UNIT 3

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Generation

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent analog signals. The
process involves sampling, quantization, and encoding. Below is an explanation of the
PCM generation process along with its block diagram.

Steps in PCM Generation

1. Input Signal (Analog Signal):

o The system begins with an analog signal, such as voice or music, that
needs to be digitized.
2. Low-Pass Filter (Anti-Aliasing Filter):

o The input analog signal passes through a low-pass filter to limit its
bandwidth. This ensures that the signal adheres to the Nyquist criterion
to prevent aliasing.
3. Sampler:

o The filtered signal is sampled at regular intervals to generate discrete-

time signals. The sampling rate must be at least twice the highest
frequency of the input signal, as per the Nyquist theorem.
4. Quantizer:

o Each sampled value is approximated to the nearest value within a

predefined set of levels. This step converts the continuous amplitude
values of the samples into discrete amplitude values. Quantization
introduces a small error called quantization noise.
5. Encoder:

o The quantized values are encoded into a binary format. The number of
bits used in encoding depends on the number of quantization levels.
6. PCM Signal:

o The encoded binary data is transmitted as a PCM signal, which is a digital

representation of the original analog signal.

Block Diagram of PCM Generation

Analog Signal --> Low-Pass Filter --> Sampler --> Quantizer -->
Encoder --> PCM Signal
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Detection
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) detection is the process of reconstructing the original
analog signal from its digitally encoded form. The detection process involves several
stages: decoding the binary data, converting it into a pulse amplitude modulated (PAM)
signal, and then reconstructing the original analog signal using a low-pass filter.

Steps in PCM Detection

1. Binary Data Reception:

o The PCM signal, which is transmitted as a sequence of binary code, is

received by the decoder.
2. Decoding:

o The decoder converts the received binary data into corresponding

quantized levels, producing a discrete-time and discrete-amplitude signal.
3. Regeneration of PAM Signal:

o The quantized levels are held constant for the duration of a sampling
interval, forming a Pulse Amplitude Modulated (PAM) signal.
4. Reconstruction of Analog Signal:

o The PAM signal is passed through a low-pass reconstruction filter. This

filter smooths out the signal, reconstructing the original analog waveform
by removing high-frequency components introduced during the sampling
process.

Block Diagram of PCM Detection

Received PCM Signal
|
+-------------------+
| Decoder | --> Converts binary data into quantized
levels
+-------------------+
|
+-------------------+
| PAM Regenerator | --> Regenerates the discrete-time PAM
signal
+-------------------+
|
+-------------------+
| Low-Pass Filter | --> Smooths out the PAM signal to
reconstruct the analog waveform
+-------------------+
|
 Reconstructed Analog Signal

Explanation of the Components

1. Decoder:

o The binary input data is decoded into corresponding quantized amplitude

levels based on the coding scheme (e.g., binary or Gray coding).
2. PAM Regenerator:

o Generates a discrete-time signal by holding each quantized level constant

for one sampling interval.
3. Low-Pass Filter:

o Removes high-frequency components and reconstructs the continuous-

time analog signal that closely resembles the original input signal.

Sampling a Band-Limited Signal in PCM

In Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), a band-limited signal is sampled to convert it from a
continuous-time signal to a discrete-time signal for digital processing and transmission.
The sampling process involves measuring the amplitude of the signal at regular intervals.

Steps in Sampling a Band-Limited Signal for PCM:

1. Band-Limiting the Signal:

o A low-pass filter is applied to the signal to ensure it is band-limited, i.e.,

its frequency components are confined to a specific range (usually up to a
maximum frequency 𝑓𝑚 ).
2. Sampling:

o The band-limited signal is sampled at discrete intervals. The sampling

rate 𝑓𝑠 must meet the requirements of the Nyquist theorem.
3. Quantization:

o Each sample is rounded off to the nearest level within a set of discrete
amplitude levels.
4. Encoding:

o The quantized samples are converted into binary codes for digital
representation.
The Nyquist Theorem
The Nyquist theorem, also known as the Sampling Theorem, states that:

𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2 ⋅ 𝑓𝑚

Where:

• 𝑓𝑠 = Sampling frequency
• 𝑓𝑚 = Maximum frequency component of the signal
The theorem implies that the sampling frequency must be at least twice the highest
frequency component of the band-limited signal to accurately reconstruct the
original signal from its samples.

