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CHAPTER 7 should be given his entire education in the academy. Upper

EDUCATIONAL REALISM courses were taken in the university.
DISCIPLINISM AND RATIONALISM
NATURALISM The pupils in the lower schools were free but those of
the higher schools had to pay tuition fees, especially in private
EDUCATIONAL REALISM schools.
Realism refers to the philosophy which holds that
education should be concerned with the actualities of life. The curriculum of the verbal or literary realists
Educational realism came into existence as a protest against covered almost all subject matters. The study of vernacular as
the narrowness and excessive formalism of the humanist and a national language and Latin as a universal language were
the religious reformers. used. The study of language should be based on usage. Lower
schools offered mathematics, natural and physical science,
Realists differed as to the methods by which such literature and philosophy, history and geography. The higher
could be achieved. This difference of opinion gave rise to schools offered technical and professional study such as law,
three groups: theology, medicine, architecture, political science, and
 Humanistic or Verbal Realists warfare. For women, vernacular, Latin, religion, moral
 Social Realists conduct, rearing for children and housekeeping were taught.
 Sense Realists These subjects were advocated by Vives.

Humanistic or Verbal Realism Rabelais advocated a very comprehensive curriculum

The verbal or literary realists did not entirely break particularly in physical exercises, sports and games, the Bible
away from humanism. Both the humanists and the verbal and religious exercises, instrumental music, intellectual
realists believed that the only material worth reading was readings from ancient literature, science, history, mathematics
classical literature. The humanists believed that literature has and astronomy.
to be studied for its own sake for its aesthetic value. The
verbal realists believed that classical literature should be Likewise, Milton, proposed the study of ancient
studied not for its beauty but for the information and learning and classics in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldaic,
knowledge of the facts of the past so that knowledge could be Syrian, and Italian; natural science, social science, philosophy
used for the preparation for practical living. The verbal realists morality, religion and physical education for the military.
were especially interested in the scientific, historical, and
social instruction which they could get from literature. Outstanding Contributions to Education
Practical education that would enable man to adjust
Educational Aims of Verbal Realism himself to his environment was the outstanding of verbal
 Humanistic or verbal realists aimed at a complete realists.
knowledge and understanding as to fit the individual
to the environment which he lives. Social Realism
Social realists were members of the aristocracy who
From the point of view of method, the verbal realists aimed for education that would develop the gentleman and
advanced the following ideas: such an education could be best direct contact with the people
 Juan Luis Vives: “Education should develop and their social activities rather than through books.
personality.” The teacher should study each pupil
individually; adapt schoolwork to the abilities and Educational Aims of Social Realism
interests of the pupil, hold quarterly conferences of  Pragmatic Utilitarian. Michael Montaigne, a social
teachers to thoroughly assess pupil’s progress. realist, proposed a broad social education that would
 Francois Rabelais: “Aim of learning was the make a young aristocrat a man of the world. Travel
development of the whole man.” It is the incidental according to him, would be most suitable so that the
method of teaching; all learning is to be made school had very little use. The private tutorial systems
pleasant; learning facilitated through natural became popular among the nobility. The finishing
activities; reasoning substituted for rote learning; schools and the private military academies of today
made use of reference books. are the remnants of social realism.
 John Milton: “Education was to prepare for actual  Social Relation is another aim to prepare and train the
living.” Reading for content and not for syntax; use aristocratic youth to have the right relationships with
of resource person in the classroom; discussions and his fellowmen to achieve joyful living with them.
lectures by academic authorities.  Decision-making was also emphasized to train the
aristocratic youth to make wise and practical
Agencies of Education and Contents Studied judgement, proper decisions, and right choices.
From birth to age six, the child was to be taught at
home by the mother under the supervision of the father. At age Agencies and Contents Studied
seven, the boy had to enter the public day school, which was  The Tutor was advocated by Montaigne and was
the idea of Vives. The academy, on the other hand, was the adopted by the nobility.
idea of Milton. Academy is the private secondary school we
know today. Between ages twelve and twenty-one, the boy

