo planes and
airliners.
Some aircraft, like fighter planes or experimental high speed
aircraft, require very high excess thrust to accelerate quickly and to
overcome the high drag associated with high speeds. For these
airplanes, engine efficiency is not as important as very high thrust.
Modern military aircraft typically employ afterburners on a low
bypass turbofan core. Future hypersonic aircraft will employ some
type of ramjet or rocket propulsion.

3.1.1. Ground
Ground propulsion is any mechanism for propelling solid bodies along
the ground, usually for the purposes of transportation (figure 3.2). The
propulsion system often consists of a combination of an engine or
motor, a gearbox and wheel and axles in standard applications.

Fig. 3.2. Transportation in Germany

Maglev (derived from magnetic levitation) is a system of

transportation that uses magnetic levitation to suspend, guide and
propel vehicles with magnets rather than using mechanical methods,
48 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

such as wheels, axles and bearings. With maglev a vehicle is levitated

a short distance away from a guide way using magnets to create both
lift and thrust. Maglev vehicles are claimed to move more smoothly
and quietly and to require less maintenance than wheeled mass transit
systems. It is claimed that non-reliance on friction also means that
acceleration and deceleration can far surpass that of existing forms of
transport. The power needed for levitation is not a particularly large
percentage of the overall energy consumption; most of the power used
is needed to overcome air resistance (drag), as with any other high¬
speed form of transport.

3.1.2. Marine
Marine propulsion is the mechanism or system used to generate thrust
to move a ship or boat across water. While paddles and sails are still
used on some smaller boats, most modem ships are propelled by
mechanical systems consisting a motor or engine turning a propeller,
or less frequently, in jet drives, an impeller (figure 3.3). Marine
engineering is the discipline concerned with the design of marine
propulsion systems.

Fig. 3.3. Cruise Ship propulsion system

 Propulsion 49

Steam engines were the first mechanical engines used in marine

propulsion, but have mostly been replaced by two-stroke or four-
stroke diesel engines, outboard motors, and gas turbine engines on
faster ships. Nuclear reactors producing steam are used to propel
warships and icebreakers, and there have been attempts to utilize them
to power commercial vessels. Electric motors have been used on
submarines and electric boats and have been proposed for energy¬
efficient propulsion. Recent development in liquified natural gas
(LNG) fueled engines are gaining recognition for their low emissions
and cost advantages.

3.1.3. Aerospace
If we think about Newton’s first law of motion, we realize that an
airplane propulsion system must serve two purposes. First, the thrust
from the propulsion system must balance the drag of the airplane
when the airplane is cruising. And second, the thrust from the
propulsion system must exceed the drag of the airplane for the
airplane to accelerate. In fact, the greater the difference between the
thrust and the drag, called the excess thrust, the faster the airplane will
accelerate.
Some aircrafts, like airliners and cargo planes, spend most of
their life in a cruise condition. For these airplanes, excess thrust is not
as important as high engine efficiency and low fuel usage. Since thrust
depends on both the amount of gas moved and the velocity, we can
generate high thrust by accelerating a large mass of gas by a small
amount, or by accelerating a small mass of gas by a large amount.
Because of the aerodynamic efficiency of propellers and fans, it is
more fuel efficient to accelerate a large mass by a small amount That
is why we find high bypass fans and turboprops on cargo planes and
airliners.
Some aircrafts, like fighter planes or experimental high speed
aircraft require very high excess thrust to accelerate quickly and to
overcome the high drag associated with high speeds. For these
50 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

airplanes, engine efficiency is not as important as very high thrust.

