Variations in Psychological attributes

 individual differences- to distinctiveness and variations among people’s

characteristics and behavior patterns
 situationism- states that situations and circumstances in which one is placed
influence one’s behaviour
 Assessment- measurement of psychological attributes of individuals and
their evaluation, often using multiple methods in terms of certain standards
of comparison
 Formal Assessment: Objective, standardized, organized
 Informal Assessment: It varies from case to case/one assessor to another—
open to subjective interpretation.
Domains of Psychological Attributes
1. Intelligence- global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think
rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with her/his environment
2. Aptitude- Individual’s underlying potential for acquiring skills.
3. Interest- It’s individual’s preference to engage in a particular activity.
4. Personality- Relatively enduring characteristics that make a person distinct
from others.
5. Values- Enduring Beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour
Assessment Methods
1. Psychological Test- is an objective and standardized test to measure any of
the individual’s psychological attributes-
2. Interview- involves seeking information on a one on one basis by a
counsellor from the client.
3. Case Study- is an in-depth study of the individual in terms of her/his
psychological attributes, psychological history in the context of her/his
psychosocial and physical environment.
4. Observation- employing systematic, organized and objective procedure to
record behavioral phenomena occurring naturally in real time.
 5. Self-report– It’s a method in which an individual provides factual
information about himself or opinions, beliefs etc.
Intelligence
Oxford Definition: Power of Perceiving, Learning, Understanding and Knowing
Alfred Binet: Ability to Judge well, Reason well and Understand well
Wechsler: Ability to think rationally, act purposefully and to deal effectively with
your environment
Gardner and Sternberg - intelligent individual not only adapts to the
environment, but also actively modifies or shapes it
Theories
psychometric approach -considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It
expresses the individual’s performance in terms of a single index of cognitive
abilities.
Information-processing approach- describes the processes people use in
intellectual reasoning and problem solving. Rather than focusing on structure of
intelligence emphasize studying cognitive functions underlying intelligent
behaviour
Uni or One factor theory (Alfred binet)
One similar set of abilities used for solving any or every problem
Two-Factor Theory (Charles Spearman)
• statistical method called factor analysis.
• Intelligence consists of a general factor (G-factor) and specific factors (S-factor).
(i) G-Factor: It includes mental operations which are primary and common to all
performances.
(ii) S-Factor: It includes specific abilities which allow individuals to excel in their
respective domains
Theory of Primary Mental Abilities (Louis Thurstone):
(i) Verbal Comprehension (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and ideas).
(ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and accuracy in numerical and computational
skills).
(iii) Spatial Relations (visualizing patterns and forms).
(iv) Perceptual Speed To speed in perceiving details).
(v) Word Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly).
(vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling information).
(vii) Inductive Reasoning (deriving general rules from presented facts).
Hierarchical Model of Intelligence (Arthur Jensen):
Abilities operates at two levels:
Level I – Associative learning. [output is equal to input, rote memory]
Level II – Cognitive competence. [output is more than input]
Structure of Intellect Model (J.P. Guilford) [1988]:
• Classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions—operations, contents and
products
(i) Operation: what the respondent does. (cognition, memory recording, memory
retention, divergent production, convergent production, and evaluation)
(ii) Contents: the nature of materials (visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic and
behavioral)
(iii) Products: the form in which information is processed (units, classes, relations,
systems, transformations, and implications)
• Classification includes 6x5x6 categories—the model has 180 cells.

Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner):

• Studied persons who had shown exceptional abilities in their respective areas and
described eight types of intelligence.
(i) Linguistic: The capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s
thinking and understand other.
(ii) Logical-Mathematical: Skills in problem solving, thinking logically and
critically and abstract reasoning ,
(iii) Spatial: The abilities involved in forming, using and transforming mental
images
(iv) Musical: The capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical rhythms and
patterns.
(v) Bodily-Kinesthetic: The use of the whole body or portions of it creatively and
flexibly for display, construction of products and problem solving,
(vi) Interpersonal: Skill of an individual to understand the needs, motives feelings
and behaviors of other people for better understanding and relationship
 (vii) Intrapersonal: Refers to the awareness of one’s own feelings, motives,
desires,
(viii) Naturalistic: Complete awareness of our relationship with the natural world
and sensitivity to the features of the natural world.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg) [1985]:.

