BAS 101: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

QUANTUM PHYSICS
INADEQUACIES OF CLASSICAL MECHANICS
While Classical Mechanics remains exceptionally useful for many practical applications, its limitations led
to the development of Quantum Mechanics and Special and General Theories of Relativity, which better
describe the physical world at both the smallest and largest scales.
In particular, the following phenomena couldn't be explained on the basis of the Classical Mechanics:
1. Energy distribution among various wavelength in the Blackbody radiation.
2. Existence of the threshold frequency and dependence of the highest kinetic energy of
photoelectrons on the frequency of incident em-wave in the Photoelectric effect.
3. Existence and estimation of the modified radiation in the Compton Effect.
4. Values of the wavelength and intensity of various lines in the Hydrogen Spectrum.
5. Quantized nature of energy levels within the atoms as indicated in the Frank-Hertz experiment.
6. Origin and nature of the Characterstic X-rays.
7. Temperature dependence of Specific heat of solids.
8. Cause of Natural Radioactivity.
9. Reason and nature of the Crystal structure & crystal binding.
10. Variance in the time, space, and mass at speeds approaching the speed of light.
11. Certain gravitational phenomena like the precession of Mercury's orbit, Black holes, Neutron stars,
etc.

THERMAL RADIATION
An object at any temperature emits electromagnetic radiation, called thermal radiation.
• The spectrum of this radiation depends on the temperature and properties of the object.
• At low temperatures, the wavelengths of the thermal radiation are mainly in the infrared region
and hence not observable by the eye.
• As the temperature of an object increases, the object eventually begins to glow red.
• At sufficiently high temperatures, it appears to be white, as in the glow of the hot tungsten
filament of an electric light-bulb.
• A careful study of thermal radiation shows that it consists of a continuous distribution of
wavelengths from the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet portions of the spectrum.

BLACKBODY RADIATION
A blackbody is an ideal object that absorbs all radiation incident on it
irrespective of frequency.
A blackbody is both a perfect absorber as well as an ideal radiator
which emits radiations of all possible frequencies.
The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the black body is called
blackbody radiation.
A very small hole leading to a cavity (the inside of a hollow
object) acts almost like a blackbody. None of the incident Fig. 1: A small hole, leading to a
radiation escapes because it gets absorbed by the walls of the cavity, acts as a blackbody
cavity. This causes a heating of the cavity walls. The oscillators
in the cavity walls vibrate and re-radiate at wavelengths corresponding to the temperature of the
cavity, thereby producing standing waves. Some of the energy from these standing waves comes
out through the hole as blackbody radiation.

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 BAS 101: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

• All blackbodies behave identically at a given temperature.

• The nature of the blackbody radiation does not depend on the material of its walls.
• The blackbody radiation depends on the equilibrium temperature of the blackbody and hence
called thermal radiation.
• A blackbody radiates more when it is hot than when it is cold, and the spectrum of a hot
blackbody has its peak at a higher frequency than the peak in the spectrum of a cooler one.
• A blackbody reaches thermal equilibrium with the surroundings when the power of the incident
radiation is balanced by the power re-radiated by the blackbody.

BASIC LAWS OF RADIATION

(1) All objects emit radiant energy (at room temperature, most of the radiation is infrared).
(2) Hotter objects emit more energy (per unit area per unit time) than colder objects.
The total power of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by an object is proportional to the
surface area of the object and to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. This is called
Stefan–Boltzmann Law and is given as
P =  AeT 4
where,
P is power radiated from the surface of the object (W),
T is equilibrium surface temperature (K),
σ is Stefan-Boltzmann constant (= 5.670×10−8 W/m2K4),
A is surface area of the object (m2), and
e is emissivity of the surface (e =1 for a blackbody).
(3) Higher the temperature of the blackbody, smaller is the
wavelength of the most intense radiation. (The peak of the
wavelength distribution shifts to shorter wavelengths as the
black body temperature increases). This is Wien’s
Displacement Law and is given by Fig. 2: Intensity of blackbody radiation
λm  1 T or λm T = b versus wavelength at two temperatures
where
λm is the wavelength of the most intense radiation (i.e. radiation of highest intensity) and
T is equilibrium absolute temperature of the blackbody.
b = 2.898 × 10−3m.K, is the Wein’s displacement constant.
Rayleigh-Jeans Law: It is an approximation to the spectral radiance of electromagnetic radiation
as a function of wavelength from a black body at a given temperature through classical arguments.
The intensity (or power per unit area) I (,T)d, emitted in the wavelength interval  to +d from
a blackbody is given by
I ( λ,T ) = 2πck BT λ4
where kB is Boltzmann's constant, c is speed of light in vacuum, T is equilibrium temperature of
blackbody. This law agrees with experimental measurements only for long wavelengths and
predicts an energy output that diverges towards infinity as wavelengths become smaller. This
prediction is known as the ultraviolet catastrophe.