Modern military aircraft typically employ afterburners on a low
bypass turbofan core. Future hypersonic aircraft will employ some
type of ramjet or rocket propulsion. There is a special section of the
Beginner’s Guide which deals with compressible or high speed,
aerodynamics. This section is intended for undergraduates who are
studying shock waves or isentropic flows and contains several
calculators and simulators for that flow regime.
Moreover, spacecraft propulsion is any method used to
accelerate spacecraft and artificial satellites. There are many different
methods. Each method has drawbacks and advantages, and spacecraft
propulsion is an active area of research. However, most spacecraft
today are propelled by forcing a gas from the back/rear of the vehicle
at very high speed through a supersonic de Laval nozzle. This sort of
engine is called a rocket engine.
All current spacecraft use chemical rockets (bipropellant or
solid-fuel) for launch, though some have used air-breathing engines on
their first stage. Most satellites have simple reliable chemical thrusters
(often monopropellant rockets) or resistojet rockets for orbital station¬
keeping and some use momentum wheels for attitude control. Soviet
bloc satellites have used electric propulsion for decades, and newer
Western geo-orbiting spacecraft are starting to use them for north¬
south station keeping and orbit raising. Interplanetary vehicles mostly
use chemical rockets as well, although a few have used ion thrusters
and Hall effect thrusters (two different types of electric propulsion) to
great success.

3.2. Propulsion in nature

Animal locomotion, which is the act of self-propulsion by an animal,
has many manifestations, including running, swimming, jumping and
flying (figure 3.4). Animals move for a variety of reasons, such as to
find food, a mate, or a suitable microhabitat, and to escape predators.
For many animals the ability to move is essential to survival and, as a
 Propulsion 51

result, selective pressures have shaped the locomotion methods and

mechanisms employed by moving organisms. For example, migratory
animals that travel vast distances (such as the Arctic Tern) typically
have a locomotion mechanism that costs very little energy per unit
distance, whereas non-migratory animals that must frequently move
quickly to escape predators (such as frogs) are likely to have costly
but very fast locomotion. The study of animal locomotion is typically
considered to be a sub-field of biomechanics.

Fig. 3.4. A bee in flight

Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction, drag, inertia,

and gravity, though in many circumstances some of these factors are
negligible. In terrestrial environments gravity must be overcome,
though the drag of air is much less of an issue. In aqueous
environments however, friction (or drag) becomes the major
challenge, with gravity being less of a concern. Although animals with
natural buoyancy need not expend much energy maintaining vertical
position, some will naturally sink and must expend energy to remain
afloat. Drag may also present a problem in flight, and the
aerodynamically efficient body shapes of birds highlight this point.
Flight presents a different problem from movement in water however,
as there is no way for a living organism to have lower density than air.
Limbless organisms moving on land must often contend with surface
52 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

friction, but do not usually need to expend significant energy to

counteract gravity.
Newton’s third law of motion is widely used in the study of
animal locomotion: if at rest, to move forwards an animal must push
something backwards. Terrestrial animals must push the solid ground,
swimming and flying animals must push against a fluid or gas (either
water or air). The effect of forces during locomotion on the design of
the skeletal system is also important, as is the interaction between
locomotion and muscle physiology, in determining how the structures
and effectors of locomotion enable or limit animal movement.

3.3. New words

(A)
Afloat: Floating in water; not sinking
Afterburner: An auxiliary burner in which extra fuel is burned in the
exhaust of a jet engine, to increase thrust
Aqueous: Of or containing water
Arctic tern: A red-billed tern which breeds in the Arctic and adjacent
areas, migrating to Antarctic regions to overwinter
Associated: connected with something else
Attempt: Make an effort to achieve or complete
Axle: A rod or spindle (either fixed or rotating) passing through the
center of a wheel or group of wheels

(B)
Biomechanics: The study of the mechanical laws relating to the
movement or structure of living organisms
Bipropellant: A two-component rocket propellant, such as liquid
hydrogen and liquid oxygen, fed separately to the combustion
chamber as fuel and oxidizer
Bypass: A secondary channel, pipe, or connection
 Propulsion 53

(C)
Cargo plane: aircraft that is designed or converted for the carriage of
cargo rather than passengers
Clutch: A mechanism for connecting and disconnecting an engine
and the transmission system in a vehicle, or the working parts of any
machine
Commercial: Concerned with or engaged in commerce
Component: A part or element of a larger whole, especially a part of
a machine or vehicle
Consumption: The action of using up a resource
Counteract: Act against (something) in order to reduce its force or
neutralize it
Cruise: travel smoothly at a moderate or economical speed