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 Academies was established emphasizing  Six-year vernacular elementary school for all boys
mathematics, good manners, modern languages and and girls, secondary school, and university for
military sciences as part of the curriculum. Mulcaster. Children of both sexes were taught
 Ritterakademie was established solely for the sons of reading, writing, vernacular, English as a subject and
the nobility under the influence of the French court medium of instruction, drawing and music, physical
life. exercises and group sports.
 Comenius’ curriculum was the most comprehensive
Tutorial system was one of the methods of because its aims was “to know all things, to say all
instruction. One teacher taught one pupil. Travel is another things.” Every subject was taught including the
method aside from learning by experience. Understanding and Trivium and Quadrivium – grammar, rhetoric,
judgement were emphasized instead of memorization. dialectic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music
Gathering information was drawn from observation and social and in addition physics, geography, history, and
contacts rather than from books. Application is another religion. Comenius also considered textbook as an
method where independent thinking of the student was important agency of education. He considered four
encouraged. The pupils had to pay fees to the school and to educational periods: 1.) School of the Mother’s Knee,
their tutors. contents was drawn from child areas of interest
things, manipulation, language, and people; 2.)
Outstanding Contributions to Education Vernacular elementary; 3.) Latin school, and 4.)
 Tutorial System University.
 Finishing School  The sense realists considered the teacher as an
 Private Military Academies important agency of education.
 Franke, head of the Priests, organized a group of
Sense Realism schools including a university emphasizing scientific
Sense realist advocated a type of education in which studies; a seminar for training teachers for the
scientific content would be introduced and the scientific Volkschule; the pedagpoium, secondary school of
method used. science and language.
 Realschule, a secondary school was established by
Educational Aims of Sense Realism Julius Hecker in Berlin. Pure and applied science
Four educational thinkers represent sense realism. dominated the curriculum.
Their viewpoints became the basis of the sense realists in
formulating the aims of education. Attendance in the lower vernacular schools was free
 Richard Mulcaster: “Children must be studied but in the higher schools the students had to pay school fees.
thoroughly and the innate abilities respected; make Some schools received endowments.
use of the games, play and exercise for learning
purposes.” For a harmonious society, the natural Outstanding Contributions to Education
tendencies and activities of the child must be  Training of Teachers
developed.  Organization of Training Schools for Teachers
 Development of Textbooks
 Francis Bacon: “Give man dominance over things.”  Internal Administrative Organization of a School
He used the inductive method for learning. To  Ladderized System of Grade Level Organization
increase the scientific knowledge of man about all  Emphasis on Science in the Curriculum
things in his environment.  Teaching of Science by the Laboratory Method
 Several Tested Methods of Teaching
 Wolgang Ratke: “Developed a natural method of  The Use of Vernacular in Teaching
teaching; nothing is to be learned by rote; repetition
must be done as often as possible; Learning by senses Educational Aim of Formal Disciplinism
first then by explanation. The aim of disciplinism was the formation of habits
through discipline.
 Joan Amos Comenius: “The ultimate goal of
education was eternal happiness with God and Agencies of Education and Contents Studied
education should prepare or the activities of life  The Tutor (advocated by Locke but not much used)
through knowledge.” Learning should start from the  Elementary school. Drill subjects such as spelling,
senses; learning should proceed from known to arithmetic, grammar, history, geography, and
unknown. Thus, the aims were religious, intellectual elementary sciences.
and practical.  Secondary school.
 University. Classical languages, mathematics,
Agencies of Education and Contents Studied English, drawing, geography, history, anatomy,
 Model educational institution for scientific ethics, dancing, practical and fine arts were studied.
investigation was drawn up by Bacon and became the
forerunner of the modern research university. To All the pupils had to pass through the three levels:
Bacon, the most important subject was science. elementary, secondary and college. All the methods were
based on the laws of habit formation: desirable habits of

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thinking and acting. Drill and exercise were also used for habit natural laws of human development, free from all that was
formation. Locke’s presented three steps in learning: 1.) sense artificial.
learning (what are sensed should be retained); 2.)
memorization (no one can reason out if he has nothing in his Jean Jacques Rosseau was the first to develop an
head), and 3.) reasoning. The disciplinists believed that the educational theory based on naturalistic approach. Few books
mind could be developed by memorizing and abstract have exercised such profound influence on the theory and
reasoning. practice of education as he attached the formal education and
insisted on nature as the best guide to the educational process.
Discipline was very severe. Corporal punishment as His educational ideas were set forth in Emile (1762), one of
used extensively. the greatest and most influential educational classics.