Significance of the Nyquist Theorem

1. Prevention of Aliasing:

o If the sampling rate is less than 2𝑓𝑚 , aliasing occurs, where higher
frequency components are incorrectly represented as lower frequencies in
the sampled signal. This distorts the reconstructed signal.
2. Accurate Reconstruction:

o By sampling at or above the Nyquist rate, the original continuous signal

can be perfectly reconstructed from its discrete samples using
interpolation techniques.
3. Efficient Sampling:

o Sampling at the Nyquist rate ensures minimum redundancy while

capturing all the necessary information from the signal.
4. Basis for Digital Signal Processing:

o The theorem forms the foundation of digital communication systems,

ensuring that analog signals can be digitized and transmitted without loss
of essential information.

Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)

DPCM is a digital modulation technique used to encode signals efficiently by exploiting
the redundancy between consecutive signal samples. Instead of transmitting the actual
sample values, DPCM transmits the difference between the current and predicted sample
values.

Modulation in DPCM
The modulation process in DPCM involves predicting the current signal sample based
on past samples and then transmitting the difference between the actual and predicted
values.

Steps in DPCM Modulation:

1. Prediction:

o A predictor (often a linear predictor) uses past sample values to estimate

the current sample value.
o Predicted value 𝑥ˆ(𝑛) is calculated using the relation:𝑥ˆ(𝑛) = ∑𝑃𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑥(𝑛 −
𝑖)where 𝑃 is the number of past samples, 𝑎𝑖 are predictor coefficients, and
𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑖) are previous samples.
2. Error Calculation:

o The difference (𝑒(𝑛)) between the actual sample value (𝑥(𝑛)) and the
predicted sample value (𝑥ˆ(𝑛)) is computed:𝑒(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛) − 𝑥ˆ(𝑛)
3. Quantization:

o The difference 𝑒(𝑛) is quantized to reduce the number of bits required for
transmission. This step introduces quantization noise.
4. Encoding:

o The quantized difference value is encoded into a binary format and

transmitted.

Demodulation in DPCM
The demodulation process in DPCM involves reconstructing the signal at the receiver
by using the received differences and the same prediction mechanism as the transmitter.

Steps in DPCM Demodulation:

1. Receive the Quantized Difference:

o The quantized difference (𝑒ˆ(𝑛)) is received by the demodulator.

2. Prediction:

o The receiver uses the same predictor algorithm as the transmitter to

calculate the predicted sample value 𝑥ˆ(𝑛), using previously reconstructed
samples.
3. Reconstruction:

o The original signal sample is reconstructed by adding the received

quantized difference to the predicted value:𝑥ˆ(𝑛) = 𝑥ˆ(𝑛 − 1) + 𝑒ˆ(𝑛)
4. Output the Reconstructed Signal:

o The reconstructed signal 𝑥ˆ(𝑛) is output for further processing.

Advantages of DPCM
1. Reduced Bit Rate:

o By transmitting differences instead of absolute values, DPCM reduces

redundancy, requiring fewer bits per sample.
2. Efficient Bandwidth Usage:

o The bit rate reduction leads to more efficient bandwidth utilization.

3. Good for Slowly Varying Signals:

o DPCM works well for signals with high correlation between consecutive
samples, such as speech and audio.

Disadvantages of DPCM
1. Quantization Noise:

o Quantization errors accumulate over time, especially for signals with

rapid changes.
2. Prediction Errors:

o The quality of reconstruction depends on the accuracy of the predictor.

Applications of DPCM
1. Speech Compression:

o Used in encoding speech signals for telecommunication systems.

2. Video Compression:

o Forms the basis for predictive coding techniques in video standards like
H.264.

Conclusion
DPCM is a highly efficient modulation technique that uses prediction and differential
encoding to minimize redundancy. The modulation process involves encoding the
differences, while demodulation reconstructs the original signal using the same
prediction algorithm. Despite its limitations, DPCM remains widely used in applications
where efficient bandwidth and storage utilization are essential.
Block Diagram of Delta Modulation (DM) System
1. Transmitter (Modulation Process):
+------------------+ +-----------------+ +-----------
-------+
| Input Signal x(t)| ---> | Comparator | ---> |
Quantizer |
+------------------+ +-----------------+ +-----------
-------+
| |
v v
+---------------------+ +----------
--------+
| Integrator (Σ) | | Pulse
Generator |
+---------------------+ +----------
--------+
| Output DM Signal
v

2. Receiver (Demodulation Process):

+-------------------+ +------------------+ +---------
---------+
| Received DM Signal| ---> | Pulse Decoder | ---> |
Integrator |
+-------------------+ +------------------+ +---------
---------+
|
v
+------------------+
| Reconstructed |
| Output Signal |
+------------------+

Working of Delta Modulation

Delta Modulation (DM) is a technique used to convert an analog signal into a digital
signal by encoding the difference between the current and previous signal samples. It
uses a simple 1-bit quantization process.