(4) Max Planck developed a theory of blackbody radiation that leads to an equation that is in
complete agreement with experimental results. He assumed the radiation came from atomic
oscillators, in the cavity walls of the blackbody, who have following features:

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 BAS 101: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Planck’s Hypothesis:
(i) Inside a blackbody, the energy of an oscillator is
quantized hence it can have only certain discrete values:
En = n h f
where n is a positive integer called a quantum number,
f is the frequency of cavity oscillators, and
h is a constant called Planck’s constant.
Each discrete energy value corresponds to a different
quantum state, represented by the quantum number n.
(ii) An oscillator makes transition from one quantum state
to another by emitting or absorbing energy in the form of
a single quantum of radiation of energy equal to the
energy- difference between the initial and final states.
Fig. 3: Allowed energy levels for
Planck’s Radiation Law: an oscillator with frequency f
On the basis of the above-mentioned assumptions, Planck
derived the following expression:
2πhc 2 1
I ( λ,T ) =
λ5  hc 
 k T 
e  B 
−1
where I (,T) d is the intensity (or power per unit area) emitted in the wavelength interval d
from a blackbody, h is Planck’s constant, kB is Boltzmann's constant, c is speed of light in vacuum
and T is equilibrium temperature of blackbody.
This is known as the Planck’s Law that describes the spectral brightness of black-body radiation
as a function of wavelength at any given temperature. It gives a distribution that peaks at a certain
wavelength, the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths for higher temperatures, and the area under the
curve grows rapidly with increasing temperature. This law is in agreement with the experimental
data.
Derivation of the Rayleigh-Jeans Law from the Planck's Radiation Law:
e x = 1 + x + x 2 2! + x 3 3! + .......
If x is very small then the higher order terms will be so small that they can be neglected .
Then we can write, e x = 1 + x.
 hc 
Similarly, if  is very large then,   will be very small and the higher order terms can be neglected .
 λk BT 
 hc 
 
hc
 λk BT 
 e =1+
λk BT
1 1 λk BT
  hc 
= =
hc hc
 k T 
e B  − 1 1 + − 1
λk BT
2π h c 2 λk BT
 I ( λ,T ) =
λ5 hc
2πck BT
 I ( λ,T ) = which is the Rayleigh − Jeans Law.
λ4

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 BAS 101: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

COMPTON EFFECT
In the year 1923, Arthur Holly Compton, while studying the scattering of X-rays from a graphite
block, measured the intensity of the X-rays as function of wavelength for different angles. He
discovered that the scattered X-rays suffer an increase in their wavelength. This increase in
wavelength depends only on the scattering angle and does not depend on the density, atomic
number, or any other property of the target material.
The Classical Physics predicts that after the interaction, different electrons in the target move
at different speeds depending on the amount of energy absorbed from the incident waves. So,
at a given angle, the wavelength of the scattered wave should show a distribution of Doppler-
shifted values.
Contrary to this prediction, Compton’s experiments showed that at a given angle only one
wavelength of X-rays is observed. Compton explained these experiments by treating this
scattering of X-rays as an elastic collision between a photon and a loosely bound outer-shell
electron of an atom. Hence, this scattering phenomenon is known as Compton Effect or Compton
scattering [because the energy of the incident photon is much larger than the binding energy of the
electron to the atom, this interaction is like an elastic collision between the photon and a free
electron].
Based on these assumptions and considering the conservation of energy and momentum, Compton
derived the following relationship between the shift in wavelength ‘Δλ’ and the scattering angle ‘θ’
of the X-rays:
Δλ = λc ( 1 − cosθ )
where Δλ = λ' − λ , is the wavelength shift or Compton Shift ,
λc = h = 2.43 pm , is called Compton wavelength of the electron,
mc
h = 6.626 × 10-34 J .s , is the Plank's constant ,
m = 9.109 × 10-31 kg , is the rest mass of an electron, and
c = 3 × 10 8 m s , is the speed of light in free space.
In Compton scattering, due to the collision with photon, the electron recoils and is ejected with
kinetic energy equal to the energy difference between the incident and scattered photons. The
amount of energy transferred to this recoil electron ranges from nearly zero for grazing collisions
(θ ≈ 0) up to a maximum value that occurs in backscattering events (θ ≈ 180). But the energy of
Compton-scattered photons is never zero, that is, a photon cannot transfer all its energy to an
electron in Compton scattering. Accordingly,
Compton shift is minimum in case of the grazing collisions
[θ ≈ 0 ⇒ cos θ ≈ 1
⇒ Δλ = λc (1−cos θ) ≈ λc (1−1)
⇒ (Δλ)min ≈ 0] and
Compton shift is maximum for back-
scattering events
[θ = 180 ⇒ cos θ = −1
⇒ Δλ = λc (1− cos θ) = λc {1− (−1)}
⇒ (Δλ)max = 2 λc = 22.43 pm = 4.86 pm].

Compton’s experiment and observations:

Compton measured the intensity of X-rays
scattered from a solid target (graphite) as a
function of wavelength for different angles.
The experimental setup is shown in Figure 1.

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 BAS 101: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Contrary to the classical prediction, only one wavelength for scattered radiation was seen at
a given angle. This is shown in the Figure 2.
The graphs for three nonzero angles show two peaks, one at o and the other at ’ > o . The shifted
peak at ’ is caused by the scattering of X-rays from free electrons.

