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Food Processing Technology
For Wen and Molly
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science,
Technology and Nutrition
Food Processing
Technology
Principles and Practice
Fourth Edition
P.J. Fellows
Consultant Food Technologist
Biography xi
Acknowledgements xiii
Introduction xv
11 Pasteurisation 563
11.1 Theory 563
11.2 Equipment 569
11.3 Effects on foods 578
References 578
Recommended further reading 580
15 Smoking 717
15.1 Theory 717
15.2 Processing 722
15.3 Effects on foods 726
15.4 Effects on microorganisms 728
References 730
Recommended further reading 732
21 Chilling 869
21.1 Theory 871
21.2 Equipment 875
21.3 Applications to processed foods 878
21.4 Effects on foods 880
21.5 Effects on microorganisms 880
References 882
Recommended further reading 884
22 Freezing 885
22.1 Theory 886
22.2 Equipment 898
22.3 Effects on foods 915
22.4 Effects on microorganisms 922
References 922
Recommended further reading 928
Index 1109
For additional information on the topics covered in the book, visit the
companion site: http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780081019078/
Biography
I am indebted to the large number of people who have given freely of their time
and experience, provided me with information, checked the text and given me
support during this latest revision of Food Processing Technology. My thanks to
Mariana Kuhl, Editorial Project Manager at Elsevier, for her ideas, suggestions and
administrative support. My particular thanks also to the many companies that
responded positively to my requests for information about their equipment and
products; some of which went out of their way to share their detailed specialist
knowledge. Finally, but not least, my special thanks to Wen for her constructive
support, encouragement and forbearance at my long hours in front of a computer
screen over many months.
Peter Fellows
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Introduction
AD 10001800
By the turn of the second millennium, a rapid expansion of trade and exchange of
foods and technologies took place by European explorers and military expeditions:
for example, in 1148, knights returning from the second Crusade brought sugar to
Europe from the Middle East; Marco Polo brought noodles from China; and in the
13th century the Mongols spread technologies for making kumiss (fermented mare’s
milk), dried cheese and ales made from fermented millet in their invasions of
Central Asia and Eastern Europe. In the 1500s, the Portuguese brought cloves from
the East Indies for use in preserves and sauces, and to disguise spoiled meat.
Spanish conquistadors discovered sun-dried llama, duck and rabbit, which were
eaten uncooked in Peru; and they returned with foods that had never been seen
before in Europe, including avocado, papaya, tomato, cacao, vanilla, kidney beans
and potatoes. Originally prepared as a fermented drink in Mesoamerica from
1900 BC, chocolate was served as a bitter, frothy liquid, mixed with spices, wine
or corn purée, before its arrival in Europe in the 16th century. There it was mixed
with sugar and eventually became the sweet confectionery we know today. At the
same time, the Portuguese introduced chilli peppers and cayenne from Latin
America to India, where they were used to prepare spiced dishes.
As societies developed, specialisation took place and trades evolved, including
millers, bakers, cheese-makers, brewers and distillers. Variations in raw materials
or processing methods gave rise to thousands of distinctive local varieties of breads,
cheeses, beers, wines and spirits. These were the forerunners of present-day food
industries, and some foods have been in continuous production for nearly 800 years
by the same communities. During this period, mechanical processing equipment
using water, wind and animal power was developed to reduce the time and labour
involved in processing; for example, animal-powered mills were used to crush
olives for oil in Mediterranean countries and to crush apples for cider in Northern
Europe. The Domesday Book of 1086 in England lists nearly 6000 water- and
wind-powered flour mills, one for every 400 inhabitants. The growth of towns and
cities gave impetus to the development of preservation technologies and the
extended storage life allowed foods to be transported from rural areas to meet the
needs of urban populations. In England, Francis Bacon published his ideas in 1626
on freezing chickens by stuffing them with snow. During the 1600s1700s, the
slave trade helped change food supplies, eating habits, agriculture and commerce.
Ships returning from delivering slaves to Brazil took maize, cassava, sweet potato,
peanuts and beans to Africa, where they remain staple foods. Cocoa from West
Africa was brought to Europe and in 1725 the first chocolate company began opera-
tion in Britain. At this time, in Massachusetts, United States, more than 60 distiller-
ies produced rum from molasses that was supplied by slave traders. The rum
provided the capital needed to buy African slaves, who were then sold to West
Indian sugar planters. A similar circular trade existed in salted cod fish and slaves
between Britain, America, Africa the Caribbean and Latin America (Kurlansky,
1997, 2002).