• Three Basic Types of Intelligence:
(i) Componential Intelligence/Analytical Intelligence: The analysis of information
to solve problems
Three components:
(a) Knowledge Acquisition—responsible for learning and acquisition of the ways
of doing things.
(b) Meta or Higher Order Component—planning concerning what to do and how
to do it.
(c) Performance Component—actually doing things .

(ii) Experiential/Creative Intelligence: Using past experiences creatively to solve

novel problems.
(iii) Contextual/Practical Intelligence: The ability to deal with environmental
demands encountered on a daily basis—
— may be called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’

Planning, Attention-arousal and Simultaneous-Successive (PASS) Model of

Intelligence (J.P. Das, Jack Nagliery, Kirby)
• Intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of three neurological
systems, called the functional units of brain
• These units are responsible for—
(i) Arousal/Attention:
-enable a person to process information.
- An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant aspects of a
problem.

(ii) Simultaneous and Successive Processing:

— Simultaneous: Perceive the relations among various concepts and integrate –
them into a meaningful pattern for comprehension,
— Successive: Remember all the information serially so that the recall of one leads
to the recall of another
(iii) Planning:
— Allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement them to reach a
target, and evaluate their effectiveness.

Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) (Das and Nagliery):

• Battery of tests meant for individuals between 5-18 years of age.
• Consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive
functions presumed to be independent of schooling.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE:
study conducted on Identical/fraternal twins, siblings, brought up together or in
different environment
 Identical Twins reared together correlate almost 0.9
 Identical twins , separated in childhood correlate 0.72
 Fraternal twins reared together correlate 0.6
 Siblings reared together correlate 0.5
 Siblings reared apart correlate about 0.25
 Adopted children display intelligence more similar to biological parents than
adoptive ones… studies also report that as adopted children grow their
intelligence moves closer to adoptive parents.
Role of environment
disadvantaged Children—adopted into families with higher socio-economic status
exhibit a large increase in their intelligence scores.
Environmental deprivation lowers intelligence while rich nutrition, good family
background, and quality schooling increases intelligence.
Assessment of Intelligence

1905: Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon- first attempt to measure intelligence.
1908: Gave the concepts of
 Mental Age (MA)- is the measure of a person’s intellectual development relative
to people of her/his age-group.
Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.
Retardation was being two mental age years below the chronological age.

1912: William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of Intelligence

Quotient (IQ).
IQ -mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied by 100
• Average IQ in the population is 100, irrespective of age.
• Frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped
curve, called the normal curve—symmetrical around the central value, called the
mean.
VARIATIONS IN INTELLIGENCE

1. Intelligence Deficiency (Mentally Retarded/Challenged):

The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views mental
retardation as significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing
concurrently with deficits in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the
developmental.
Mild- IQ 55-70 , Moderate- IQ 35-55, Severe IQ- 20-35 & Profound IQ < 20
Mild -development is typically slower than that of their peers but they can function
quite independently, hold jobs and families.
Moderate- lag behind their peers in language and motor skills, need to be trained in
self-care skills and simple social and communication skills.
Individuals with profound and severe disability are incapable of managing life and
need constant care for their entire lives
2. Intellectual Giftedness:
Lewis Terman (1925):
Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide
variety of areas.
• Teacher’s perspective: depends on a combination of high ability, high creativity
and high commitment.
• Early signs of intellectual superiority: during infancy show larger attention span,
good memory, sensitivity to environmental changes, early appearance of language
Talent refers to remarkable ability in a specific field, the highly talented are
sometimes called ‘prodigies’.
characteristics of gifted children
• Advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem solving behaviour.
• High speed in processing information.
• Superior generalization and discrimination ability.
• Advanced level of original and creative thinking.
• High level of intrinsic motivation and self-esteem.
• Independent and non-conformist thinking.
• Preference for solitary academic activities for long periods
Type of Intelligence tests:

Individual test- administered to one person at a time…the test administrator to

establish a rapport with the subject and be sensitive to her/his feelings, moods and
expressions during the testing session. orally or in a written form or manipulate
objects as per the tester’s instructions.
Group test- administered to several persons simultaneously, do not allow an
opportunity to be familiar with the subjects’ feelings, seek written answers usually
in a multiple-choice format.
Verbal, Non-verbal or performance tests:-
Verbal- requires verbal responses either orally or in written form..
Non- Verbal- Tests use pictures or illustrations.
Performance tests- require subjects to manipulate objects and other materials to
perform a task
Intelligence tests can be culture-fair or culture-biased. Many intelligence tests
show a bias to the culture in which they are developed
culture-fair or culturally appropriate- one that does not discriminate against
individuals belonging to different cultures
Intelligence Testing in India
S.M. Mohsin
C.H Rice
Long and Mehta prepared a Mental Measurement Handbook listing out 103 tests of
intelligence in India
The National Library of Educational and Psychological Tests (NLEPT) at the
National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has documented
Indian tests.
Culture and Intelligence
Culture is a collective system of customs, beliefs, attitudes and achievements in art
and literature.
• Notion of contextual or practical intelligence implies that intelligence is a product
of culture.
Vygotsky (Russian psychologist):
• Culture provides a social context in which people live, grow and understand the
world around them.
• Elementary mental functions (e.g., walking, crying) are Universal; the manner in
which higher mental functions such as problem-solving and thinking operate are
largely culture produced.
Technologically advanced societies adopt child rearing practices that foster skills
of generalisation and abstraction, speed, minimal moves, and mental manipulation
among children. These societies promote a type of behaviour, which can be called
technological intelligence
Intelligence in Indian Tradition:
integral intelligence, which gives emphasis on connectivity with the social and
world environment
Buddhi, according to J.P. Das, includes such skills as mental effort, determined
action, feelings, and opinions along with cognitive competence such as knowledge,
discrimination, and understanding
  Cognitive capacity: ( Sensitivity to context, understanding, discrimination,
problem solving, effective communication)
 Social competence: ( respect of social order, commitment to elders, the
young and the needy , concern about others perspectives)
 Emotional competence: ( Self regulation, self monitoring of emotions,
honesty, politeness, good conduct and self-evaluation)
 Entrepreneurial competence: (commitment, persistence, patience, hard work,
vigilance, goal-directed )
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Salovey & Mayer first defined EQ as- The ability to monitor one’s own and other’s
emotions and discriminate them to use them to guide one’s thinking and actions.
Characteristics of the people with high EQ:
 Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions.
 Sensitive to observing others’ emotions by noting their body language,
voice, tone & facial expressions.
 Use emotions and thoughts while solving problems and taking decisions.
 Understand the nature and intensity of emotions and their powerful
influence.
 Control on emotions/feelings while dealing with others to achieve peace and
harmony.
APTITUDE AND INTEREST
Aptitude refers to special abilities in a particular field of activity. It is a
combination of characteristics that indicates an individual’s capacity to acquire
some specific knowledge or skill after training
Interest is a preference for a particular activity;
There are several types of Aptitude tests largely available in two forms:
1. Independent (specialised) aptitude tests. – Mechanical, clerical,
numerical, tests for specialized fields.
 2. Multiple (generalized) aptitude tests.- Exist in the form of test batteries.
Differential Aptitude test ( DAT), General aptitude test battery (GATB),
Armed services vocational aptitude battery (ASVAB) are well known.

Creativity and Intelligence:

Creativity refers to the ability to produce ideas, objects and problem solutions that
are novel and appropriate, refers to the ability to think in novel and unusual ways
and to came up with unique solutions to problems.
Intelligence is the overall ability to understand, analyse and adapt in different
situations
Creativity is the ability to use intelligence in order to churn out something unique
and novel in a specific field.
Terman in 1920 found that Person with high IQ were not necessarily creative and
creative ideas can come from persons who did not have very high IQ.
The relationship between Intelligence and creativity is positive. All creative
abilities require a minimum level of intelligence to acquire knowledge, capacity to
comprehend, retain and retrieve.
Creativity test are open ended and involve making a person think of different
answers to the questions and problems. They give freedom to individuals to go in
different direction and freedom to use their imagination and express in original
ways.