1. Modulation Process (Transmitter):

1. Input Signal (𝑥(𝑡)):
 o The analog input signal is sampled at a fixed rate.
2. Comparator:

o Compares the current sample of the input signal (𝑥(𝑡)) with a predicted
signal (𝑥ˆ(𝑡)), generated from the integrator.
3. Quantizer:

o Outputs a single-bit representation:

▪ +1 if the current sample is higher than the predicted value.
▪ -1 if the current sample is lower than the predicted value.
4. Integrator:

o Accumulates the quantized output to generate the predicted signal (𝑥ˆ(𝑡))

for the next iteration.
5. Output Signal:

o The quantized bit stream forms the Delta Modulated signal, which is
transmitted.

2. Demodulation Process (Receiver):

1. Received DM Signal:

o The 1-bit stream of the DM signal is received.

2. Pulse Decoder:

o Converts the bit stream into pulses with appropriate amplitudes (+𝛥 or
−𝛥).
3. Integrator:

o The pulses are passed through an integrator to reconstruct the analog

signal.
4. Reconstructed Output Signal:

o The integrator generates the reconstructed signal, approximating the

original input signal.

unit 5
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is a modulation technique where the amplitude of a
carrier signal is varied in accordance with the binary data (digital information). Below is
an explanation of the generation and detection processes for ASK signals:
1. Generation of ASK Signal
The ASK signal is generated by varying the amplitude of a high-frequency carrier wave
based on the binary input signal.

Components Required:
• Binary message signal (digital input, e.g., 1s and 0s).
• Carrier signal (sinusoidal wave of a fixed frequency and amplitude).
• Multiplier or modulator circuit.

Steps:
1. Binary Data Input: The binary data stream (e.g., 101100) serves as the
modulating signal.

2. Carrier Signal: A high-frequency sinusoidal signal is used as the carrier wave:

𝑐(𝑡) = 𝐴sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

where 𝐴 is the amplitude, and 𝑓𝑐 is the carrier frequency.

3. Modulation:

o When the binary input is 1, the carrier signal is transmitted at its full
amplitude.
o When the binary input is 0, the carrier signal's amplitude is reduced to
zero or a smaller value (depends on the type of ASK: On-Off Keying
(OOK) or binary ASK).
4. The resulting ASK signal can be expressed as:

𝐴sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) if binary input is 1,

𝑠(𝑡) = {
0 if binary input is 0.

2. Detection of ASK Signal

Detection involves recovering the binary message signal from the modulated ASK signal.

Types of Detection:
• Coherent Detection: Requires phase synchronization with the carrier.
• Non-Coherent Detection: Does not require phase synchronization.

Non-Coherent Detection Steps:

1. Received Signal: The ASK signal is received over a communication channel.
2. Rectification: The received signal is passed through a rectifier (envelope
detector) to obtain the envelope of the signal.
 3. Low-Pass Filtering: A low-pass filter is used to remove high-frequency
components and retain the baseband signal (modulating signal).
4. Thresholding: The filtered signal is compared against a predefined threshold.
o If the envelope is above the threshold, the output is 1.
o If the envelope is below the threshold, the output is 0.

Coherent Detection Steps:

1. Synchronization: Use a local oscillator to generate a carrier wave synchronized
in phase and frequency with the transmitted carrier.
2. Demodulation: Multiply the received signal with the synchronized carrier to
recover the amplitude-modulated signal.
3. Low-Pass Filtering: Filter the signal to eliminate high-frequency components.
4. Thresholding: Apply a decision device to determine the binary output.

Applications:
• Optical communication systems.
• Radio frequency identification (RFID).
• Low-speed digital communication systems.

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is a digital modulation technique where the frequency of a
carrier wave is varied to represent binary data. Here's a detailed explanation of the
generation and detection processes for FSK signals:

1. Generation of FSK Signal

In FSK, the frequency of the carrier signal changes between two discrete values
depending on the binary input (e.g., 0 and 1).

Components Required:
• Binary message signal (digital input: 1s and 0s).
• Two sinusoidal carrier signals with different frequencies (𝑓1 and 𝑓2).
• A switch or modulator circuit.

Steps:
1. Binary Data Input: A binary message signal is provided as the input.
o Binary 1 is represented by a sinusoidal carrier wave with frequency 𝑓1.
o Binary 0 is represented by a sinusoidal carrier wave with frequency 𝑓2.
 2. Carrier Signal Generation:
o For binary 1: 𝑠1 (𝑡) = 𝐴sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡)
o For binary 0: 𝑠2 (𝑡) = 𝐴sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓2 𝑡)
where 𝐴 is the amplitude and 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 are the carrier frequencies.
3. Switching or Modulation:
o The modulator selects 𝑠1 (𝑡) or 𝑠2 (𝑡) based on the binary input.
4. FSK Signal: The output FSK signal alternates between the two carrier
𝐴sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡), if binary input is 1,
frequencies depending on the input:𝑠(𝑡) = {
𝐴sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓2 𝑡), if binary input is 0.