The discplinists had a limited curriculum. They Educational Aims of Naturalism

believed that the intellectual powers of memorizing and  Preservation of Natural Goodness of Man and Virtue
reasoning developed by offering the proper kind of subject “Man is by nature good and virtuous.” (Rosseau)
matter that could be used in mastering other subject.
 Individual Freedom
Outstanding Contribution to Education To free the individual from the impositions of the
 Formal Discipline. state, the Church, and the aristocratic society.
To be free was a right.
Rationalism
The rationalists upheld the right of each individual to  Create a New Society
his own opinion, liberty of conscience, and freedom of To create a new society where there should be
thought. They believed that man could by his own reason “simplicity, liberty, equality, and fraternity” for
improve himself and his institutions, in order to bring about all. To create a society in which the individual
the general welfare. could attain his fullest fulfillment as a natural
man.
Educational Aims
 Rationalism aimed at developing and individual who Agencies and Contents Studied
could control all the aspects of life by reason,  The parents had to handle the education of their
suppress passion and display of feeling, to live in a children at home.
highly artificial society.  Tutorship was best suited to the educational plan of
 The education resulting from these aims was Rosseau.
aristocratic, creating a class of illuminati. They had
no use for universal education, since they could not History was taught as biography. Astronomy and
accept the idea that the lower classes were capable of geography were learned through observation. Counting and
being educated. weighing things, measuring distances, drawing, and singing
were also included in the curriculum. Women were taught only
Agencies of Education and Contents Studied singing, dancing, embroidery and home chores to please their
Secondary and higher schools were organized under men.
the humanist movement. Encyclopedia, another agency, was a
compilation of all knowledge about science and philosophy Outstanding Contributions to Education
discovered up to that time. Fashionable salons were also  Three modern Principles of Teaching:
considered as agency. The ladies discussed in their salons what  Principle of growth
they read in science, pamphlets, and leaflets distributed.  Principle of pupil activity
 Principle of individualization
All things reasonable were included in the curriculum
and all unreasonable things were thrown out. Scientific and  The Order of Nature:
philosophical arguments were emphasized. There was no  Need
religion. Philosophy, science, art, formal etiquette, and codes  Activity
of self-interest were subjects included in the curriculum.  Experience
 Knowledge
The pupils paid their tuition fees since they belonged
to the upper class. CHAPTER 8

Outstanding Contribution to Education MEN IN THE MODERN EDUCATION PERIODS

 Training of Creative Thinking and Reasoning (Logic)
 Inductive Method 16TH – 17TH Centuries
Education for This World
NATURALISM
Naturalism was an educational movement in Europe. JOHN AMOS COMENIUS
It was the most influential education movement during the 18 th (1592-1670)
century. The child was to be educated in accordance with the