Fig. 2: Scattered x-ray intensity versus wavelength for Compton scattering at  = 0°, 45°, 90°, and 135°
showing single wavelength at a given angle

Derivation of the Compton shift equation:

Compton made following assumptions in order to explain the result of his experiments:
The X-rays behave as a stream of particles (photons) not as waves.
A photon suffers an elastic collision with a free electron inside the target.
This electron is initially at rest and moves with relativistic velocity after collision.
Let the photon is scattered at an angle θ and the electron recoils at an angle  with respect to the
incident X-rays beam. Let  o , Eo = h o , and po = h λo = h o c be the wavelength, energy, and
linear momentum of the incident photon respectively. Similarly,  , E  = h , and p= h λ= h  c
be the corresponding quantities for the scattered photon.
For the electron, total relativistic energy, 𝑬 = √𝒑𝟐 𝒄𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒄𝟒 , kinetic energy K = E − m c2,
1
and linear momentum p =  mv, where γ = , is the relativistic factor, v and m
(1− v 2 c2 )
are the speed and rest mass of the electron respectively.
As the photon undergoes an elastic collision with the electron, hence the total energy and the total
linear momentum are conserved:
For conservation of energy, E0 = E′ + K
⇒ E0 = E′ + (E − mc2)
⇒ E0 − E′ + mc2 = E
⇒ (E0 − E′) + m c2 = √𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚2 𝑐 4 (∵ 𝐸 = √𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚2 𝑐 4 )
Squaring both the sides,
(𝐸𝑜 − 𝐸′)2 + 2(𝐸𝑜 − 𝐸′) 𝑚𝑐 2 + 𝑚2 𝑐 4 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚2 𝑐 4
⇒ (𝐸𝑜 − 𝐸′)2 + 2(𝐸𝑜 − 𝐸′) 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 -------- (1)
For conservation of linear momentum,
Along x-axis: 𝑝𝑜 = 𝑝′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙, and
′
along y-axis: 0 = 𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
Rewriting these two equations,
𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 = 𝑝𝑜 − 𝑝′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 = 𝑝′
Squaring both the sides and adding, we get
𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑜2 − 2𝑝𝑜 𝑝′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑝′2

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 BAS 101: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Substituting this value of 𝑝2 in the equation (1), we get:

(𝐸𝑜 − 𝐸 ′ )2 + 2(𝐸𝑜 − 𝐸 ′ ) 𝑚𝑐 2 = (𝑝𝑜2 − 2𝑝𝑜 𝑝′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑝′ 2 )𝑐 2
Substituting the expressions for photon energies and photon momenta one gets:
 h o 2  h o   h    h    2
2

(h o − h ) + 2 (h o − h ) mc =   − 2     cos θ +    c

2 2

 c   c  c   c 
1
 (h o ) − 2 (h o ) (h ) + (h ) + 2 (h o − h ) mc2 = 2 (h o ) − 2 (h o ) (h ) cos θ + (h )  c2
2 2 2 2

c
 (h o ) − 2h  o  + (h ) + 2h ( o − ) mc = (h o ) − 2h2 o  cos θ + (h )
2 2 2 2 2 2

 2h ( o − ) mc2 = 2h2 o  − 2h2 o  cos θ

 2h ( o − ) mc2 = 2h2 o  (1 − cos θ )
      h (
  o −  =  2  1 − cos θ )
  o   o    mc 
1 1  h 
  −  =  2  (1 − cos θ )
    o   mc 
 λ λ   h 
  − o  =  2  (1 − cos θ )
c c   mc 

( λ − λo ) =  2  (1 − cos θ )
1 h

c  mc 
 h (
 ( λ − λo ) =   1 − cos θ )
 mc 

  = c (1 − cos θ ) ( )
where Δλ = λ' − λo , is the Compton shift
and λc = h mc, is the Compton wavelength.

Compton effect is the basis of understanding the interaction of gamma rays

and high energy X-rays with the atoms in living beings and other materials.

WAVE – PARTICLE DUALITY

Plank’s formula for the black body radiation, photo-electric effect, and the Compton effect
established the particle nature of electromagnetic radiation. Thus, electromagnetic radiation has
dual nature – wave nature and particle nature.
WAVE NATURE OF MATTER
De Broglie Hypothesis:
Louis de Broglie extended the concept of dual nature to the matter by postulating that matter
also has particle as well as wave nature and every moving material object has an associated
wave whose wavelength is given as:  = h p ,
where h is Planck’s constant, p is linear momentum of the object of mass m and having speed v.
This wavelength is also known as de Broglie wavelength and the associated wave is known as
matter wave or de Broglie wave.
Davisson-Germer experiment, G.P. Thomson’s electron diffraction experiment, and later the
diffraction of the atomic beams and neutrons beams from crystals confirmed the de Broglie
hypothesis.

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 BAS 101: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

De Broglie Wavelength of a Non-relativistic Charged Particle:

If a particle of charge q and mass m, that is initially at rest, is accelerated through a potential
difference V so that it moves with non-relativistic speed v then its kinetic energy is given as:
1 p2
K = mv 2 = qV But p = mv  K =  p 2 = 2mK
2 2m
 p = 2mK and p = 2mqV
h
But  =
p
h
 =
2mK
h
 =
2mqV
where p is the linear momentum and K is the kinetic energy of the particle.