Introduction xvii
18002000
The first ‘new’ food process was developed in France after Napoleon Boneparte
offered a prize of 12,000 Francs to invent a means of preserving food for long peri-
ods for military and naval forces. Nicholas Appert, a Parisian brewer and pickler,
opened the first ‘vacuum bottling factory’ (cannery) in 1804, boiling meat and
vegetables and sealing the jars with corks and tar, and he won the prize in 1809.
The 19th century saw the pace of scientific understanding increase: Russian chem-
ist, Gottlieb Iorchoff, demonstrated that starch breaks down to glucose and a Dutch
chemist, Johann Mulder, introduced the word ‘protein’. Technological advances in
canning and refrigeration accelerated at an unprecedented rate. In 1810, the first
patent for a tin-plated steel container was issued in Britain, and in 1849 a can-
making machine was developed in the United States that enabled two unskilled
workers to make 1500 cans per day, compared to 120 cans per day that could be
made previously by two skilled tinsmiths. In 1861 a canner in Baltimore reduced
the average processing time from six hours to 30 minutes by raising the temperature
of boiling water to 121 C with calcium chloride; and in 1874, a pressure-cooking
retort using steam was invented, leading to rapid expansion of the industry. In 1858
the first mechanical refrigerator using liquid ammonia was invented in France and
in 1873 the first successful refrigeration compressor was developed in Sweden. The
pasteurisation process, named after French chemist and microbiologist Louis
Pasteur, was developed in 1862. Towards the end of the 19th century, increased sci-
entific understanding led the change away from small-scale, craft-based industry,
and by the start of the 20th century, the food industry as we now know it was
becoming established. Technological advances gathered speed in all areas of food
technology as the century progressed. For example, ‘instant’ coffee was invented in
1901, the first patent for hydrogenating fats and oils was issued in 1903, transparent
‘cellophane’ wrapping was patented in France in 1908, the same year that the fla-
vour enhancer, monosodium glutamate, was isolated from seaweed. In 1923 dex-
trose was produced from maize, and widely used in bakery products, beverages and
confectionery. In 1929, the merger of Lever Brothers and the Margarine Union
formed the world’s first multinational food company.
The introduction of electricity revolutionised the food industry and prompted the
manufacture of new specialist food processing machinery. For example, in 1918,
the Hobart Company in the United States developed the first electric dough mixer,
electric food cutters and potato peelers. Most food processing at this time supplied
xviii Introduction
staples (e.g., dried foods, sugar, cooking oil) and processed foods that were used in
the home or in catering establishments (e.g., canned meat and vegetables). The
impetus for development of some of these foods came from military requirements
during World War I. Later, a ‘luxury’ market developed, which included canned
tropical fruits and ice cream. After World War II, a wide range of ready-to-eat
meals, snackfoods and convenience foods began to appear in retail stores. Again
these developments had been partly stimulated by the need to preserve foods for
military rations. From the 1950s, food science and technology were taught at uni-
versity level, and the scientific underpinning from this and the work of food
research institutions created new technologies, products and packaging that resulted
in many thousands of new foods being developed each year.
Each of these aims exists to a greater or lesser extent in all food processing, but
a given product may emphasise some more than others. For example, the aim of
freezing is to preserve organoleptic and nutritional qualities as close as possible to
the fresh product, but with a shelf-life of several months instead of a few days or
weeks. In contrast, sugar confectionery and snackfoods are intended to provide vari-
ety in the diet by creating a large number of shapes, flavours, colours and textures
from basic raw materials. All food processing involves a combination of procedures
to achieve the intended changes to the raw materials. Each of these ‘unit operations’
has a specific, identifiable and predictable effect on a food and the combination and
sequence of operations determines the nature of the final product.
