1.

Physical Layer o LLC (Logical Link Control): Manages o Builds headers for each packet to
frame synchronization, flow control, route them through a subnet.
 Function: Manages the physical
and error checking.
connection between devices, transmitting
raw bitstreams over a physical medium.  Data Type: Frames
4. Transport Layer
 Data Type: Bits (0 & 1)  Key Concepts:
 Function: Ensures data is transferred
 Key Concepts: o Encodes/decodes data into bits. between hosts accurately and in
sequence.
o Electrical impulses, light, or radio o Packet formatting.
signals for data transmission.  Data Type: Segments

o Data encoding into bits.  Key Concepts:

3. Network Layer
o Flow Control: Manages the pace of
 Function: Manages data routing,
data transmission.
2. Data Link Layer switching, and forwarding for multi-node
communications. o Error Control: Ensures data is
 Function: Handles data transfer between
delivered error-free.
two nodes, ensuring error-free transmission.  Data Type: Packets
o Segmentation: Divides data into
 Key Components:  Key Concepts:
manageable segments.
o MAC (Media Access Control): o Routing/Switching: Determines the
o Acknowledgment & Traffic Control:
Controls how devices in the same logical path for data packets.
Confirms receipt and manages
network uniquely identify and
o Forwarding: Moves packets across data flow.
access data.
networks (node to node).
5. Session Layer o Data conversion for compatibility. o Disadvantages: No feedback;
unidirectional.
 Function: Establishes, manages, and
terminates connections between  Half-Duplex: Two-way communication, but
7. Application Layer
applications. only one direction at a time (e.g., walkie-
 Function: Provides network services directly talkie).
 Key Concepts:
to applications.
o Advantages: Optimizes channel
o Manages sessions between apps.
 Examples: Email, HTTP, FTP. usage; error detection.
o Starts, maintains, and ends
 Key Concepts: o Disadvantages: No simultaneous
communication sessions.
o Provides an interface for end-user bidirectional communication.

processes.  Full Duplex: Two-way simultaneous

6. Presentation Layer communication (e.g., telephone).

 Function: Formats and encrypts data to o Advantages: Fastest mode;

Data Transmission Modes
ensure proper data syntax and encryption simultaneous two-way
for applications. These define the direction and method of
communication.
data flow between two communication
 Key Concepts: o Disadvantages: Divides channel
devices.
o Encryption: Secures data during capacity; possible improper
 Simplex: One-way communication (e.g.,
transfer. bandwidth use.
radio, keyboard).
o Syntax Layer: Translates between
o Advantages: Utilizes full channel
different data formats (e.g., ASCII to
capacity.
EBCDIC)
 o Advantages: Suitable for long Protocols
Synchronization Categories distances; reliable.
 Rules for data exchange within networks.
Defines the synchronization type between o Disadvantages: Slower transmission
 Connection-Oriented Protocols: Requires
transmitter and receiver. rate.
setup before data transmission (e.g., TCP).
 Synchronous Transmission: Continuous  Parallel Transmission: Sends multiple bits
 Connectionless Protocols: No setup
data stream without start/stop bits. simultaneously.
needed, with efficient data transmission
o Advantages: High-speed data o Advantages: Fast; suited for short but no error checking (e.g., UDP).
transfer. distances.

o Disadvantages: Expensive. o Disadvantages: High cost,

TCP/IP Model
interference risk.
 Asynchronous Transmission: Data sent with
A four-layer suite of protocols commonly
start and stop bits for each byte.
used on the internet:
o Advantages: Cost-effective and Data Transmission Standards
 Application Layer – Network services for
reliable for shorter distances.
These standards ensure reliable data applications.

o Disadvantages: Slower due to gaps. transfer:

 Transport Layer – Manages data delivery
 Proprietary Standards: Closed standards, (e.g., TCP, UDP).
managed by a single entity.
Bit Transmission Modes  Internet Layer – Handles packet routing
 Open Standards: Available to multiple (e.g., IP).
Describes the number of bits sent
manufacturers with compatibility options.
simultaneously.

 Serial Transmission: Sends bits one by one.