Hence the de Broglie wavelength of a non - relativistic electron is:

h h 12.265 o
= = = A (by using m = 9.109× 10 -31 kg & q = e = 1.602× 10 -19 C for an electron).
p 2meV ΔV in volts

De Broglie Wavelength of an Ideal Gas Molecule:

According to the kinetic theory of gas, the translational kinetic energy of an ideal gas molecule is
given as:
3 3
K = k BT . But p = 2mK  p = 2 m k BT
2 2
or p = 3mk BT
h h
But  =  =
p 3mk BT
where m is the mass of the gas molecule , T is the absolute temperature of the gas, and
k B =1.38  10−23 J/K, is the Boltzmann constant .

WAVE PACKET
When a group of a very large number of waves, having equal amplitudes but slightly different
frequencies and slightly different wavelengths, superpose with each other, they give rise to a
wave packet. A wave packet is characterized by two different speeds.
The phase speed, the speed with which wave front of an individual wave moves, is given as
vp = f  or vp =  k (  = 2 f and k = 2  )
The envelope of group of waves travels through space with a different speed than the individual
waves. This speed is called the group speed which is given as
v g =  k
If both the frequency spread and the wavelength spread are infinitesimal for the waves
constituting the wave packet, then the group speed is given as
d
vg =
dk ( lim
 → 0
 = d and lim k = dk
k → 0 )
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Relation between group speed (vg) and phase speed (vp):

d  d d ( kv p ) dk dv p
vg = and v p =   = kv p  vg = = = vp + k
dk k dk dk dk dk
dv p
 vg = v p + k
dk
2 2 dv p 2  2 dv p dv p dv p
But k =  dk = − 2 d   k =−  k = −
  dk  2 d  dk d
dv p
 vg = v p − 
d

Relation between group speed (vg) and particle speed (u):

E dE    
E = ω  ω=  d =   = 2 f  f =  E = hf = h E=  
 2 2 
p dp  2 2 h 2 h 
Also p = k  k =  dk =  k =    = k   = p = k  2 k = p  p = k 
 
d dE dE
 vg = =  vg =
dk dp dp
The total energy E of a particle having a rest mass m and linear momentum p, is given as:
E= p 2c 2 + m2c 4  E 2 = p 2c 2 + m 2c 4
dE 2 d
 =
dp dp
( p 2c 2 + m 2c 4 )  2E
dE
dp
= 2 pc 2 + 0

dE 2 pc 2  muc 2

dp
=
2E
=
 mc 2
( p =  mu and E =  mc 2 )

dE
 =u
dp
dE
But vg =  vg = u
dp
Thus, the group speed is equal to the particle speed.
h
[Note: = , is called reduced Plank's constant . ]
2π

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The content in the following box is only for better understanding of the topic
In order to fully understand this wave – particle duality we have to combine the essential features of an ideal
particle and an ideal wave. An ideal particle has zero size. Therefore, an essential feature of a particle is that
it is localized in space. An ideal wave has a single frequency and is infinitely long as suggested by Figure 1.
Therefore, an ideal wave is unlocalized in space.

Fig. 1: Section of an ideal wave of single frequency

Let us consider the superposition of two infinitely long waves of same amplitude A but slightly different
frequencies, f1 and f2, traveling in the same direction along the x axis. The resultant waveform will have alternate
regions of maximum and minimum amplitudes due to constructive and destructive interference, as occurs in the
case of the formation of beats (Figure 2). For simplicity, we presume that at some instant of time, a crest of each
wave is located at x = 0. At this instant the amplitude of the resultant waveform will also be maximum at x = 0.
If the waves are given as:
y1 = Acos( k1 x − ω1 t ) and
y2 = Acos( k2 x − ω2 t )
where k = 2π λ is the propagation constant
and  = 2πf is the angular frequency.
The resultant wave is therefore given as: y = y1 + y2
or

 (2 2  ) k+k
y =  2Acos k x −  t  cos  1 2 x − 1 2
 2
 +
2

t
 Fig. 2: Superposition of two waves Wave1 and Wave 2
where k = k1 – k2 and  = 1 – 2.
In the above equation, the second cosine factor
shows that the resulting wave has a wavelength and
frequency that are equal to the averages of the
values for the individual waves. The factor in
square brackets represents the envelope of the wave
as shown by the blue dotted curve in Figure 3. Fig. 3: Beat pattern due to superposition of wave trains y 1 and y2
This factor also has the mathematical form of a wave. This envelope of the combination can travel through
space with a different speed than the individual waves.Now let us imagine that more and more waves are added
to these two, each new wave having a slightly different new frequency. Each new wave is added so that one of
its crests is at x = 0 with the result that all the waves add constructively at x = 0. When we add a very large
number of waves, the probability of a positive value of the displacement at any point x ≠ 0 is equal to the
probability of a negative value, and there is complete destructive interference everywhere except near x = 0,
where all the crests get superposed thereby giving maximum amplitude. The result is shown in Figure 4.
Thus, if we superimpose a very large number of such waves
in a similar way, the waves will produce constructive
interference in a very small region of space and in the
remaining space they will ideally produce complete
destructive interference. Fig. 4: A wave packet
The resultant wave form is called a wave packet which is localized in a very small region of space. Thus, a
localized entity can be built from the superposition of a very large number of infinitely long waves of equal
amplitudes, slightly different frequencies, and slightly different wavelengths. This localized region of space
is different from all other regions. We can identify the wave packet as a particle because it has the localized
nature of a particle! The location of the wave packet corresponds to the particle’s position.