In many countries, the market for processed foods has changed and consumers
no longer require a shelf-life of several months at ambient temperature for the
majority of their foods. Changes in family lifestyle and increased ownership of
refrigerators, freezers and microwave ovens are reflected in demand for foods that
are convenient to prepare, are suitable for frozen or chilled storage, or have a mod-
erate shelf-life at ambient temperatures. There has also been an increasing demand
by consumers for foods that have a ‘healthy’ or ‘natural’ image and have fewer syn-
thetic additives or for foods that have undergone fewer changes during processing.
Manufacturers have responded to these pressures by reducing or eliminating syn-
thetic colourants from products and substituting them with natural or ‘nature-equiv-
alent’ alternatives; and by introducing new ranges of low-fat, sugar-free or low-salt
products in nearly all subsectors. Functional foods, especially foods that contain
Introduction xix
it possible for companies to move their operations to new countries, often in the
developing world, where unskilled and lower-paid workers can be employed. Food
production is coordinated between distant sites and suppliers can be called upon to
transfer goods across the world at short notice. These developments have in turn
prompted increased consumer awareness of ethical purchasing issues, employment
and working conditions in suppliers’ factories, and the environmental impact of
international transportation of foods. There has also been a resurgence of consumer
interest in locally distinctive foods and ‘fair-traded’ foods in some countries.
Much of the change in global food production and processing has been assisted
by international agreements to remove tariff and nontariff barriers, privatisation and
deregulation of national economies to create ‘free’ markets in trade and foreign
investment. The early General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) held from
1986 to 1994 expanded the principle of ‘free’ trade in key areas, including agricul-
ture, where countries were required to reduce subsidies paid to producers and
reduce tariffs on imported goods (Hilary, 1999). Agreements related to investment
under the World Trade Organisation extended the scope of GATT negotiations to
include services and intellectual property (The General Agreement on Trade in
Services), foreign direct investment and copyright, trademarks, patents and indus-
trial designs. This was facilitated by changes introduced by the International
Monetary Fund and World Bank that opened up investment opportunities in many
developing countries and helped the creation of GVCs. More recently, the Trans-
Pacific Partnership has been agreed and there are ongoing negotiations over the
Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP). These are free trade agree-
ments that aim to promote trade and multilateral economic growth from increased
market access and broader rules, principles and modes of co-operation between
signatory countries.
References
Action Aid, 2005. Power hungry: six reasons to regulate global food corporations. Action
Aid. Available from: www.nfu.ca/story/power-hungry-six-reasons-regulate-global-food-
corporations (www.nfu.ca . search ‘Power hungry’) (last accessed February 2016).
Hilary J., 1999. Globalisation and Employment. Panos Briefing Paper No. 33, May, Panos
Institute, London.
Kurlansky, M., 1997. Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World. Penguin, New
York.
Kurlansky, M., 2002. Salt: A World History. Penguin, New York.
Ohlsson, T., 2014. Sustainability and food production. In: Motarjemi, Y., Lelieveld, H.
(Eds.), Food Safety Management: A Practical Guide for the Food Industry. Academic
Press, San Diego, CA, pp. 10851098.
Trager, J., 1995. The Food Chronology. Aurum Press, London.
WRI, 2016. Creating a Sustainable Food Future. World Resources Report, World Resources
Institute. Available from: www.wri.org/our-work/topics/food (last accessed February 2016).
Introduction xxi
Electricity Heat
Steam/
hot water
Microbial inhibition/
destruction by: Heat Moisture Chemicals Temperature Direct electrical Pressure, Gamma
removal reduction energy light, sound rays, X-
rays
Evaporation &
distillation (13) Smoking (15) Freeze drying/ Chilling (21) Irradiation (7)
Extrusion (17) freeze Freezing (22)
Types of unit concentration
Dehydration (14)
operations (23)
Baking (16)
Frying (18)
Blanching (9) Sugar Fermentation/ Centrifugation/ PEF/ Electric arc HPP/IR/pulsed light/
Industrial cooking (10) preserves, bacteriocins (6) filtration/ (7) UV/ultrasound (7)
Pasteurisation (11) salting membrane Dielectric/Ohmic
Sterilisation/UHT (12) separation (3) (19)
PEF = Pulsed Electric Field, HPP = High Pressure Processing, IR = Infrared, UHT = Ultra-High Temperature, UV = Ultraviolet
Figure I.1 Types of processing and their preservative effects (chapter numbers for unit operations are shown in parenthesis).
Introduction xxiii