(D)
Deceleration: Reduction in speed or rate
De Laval nozzle: a tube that is pinched in the middle, making a
carefully balanced, asymmetric hourglass shape. It is used to
accelerate a hot, pressurized gas passing through it to a higher speed
in the axial direction, by converting the heat energy of the flow into
kinetic energy
Discipline: The practice of training people to obey rules or a code of
behaviour, using punishment to correct disobedience
Drawback: A feature that renders something less acceptable; a
disadvantage or problem

(E)
Effector: An organ or cell that acts in response to a stimulus
Efficiency: The state or quality of being efficient
Emission: The production and discharge of something, especially gas
or radiation
Excess: An amount of something that is more than necessary,
permitted, or desirable
54 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

(F)
Fin: A flattened appendage on various parts of the body of many
aquatic vertebrates, including fish and cetaceans, and some
invertebrates, used for propelling, steering, and balancing

(G)
Gearbox: A set of gears with its casing, especially in a motor vehicle;
the transmission
Geo-orbiting: a circular geosynchronous orbit in the plane of the
Earth’s equator with a radius of approximately 42,164 km (26,199 mi)
(measured from the center of the Earth)

(I)
Icebreaker: A ship designed for breaking a channel through ice
Impeller: The rotating part of a centrifugal pump, compressor, or
other machine designed to move a fluid by rotation
Interaction: Reciprocal action or influence
Interplanetary: Situated or travelling between planets
Ion: An atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or
gain of one or more electrons

(L)
Levitation: The action of rising or causing something to rise and
hover in the air, typically by means of supposed magical powers
Limbless: having no limbs
Liquefiy: to become liquid
Locomotion: Movement or the ability to move from one place to
another

(M)
Maintenance: The process of keeping something in good condition
Manifestation: An event, action, or object that clearly shows or
embodies something abstract or theoretical
 Propulsion 55

Mate: The sexual partner of an animal

Microhabitat: A habitat which is of small or limited extent and which
differs in character from some surrounding more extensive habitat
Migratory: Denoting an animal that migrates
Muscle: Physical power; strength

(N)
Non-reliance: not trusting in someone or something

(O)
Organism: An individual animal, plant, or single-celled life form
Out board: On, towards, or near the outside of a ship or aircraft
Overcome: succeed in dealing with a problem or difficulty

(P)
Paddle: A short pole with a broad blade at one or both ends, used
without a rowlock to move a small boat or canoe through the water
Physiology: The branch of biology that deals with the normal
functions of living organisms and their parts
Predator: An animal that naturally preys on others
Propulsion: The action of driving or pushing forwards

(R)
Ramjet: A type of jet engine in which the air drawn in for combustion
is compressed solely by the forward motion of the aircraft
Recognition: the action or process of recognizing or being
recognized, in particular
Reliable: Consistently good in quality or performance; able to be
trusted
Resistojet: a jet engine that obtains its thrust from a propellant heated
by a resistance device using electrical power
56 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

(S)
Sail: A piece of material extended on a mast to catch the wind and
propel a boat or ship or other vessel
Sink: Go down below the surface of something, especially of a liquid;
become submerged
Skeletal: Relating to or functioning as a skeleton
Smoothly: In a smooth way
Soviet: An elected local, district, or national council in the former
Soviet Union
Surpass: Exceed; be greater than
Survival: The state or fact of continuing to live or exist, typically in
spite of an accident, ordeal, or difficult circumstances
Suspend: Temporarily prevent from continuing or being in force or
effect

(T)
Terrestrial: On or relating to the earth
Transportation: The action of transporting someone or something or
the process of being transported
Turboprop: A jet engine in which a turbine is used to drive a
propeller

(U)
Utilize: Make practical and effective use of

(V)
Vast: Of very great extent or quantity; immense

(W)
Warship: A ship equipped with weapons and designed to take part in
warfare at sea
 Propulsion 57