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Physical Interpretation of the Wave Function:

The wave function  is a mathematical function and has no direct physical interpretation but
contains within it all the information that can be known about the system it represents. The wave
function  is often complex-function and cannot be measured directly but we can measure the
square of its absolute magnitude that is given as:
(where  * is the complex conjugate of )
2
ψ = ψ* ψ
2
The quantity ψ is always real and positive and its value at a given point at a given instant is
proportional to probability per unit volume of finding the particle at that point at that instant.
2
Hence ψ is called the probability density of finding the particle. As per the Uncertainty principle,
2
it is not possible to specify the position of a particle with complete certainty, but ψ specifies the
probability of observing the particle in a region surrounding the given point.
If  represents a particle and dV is an infinitesimal volume element surrounding some point, then
the probability of finding the particle in the volume element dV is:
P ( x, y, z ) dV = ψ dV ----------- (1)
2

This probabilistic interpretation of the wave function was first suggested by Max Born in 1928.
The linear momentum, angular momentum, and energy of the particle are the other quantities that
can be established from .
Well-behaved Wave Function
A wave function  can represent a real particle (or system) if it satisfies following conditions:
1.  must be finite, continuous, and single valued everywhere.
2. ψ x , ψ y , and ψ z must be finite, continuous and single valued everywhere.
3.  must be normalizable, which means that as x → ± , y → ± , and z → ±  ,  must go
ψ
2
to zero so that dV over entire space is a finite constant.
Such a wave function is called a well-behaved wave function.
Normalization Condition for a Wave Function
The probability of finding the particle in the volume element dV is given as:
P ( x, y, z ) dV = ψ dV ----------- (1)
2

For simplicity, let us consider a one-dimensional system, where the particle is located along the x
2 2
axis, so the probability ψ dV in Equation-1 is modified to become ψ dx .
 The probability of finding the particle in the infinitesimal interval dx, around the point situated
at a distance x, is:
P ( x ) dx = ψ dx ( 2)
2
-----------
Consequently, the probability of finding the particle in the
arbitrary interval a  x  b is given as:
b
Pab =  ψ dx ( 3)
2
-----------
a
2
The probability Pab is the area under the ψ versus x curve
between the points x = a and x = b, as shown in the adjacent figure.
If there is a finite probability of finding a particle in an interval
near some point at some instant, then the value of that
probability must lie between 0 and 1.
For example, if the probability is 0.30, there is a 30% chance of
finding the particle in the interval.

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 BAS 101: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Because the particle must be somewhere along the x axis, the sum of the probabilities over all
values of x must be 1 that gives:
+

ψ ( 4)
2
dx = 1 ----------- Normalization Condition
−
Any wave function satisfying Equation 4 is said to be normalized.
Normalization condition is simply a statement that the particle exists at some point in space.
One-Dimensional Wave Functions and Expectation Values
Once the wave function for a particle is known, it is possible to calculate the average position at
which we would expect to find the particle after many measurements.
This average position is called the expectation value of x and is defined by the equation:
+
 x   ψ xψ dx ----------- (5)
−

(Brackets, …, are used to denote expectation values.)

Furthermore, one can find the expectation value of any function f(x) associated with the particle
by using the following equation:
+ 
 f (x )   ψ f (x ) ψ dx ----------- (6)
−

Where f (x ) is the operator corresponding to the function f (x ) .

Schrödinger Wave Equation

In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger (an Austrian Theoretical Physicist) extended the idea of matter waves
given by Louis de Broglie and developed an equation that is satisfied by the waves associated with
material particles. The wave equation for material particles is different from that associated with
photons because material particles have a nonzero rest energy. In analysing the behaviour of a
quantum system, we determine a solution to this equation and then apply the appropriate boundary
conditions to the solution. This process yields the allowed wave functions and energy levels of the
system under consideration. Proper manipulation of the wave function then enables us to calculate
all measurable features of the system.
One-Dimensional Time Independent Schrödinger Wave Equation
The Schrödinger wave equation for a particle of mass m confined to move along the x axis and
interacting with its environment through a potential energy function U(x) is
d 2ψ 2m
2
+ 2 ( E −U )ψ = 0
dx
where E is a constant equal to the total energy of the system (the particle and its environment).
If the potential energy function U for a system is known, we can solve the above equation and hence
obtain the wave functions and energies for the allowed states of the system.
Derivation of One-Dimensional Time Independent Schrödinger Wave Equation
In the classical physics, a one-dimensional plane wave, having wave function ψ and speed v, can
be represented an equation:
 2 1 
2
 2 1   =0
2
=  − -------- (1)
x 2 v 2 t 2 x 2 v 2 t 2
This is a second-order partial differential equation whose general solution can be written as:
 = Aei ( kx −t ) -------- (2)

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 BAS 101: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Here, A is the amplitude of the wave,  = 2π f , is the angular frequency of the wave, and
k = 2π λ , is the propagation constant of the wave.
Equation-2 can also be written as:
 = Aeikx e − it = Ax eikx At e −it (writing A = Ax At )
or  =  x t -------- (3)
where  x = Ax eikx -------- (4)
is the space dependent part of the wave function
and  t = At e − it -------- (5)
is the time dependent part of the wave function.
 2
Now using the equations 3,4, and 5, we find the value of
t 2