2. Detection of FSK Signal

Detection involves extracting the original binary data from the FSK-modulated signal.

Types of Detection:
• Coherent Detection: Requires phase synchronization with the carrier.
• Non-Coherent Detection: Does not require phase synchronization.

Non-Coherent Detection Steps:

1. Bandpass Filtering:
o Use two bandpass filters, one centered at 𝑓1 and the other at 𝑓2, to
separate the two frequency components of the received signal.
2. Envelope Detection:
o Pass the outputs of each bandpass filter through envelope detectors to
determine the amplitude of the filtered signals.
3. Comparator/Decision Circuit:
o Compare the output amplitudes of the two envelope detectors:
▪ If the amplitude of 𝑓1's filter is higher, the output is binary 1.
▪ If the amplitude of 𝑓2's filter is higher, the output is binary 0.

Coherent Detection Steps:

1. Synchronization:
o Generate locally synchronized carriers at 𝑓1 and 𝑓2.
2. Demodulation:
o Multiply the received signal with each of the locally generated carrier
signals (𝑓1 and 𝑓2) to extract the corresponding frequency component.
3. Low-Pass Filtering:
o Pass the demodulated signals through low-pass filters to remove high-
frequency components and retain the baseband signals.
 4. Decision Circuit:
o Compare the energy of the two baseband signals:
▪ Higher energy at 𝑓1 corresponds to binary 1.
▪ Higher energy at 𝑓2 corresponds to binary 0.

Applications:
• Modems for data communication.
• Radio teletype systems.
• Low-speed data transmission in wireless systems.

Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is a digital modulation technique where the phase of the
carrier signal is varied to represent binary data. Below is a detailed explanation of the
generation and detection processes for PSK signals:

1. Generation of PSK Signal

In PSK, binary data is represented by changing the phase of a carrier signal.

Types of PSK:
• Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK): Two distinct phases (0° and 180°)
represent binary 1 and 0.
• Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK): Four distinct phases (0°, 90°,
180°, 270°) represent two bits per symbol.
• M-ary PSK: Uses more than four phases.

Components Required:
• Binary message signal.
• Carrier signal.
• Phase modulator.

Steps for BPSK Signal Generation:

1. Binary Data Input: The binary message signal (e.g., 101100) is the input.
2. Carrier Signal: A sinusoidal carrier wave is used:𝑐(𝑡) = 𝐴sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)where 𝐴 is
the amplitude, and 𝑓𝑐 is the carrier frequency.
3. Phase Modulation:
o For binary 1: Transmit the carrier signal with a phase of 0°.
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
 o For binary 0: Transmit the carrier signal with a phase of 180°.
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜋) = −𝐴sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
4. PSK Signal:
The BPSK signal alternates between two phases based on the binary input:𝑠(𝑡) =
𝐴sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡), if binary input is 1,
{
−𝐴sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡), if binary input is 0.

2. Detection of PSK Signal

Detection involves recovering the binary data from the phase-modulated signal.

Types of Detection:
• Coherent Detection: Requires phase synchronization with the carrier.
• Differential Detection (Non-Coherent): Does not require phase
synchronization.

Coherent Detection Steps for BPSK:

1. Received Signal: The received PSK signal is given as:
𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑠(𝑡) + 𝑛(𝑡),
where 𝑛(𝑡) is noise.
2. Carrier Synchronization: Generate a local carrier wave synchronized in phase
and frequency with the transmitted carrier.
3. Demodulation: Multiply the received signal 𝑟(𝑡) with the local carrier
𝐴sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡):𝑟(𝑡) ⋅ sin⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) = ±𝐴2 /2 ⋅ sin2 ⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)This step isolates the phase
information.
4. Low-Pass Filtering: Use a low-pass filter to remove high-frequency
components and extract the baseband signal.
5. Threshold Detection: Apply a threshold detector:
o Positive value corresponds to binary 1.
o Negative value corresponds to binary 0.

Differential Detection Steps:

1. Compare the phase of the received signal with the previous phase.
2. If the phase change corresponds to a 0° shift, it is interpreted as binary 1.
3. If the phase change corresponds to a 180° shift, it is interpreted as binary 0.

Applications:
• Wireless communication systems (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).
• Satellite communication.
• RFID systems.
 • High-speed modems.
Would you like to see a waveform illustration, circuit diagram, or further explanation of
QPSK or higher-order PSK?