3.4. Vocabulary exercises

1 . The act of “creating force leading to movement” is ...
a) Propulsion b) Cruising
c) Turboprops d) Ramjet
2. What are the direction of thrust and the drag forces?
a) Forward and backward b) Backward and forward
c) Upward and downward d) Downward and upward
3. Which one is more important for aircraft, like airliners and cargo
planes?
a) Geo-orbiting b) Low use of fuel
c) Excess thrust d) Surpass
4. What kind of planes requires very high excess thrust?
a) Fighter planes
b) Experimental high speed aircraft
c) Cargo planes
d) a & b
5. Future hypersonic aircraft will employ ....
a) Ramjet b) Afterburners
c) Turboprops d) Fins
6. Maglev vehicles are claimed to move ....
a) Surpass b) Smoothly
c) Consumption d) Discipline
7. Maglev vehicles are claimed to require less ....
a) Discipline b) Smoothly
c) Maintenance d) Fins
8. What is the mechanism or system used to generate thrust to move a
ship or boat across water?
a) Turboprops b) Marine propulsion
c) Ramjet d) Surpass
9. What was the first type of mechanical engines used in marine
Propulsion?
a) Turboprops b) Afterburners
c) Surpass d) Steam
58 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

10. Nuclear reactors producing steam are used to propel

a) Icebreakers b) Boats
c) Cruise ship d) Submarines
1 1 . What is the act of self-propulsion by an animal?
a) Marine Propulsion b) Animal Drag
c) Animal locomotion d) Microhabitat
12. What is the application of “fin” in an aircraft?
a) Propelling b) Steering
c) Balancing d) all
13. “A jet engine in which a turbine is used to drive a propeller” is
called ...
a) Turboprop b) Resistojet
c) Waterjet d) Ramjet
14. “A type of jet engine in which the air drawn in for combustion is
compressed solely by the forward motion of the aircraft” is called

a) Turboprop b) Resistojet
c) Waterjet d) Ramjet
15. “A jet engine that obtains its thrust from a propellant heated by a
resistance device using electrical power” is called ...
a) Turboprop b) Resistojet
c) Waterjet d) Ramjet
16. The word terrestrial” is related to
a) sea b) earth
c) air d) space
1 7. Afterburner is used in order to increase
a) drag b) Steering
c) Balancing d) thrust
18. A mechanism for connecting and disconnecting an engine and the
transmission system in a vehicle is called “....”
a) brake b) Steer
c) clutch d) stabilizer
 Propulsion 59

1 9. An aqueous medium mostly consists of

a) water b) soil
c) air d) steam
20. The word “surpass” means
a) shortcut b) connection
c) pipe d) exceed
21. A propulsion system has a source of mechanical power such as ....
a) engine b) muscles
c) motor d) all
22. Movement or the ability to move from one place to another is
called
a) locomotion b) exceed
c) stability d) connection
23. Which one is not the principal propulsion system?
a) propeller b) muscles
c) ramjet d) rocket
24. The purpose of ground propulsion is usually for ”
a) transportation
b) acceleration of artificial satellites
c) excess drag
d) rocket
25. The production and discharge of gas is called
a) transmission b) levitation
c) locomotion d) emission

3.5. Descriptive questions

According to the passage, answer the following questions:
1 . What are the elements of “a propulsion system”?
2. What is the origin of word propulsion?
3. What is “Maglev system”?
4. What do the current spacecrafts use for launching?
5. What is “Animal locomotion”?
60 Technical English For Aerospace Engineering

6. Why do we find high bypass fans and turboprops on cargo planes

and airliners?
7. Why do fighter planes or experimental high speed aircraft require
very high excess thrust?
8. What is “ground propulsion’"?
9. What is the first mechanical engine used in marine propulsion?
10. What is the result of using Newton’s third law of motion in the
study of animal locomotion?
1 1 . Read the following passage about the “spacecraft propulsion” and
translate it into Farsi:
“Some spacecraft propulsion methods such as solar sails provide
very low but inexhaustible thrust; an interplanetary vehicle using one
of these methods would follow a rather different trajectory, either
constantly thrusting against its direction of motion in order to decrease
its distance from the Sun or constantly thrusting along its direction of
motion to increase its distance from the Sun. The concept has been
successfully tested by the Japanese IKAROS solar sail spacecraft.
Spacecraft for interstellar travel also need propulsion methods.
No such spacecraft has yet been built, but many designs have been
discussed. Because interstellar distances are very great, a tremendous
velocity is needed to get a spacecraft to its destination in a reasonable
amount of time. Acquiring such a velocity on launch and getting rid of
it on arrival will be a formidable challenge for spacecraft designers.”