=  ( x t ) =  x  ( t ) =  x  ( At e−it ) =  x At  ( e−it )
t t t t t
=  x At ( −i ) e = − i x ( At e−it ) = − i x ( t ) = − i ( x t )
−i t


 = − ( i ) -------- (6)
t

2
t 2 = ( )
  =
t t
 − ( i )  = − i  ( ) = − i − ( i )  = + i2 2
t t

( using )
2
 2 = − i2 = − 1
2
t
Putting this value in the equation 1, we get:
 2  2  2
− 12 ( −  2 ) = 0  + 2  =0 -------- (7)
x 2
v x
2
v
2 f
But  = = 2 = 2 = 2 = p
2
p p
= 
v f  h p h 2 2
v 2

Also, total energy of a particle is E = K + U

p2 p2
or E = +U  = E − U  p 2 = 2m ( E − U )
2m 2m
 2 = p = 2m ( E − U )   2 = 2m ( E − U ) -------- (8)
2

v2 2 2
v2 2

Using equation 8 in the equation 7, we get:

 2 2m
+ 2 ( E − U ) = 0
x 2
  2 ( x  t ) + 2m
2

2 (
E − U ) ( x  t ) = 0
x

 t
 2 x
x 2  2 (
+ 2m 
E − U )  x t = 0

 t 
  2 x
 x
2  2 (
+ 2m 
E−U ) x  =0


As  t  0
d 2 x 2m
 + 2 ( E − U ) x = 0
dx 2
This is the one-dimensional time independent Schrödinger wave equation.

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 BAS 101: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

In three dimensions the above equation can be written as:

2 
  2 (r ) + 2m E − U (r ) (r ) = 0

Derivation of One-Dimensional Time Dependent Schrödinger Wave Equation

Now, from Plank’s hypothesis, the energy of a photon is given by:
E= h f =    = E
and using de-Broglie’s hypothesis, the linear momentum of a particle can be written as:
=h p  p=h   p= k  k = p
Using above relations in equations 4 and 5, we get:
 x = Ax eipx -------- (9)
and  t = At e − iEt -------- (10)
Now finding the partial derivatives of ψ wrt time and space:
 
= (  ) =  x  ( t ) =  x  ( Ae −iEt
) =  x At t ( e−iEt )
t t x t t t t
( )
=  x At −iE e−iEt = −iE  x ( Ae
t
−iEt
) = −iE  x ( t ) = −iE ( x t )


t
= − iE   − ( i ) t = E  i2 ( i ) t = E ( using i2 = − 1 )
ψ
 Eψ = i -------- (11)
t

x
=  ( x t ) =  t  ( x ) =  t  ( Ax eipx
x x x ) =  t Ax  ( eipx ) =  t Ax ip eipx
x ( )
=  t ( Ax eipx ) =  t ( x ) =
ip ip ip
( x t )


x ( )
= ip 

=  (  ) =  ( ip )  = ( ip )  = ( ip )( ip )
 2 2  p2 
( i2 = − 1)
2
 =  i p2  = −  2 
x x x
2
x x    
2
 p2 = − 2

x2
2  2ψ
p2
 ψ =− -------- (12)
2m 2m x2
p2 p2
The total energy of a particle is given as E = K +U and K=  E= +U
2m 2m
where K is the kinetic energy and U is the potential energy of the particle.
Writing the above relation in terms of the wave function, we get:
p2
Eψ = ψ +Uψ
2m
Using equations 11 and 12 in the above relation, we get:
ψ 2  2ψ
i =− +Uψ
t 2m x2
This is the one-dimensional time dependent Schrödinger wave equation.
In three dimensions the above equation can be written as:
ψ 2
i =− 2ψ +Uψ
t 2m

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 BAS 101: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Particle in a Box (or Particle in an Infinite Potential Well)

In quantum physics, a particle in a box refers to a system in which a particle is confined to move in
a box whose walls are impenetrable. For such a system, the potential energy of the particle is zero
inside the box and it is infinite outside the box.
For simplicity, we consider a particle that is confined to move only along x axis in the interval
0  x  L. Such a system is referred to as particle in a one-dimensional box with impenetrable walls
separated by a distance L. From a classical viewpoint, if a particle is bouncing elastically back and
forth along the x axis between two impenetrable walls, it can be modelled as a particle under
constant speed. If the speed of the particle is u, the magnitude of its momentum mu remains constant
as does its kinetic energy. Classical physics places no restrictions on the values of a particle’s
momentum and energy. The quantum-mechanical approach to this problem is quite different and
requires that we find the appropriate wave function consistent with the conditions of the situation.
Mathematical Analysis for a Particle in a Box:
Consider a particle of mass m bouncing elastically back and forth along the x axis between two
impenetrable walls, separated by a distance L, inside a one-dimensional box.
Boundary Conditions on Particles
Because the walls are impenetrable, there is zero probability of finding the particle outside the box
so the acceptable wave function (x) must be zero outside the walls. Further, this wave function
must be continuous in space and hence, it must also be zero at the walls.
  ( x ) = 0 for x  0 and x  L   = 0 if x = 0 and x = L.
The potential energy of the particle is zero inside the box and it is infinite outside the box.
 U ( x ) = 0 for 0  x  L and U ( x ) =  for x  0 and x  L.
 When the particle is inside the box, the Schrödinger wave equation becomes:
d 2ψ 2mE
+ 2 ψ=0 ( U = 0 inside the box )
dx 2
d 2ψ
Let 2mE = k 2
, then the above equation can be written as : + k 2ψ = 0
ћ 2
dx 2

The general solution of this equation is : ψ = A sinkx + B cos kx

where A and B are constants determined by using boundary conditons .
ψ = 0 at x = 0  0 = A sin ( k×0 ) + B cos ( k×0 )
 0 = A sin ( 0 ) + B cos ( 0 )  0 = A×0 + B×1  B = 0
 ψ = A sinkx
Also, ψ = 0 at x = L  0 = A sin ( k× L )
But A  0  sin ( k× L ) = 0  k× L = nπ
 k = nπ L where n = 1, 2, 3, ...... , is the quantum number.

 The wave funtion in the nth quatum state is : ψ n = A sin n x

L ( )
and k = nπ L  k = n π2
2 2
But k = 2mE
2 2

ћ2 L
n π  E = n π ћ2 =
2 2 2 2 n 2
π 2 2
 2mE =  h2
ћ 2
L2
2m L2 2
2mL 4 π
2 2
 En = n h 2 is energy eigen value in the nth quatum state.
8mL

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 BAS 101: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

To find the value of the constant A, we use the normalization condition for the wave function as
below:
+

ψ
2
dx = 1 is the Normalization Condition.
−

Here ψ n = A sin nπx

L ( ) and 0  x  L  ψ = A2 sin 2 nπx
2

L ( )
0 A sin ( )
L
Hence we can write the Normalization Condition as 2 2 nπx dx = 1.
L

(L)
L
 A2  sin 2 nπx dx = 1 ( A is constant )
0

( L )
L
A 1− cos 2nπx  dx = 1
2
( cos 2 = 1 − 2 sin  )
2  
 2

 ( L ) 
A  dx − cos 2nπx dx  = 1
L L
2

2  
 
0 0

( 2nπ )sin( 2nπ×L L ) − sin( 2nπ×0

A L − L
L )
=1
2

2 

( 2nπ )
A  L − L sin( 2nπ ) − sin( 0 ) = 1
2

2  

( 2nπ ) 
A  L − L 0 − 0 = 1  A  L − 0  = 1
2 2

2  2

 A2 = 2  A= 2
L L
 For a particle in the box the eigen function in the nth quantum state can be expressed as:
ψn = 2 sin n x
L L ( )

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 BAS 101: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Solved Problems:
1. State the Wien’s Displacement Law.
According to the Wien’s Displacement Law, higher the temperature of the blackbody, smaller
is the wavelength of the most intense radiation. Thus,
λm  1 T or λm T = b ,
Here, λm is the wavelength corresponding to peak intensity, T is equilibrium temperature of the
blackbody, and b = 2.898 × 10−3 m.K, is the Wein’s displacement constant.

2. The wavelength of the most intense radiation from a distant star has been observed to
be 724.5 nm. Estimate the surface temperature of the star in degree Celsius.
Sol: According to the Wien’s Displacement Law,
λm T = b where b = 2.898  10 − 3 m.K , is the Wein's displacement constant.
 T = b λm
Here, for the given star, the wavelength of most intense radiation is :
λm = 724.5 nm = 724.5 ×10−9 m
 The temperature of the given star is :
2.898×10−3
T = = 4000 K = ( 4000 - 273.15 ) °C = 3726.85 °C
724.5 ×10−9

Q.1 The radius of our Sun is 6.96 108 m and its total power output is 3.85  1026 W.
Assuming that the Sun’s surface emits as a black body, calculate:
(a) its surface temperature and
(b) max for the radiation from the Sun.
Sol: ( a ) The surface area of Sun is :
A = 4πR 2 = 4× 3.1416× ( 6.96×108 ) = 6.08735 × 10 18 m 2
2

P
The total power radiated by a body is P = σAeT 4  T 4 =
σAe
14
 
14
 P  3.85 × 1026
= (1.115448  1015 )
14
 T =   =  
 σAe   5.670 × 10−8 × 6.08735 × 1018 × 1 
 Surface temperature of the Sun, T = 5779.13 K
( b ) Wein's displacement law gives, maxT = b
2.898 × 10−
 max = bT = = 5.014596 × 10− m = 501.46 nm
5779.13

3. A cylinder of length 10 cm and radius 2 cm is heated to a temperature of 450°C. Find the

power radiated by it if its emissivity is 85% of that of a black body.
Ans: (a) The total power of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by an object is proportional to
the surface area of the object and to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. This is called
Stefan–Boltzmann Law.
Sol: ( b ) The surface area of the cylinder is :
A = A1 + A2 + A3 = 2πrl + πr 2 + πr 2 = 2πr ( l + r )
 A = 2× 3.1416× 2× 10− (10× 10 − + 2× 10 − ) = 0.01507968 m 2
The total power radiated by a body is P = σAeT 4
 P = 5.670 × 10−8  0.01507968  0.85  ( 723.15 ) = 198.75 W
4

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 BAS 101: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

4. Find the peak wavelength of the blackbody radiation emitted by the human body when
the skin temperature is 35°C.
Sol: The peak wavelength of the thermal radiation emitted from the surface of any object is
related to its surface temperature through Wien’s displacement law as:
λm T = b where b = 2.898  10 − 3 m.K , is the Wein's displacement constant.
 λm = b T
Here, T = 35 °C = 35 + 273.15 K = 308.15 K
2.898×10−3
 λm = = 9.4045×10− 6 m = 9.405  m
308.15

5. A 0.00415 nm photon scatters from a free electron that is initially at rest. For what
scattering angle does the kinetic energy of recoiling electron equal to the energy of the
scattered photon?
Sol: In the Compton scattering, the incident photon undergoes an elastic collision with a free
electron, initially at rest. Hence the total energy and the total linear momentum are conserved
in the scattering process. If E0 and E′ respectively are the energies of the incident and the
scattered photons and K is the relativistic kinetic energy of the recoiling electron, then from the
law conservation of energy, E0 = E′ + K
Here, given that K = E′ ⇒ E0 = E′ + E′ ⇒ E0 = 2 E′
But using Plank’s hypothesis, we can write:
Eo = hf o = hc λo and E  = hf  = hc λ
hc hc
 =2  λ = 2λo (1)
λo λ
The Compton shift is given as: Δλ = λc ( 1 − cosθ )

where  = (   − o ) and c = 2.43 pm = 0.00243 nm

     
 cosθ =  1 −   θ = cos −1  1 − (2)
 c   c 
But,  = (   − o ) = ( 2λo − o ) = λo = 0.00415 nm. (using equation -1)
 0.00415 
 θ = cos −1  1 −  = cos (1 − 1.70781893) = cos ( − 0.70781893)
−1 −1

 0.00243 
 θ = 135.0577 °

QUESTIONS:
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS
1. Explain:
(a) Stefan Boltzmann law. [2]
(b) Wien’s displacement law. [2]
(c) Planck’s radiation law. [2]
2. Sketch schematically the wavelength vs radiation-intensity graph for a blackbody. [1]
3. Write the Planck’s hypothesis of blackbody radiation. [2]

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 BAS 101: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

PROBLEMS
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS
1. Find the peak wavelength of the blackbody radiation emitted by each of the following:
a. The tungsten filament of a light bulb, which operates at 2000 K.
b. The Sun, which has a surface temperature of about 5800 K.
Ans: 1.45 μm, 0.500 μm
2. The human eye is most sensitive to 560 nm light. What is the temperature of a black body
that would radiate most intensely at this wavelength? Ans: 5180 K
3. The radius of our Sun is 6.96×108 m and its total power output is 3.85×1026 W. Assuming
that the Sun’s surface emits as a black body, (a) calculate its surface temperature and (b)
using this result, find max for the Sun. Ans: 5750 K, 504 nm

4. Calculate the energy in electron volts, of a photon whose frequency is (a) 620 THz,
(b) 3.10 GHz, (c) 46.0 MHz. (d) Determine the corresponding wavelengths for these
photons and state the classification of each on the electromagnetic spectrum.
Ans: 2.57 eV, 1.28×10–5 eV, 1.91×10–7 eV, 484 nm, 9.68 cm, 6.52 m
5. An FM radio transmitter has a power output of 150 kW and operates at a frequency of 99.7
MHz. How many photons per second does the transmitter emit? Ans: 2.27×1030 photons/s

1 X-rays of wavelength o = 0.20 nm are scattered from a block of graphite. The scattered
X-rays are observed at an angle of 45° to the incident beam. Calculate their wavelength.
Does the wavelength of the scattered X-rays increase or decrease as the scattering angle 
increase? Ans: 0.200710 nm, increases
2 Calculate the energy and momentum of a photon of wavelength 700 nm.
Ans: 1.78 eV, 9.47×10–28kg.m/s
3 Calculate the energy in electron volts, of a photon whose frequency is (a) 620.0 THz, (b)
3.100 GHz, (c) 46.00 MHz, (d) Determine the corresponding wavelengths for these photons
and state the classification of each on the electromagnetic spectrum.
Ans: 2.564 eV, 1.283×10–5 eV, 1.91×10–7 eV, 484 nm, 9.68 cm, 6.52 m
4 A 0.00160 nm photon scatters from a free electron that is initially at rest. For what
scattering angle does the kinetic energy of recoiling electron equal to the energy of the
scattered photon? Ans: 70°
5 A 0.880 MeV photon is scattered by a free electron, initially at rest, such that the recoiling
angle of the electron is equal to scattering angle of the photon ( = ). (a) Find the angles
 and . (b) Determine the energy and momentum of the recoiling electron and scattered
photon. Ans: 43°, 43°, 0.602 MeV, 0.278 MeV, 3.21×10–22 kg.m/s

6 Calculate the de Broglie wavelength for an electron moving at 1.0107 m/s and a rock of
mass 50 g is thrown with a speed of 40 m/s. Ans: 7.28×10–11 m, 3.3×10–34 m
7 A particle of charge q and mass m has been accelerated from rest to a nonrelativistic speed
through a potential difference of V. Find an expression for its de Broglie wavelength.
ℎ
Ans: 𝜆 =
√2 𝑚 𝑞 𝛥𝑣

8 An electron has a kinetic energy of 3.0 eV. Find its wavelength. Also find the wavelength
of a photon having the same energy. Ans: 7.09×10–10 m, 4.14×10–7 m

AKTU Notes by Dr Amit Misra 18