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Also known as Johan Amos, an educational reformer protested against the time devoted to study Latin and Greek
and writer, was born in Moravia. Poverty delayed his and recommended a broader curriculum and physical training.
education. He wrote his first picture book, “Orbis Pictus He authored the “tabula rasa” theory of education – that the
Sensualium” or the World of Sensible Things Pictured which mind of the child at birth is a blank tablet. *discipline: along
led to the use of visual aids in the classroom. His famous area of a subject
work, the Great Didactic gives his theories and procedures of
practical education. He wrote over 154 books in his lifetime, Ultimately, in his acceptance of the existence of God,
even after all of his original manuscripts were burned during a Locke was a dualist – though only barely so; he did not
rebellion in Holland. He was an amazing and prolific educator, consider man to be a divine creature fixed with ideas on
and has been stamped “The Father of Modern Education”. coming into this world. Locke was an empiricist, viz., all
knowledge comes to us through experience. “No man’s
His contributions to the educational scene are knowledge here can go beyond his experience.” There is no
immeasurable in many ways, and, as stated before, he is such thing as innate ideas; there is no such thing as moral
deemed the “Father of Modern Education.” He answered the percepts; we are born with an empty mind, with a soft tablet
question “Is there a way to teach children pleasantly, but (tabula rasa) ready to be writ upon by experimental
quickly at the same time?” in a most biblical and helpful impressions. Beginning blank, the human mind acquires
manner. The various schools of his day thought this was knowledge through the use of the five senses and a process of
impossible. They leaned upon corporeal discipline to the reflection. Not only has Locke’s empiricism been a dominant
extreme, and neglected the teaching of girls altogether. tradition in British philosophy, but it has been a doctrine
Comenius through that learning should be in the home which with its method, experimental science, has brought on
(following thoughts surrounding catechizing that began during scientific discoveries ever since, scientific discoveries in
the Reformation) and thus by parents, which would have which our modern world now depends. 1
included the mother. If mothers, then, were not educated, then
children would not be educated as well. He wrote the book FRANCIS BACON
The Great Didactic (published in 1657 in Holland) that (1561-1626)
encompassed a Christian worldview in learning from God’s He introduced the inductive method of teaching from
second book – nature, and aiding parents in helping their his book Novum Organum. He also wrote the New Atlantis, a
children learn about god in every way possible. Children in utopian society, and The Idols of the Mind, obstacles to man’s
Comenius day were trained to repeat memorized Latin pursuit of truth.
vocabulary and conjugations, but they were not taught to think
well. If one cannot think well, how can they learn or Novum Organum and the Theory of Induction
understand a given proposition? Education for Comenius
stretches beyond the boundaries of the classroom and Already in his early text Cogitata et Visa (1607)
encompasses all of life. Bacon dealt with his scientific method, which became famous
under the name of induction. He repudiates the syllogistic
Some principles Comenius observed in nature applicable method and defines his alternative procedure as one “which by
to education: slow and faithful toil gathers information from things and
1. Nature observes a suitable time. brings it into understanding. Later on, he developed his
2. Nature prepares the material, before she begins to method in detail, namely in his Novum Organum.
give it form.
3. Nature chooses a fit subject to act upon, or first  The inductive method starts from sensible experience
submits one to a suitable treatment in order to make it and moves via natural history (providing sense-data
fit. as guarantees) to lower axioms or propositions, which
4. Nature is not confused in its operations, but in its are derived from the tables of presentation or from
forward progress advances distinctly from one point the abstraction of notions.
to another.  Induction can only be efficient if it is eliminative by
5. In all the operations of nature, development is from exclusion, which goes beyond the remit of induction
within. by simple enumeration. The inductive method helps
6. Nature, in its formative processes, begins with the the human mind to find a way to ascertain truthful
universal and ends with the particular. knowledge.
7. Nature makes no leaps, but proceeds step by step.  Novum Organum, the “pulling down” of “the signs
8. If nature commences anything, it does not leave off and causes of the errors” within the sciences,
until the operation is completed. achieved by means of three refutations, which
9. Nature carefully avoids obstacles and things likely to constituted the condition for a rational introduction of
cause hurt. method: refutation of “natural human reason” (idols);
refutation of “demonstrations” (syllogisms) and
JOHN LOCKE refutation of “theories” (traditional philosophical
(1632-1704) systems).
The Father of English Empiricism (you have  Novum Organum deals with Bacon’s rule for
evidences to prove things) and foremost exponent of interpreting nature, even if he provides no complete
disciplinism (education is based on discipline), whose or universal theory. He contributes to the new
theories, knowledge and political life are still widely felt. He philosophy by introducing his tables of discovery by

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presenting an example of particulars, and by contemplate or record that which is seen.

observations on history. It is well known that he They extend their opinions, investing the
worked hard in the last five years of his life to make starry heavens with innumerable imaginary
progress on his natural history, knowing that he could qualities. In a short time, these imaginings
not always come up to the standards of legitimate gain dignity and are mingled in the facts
interpretation. until the compounds become inseparable.
 Bacon’s method presupposes a double empirical and  The Idols of the Cave consist of
rational starting-point. True knowledge is acquired if conceptions or doctrines which are dear to
we proceed from lower certainty to higher liberty and the individual who cherishes them, without
from lower liberty to higher certainty. possessing any evidence of their truth. These
idols are due to the preconditioned system of
The method of induction works in two stages: every individual, comprising education,
1. Learned experience from the known to the unknown custom, or accidental or contingent
has to be acquired, and the tables (of presence, experiences.
absence, degrees) have to be set up before their  Idols of the Cave are those that arise within
interpretation can take place according to the the mind of the individual. This mind is
principle of exclusion. After the three tables of the symbolically a cavern. The thoughts of the
first presentation have been judged and analyzed, individual roam about in this dark cave and
Bacon declares the First Vintage or the first version are variously modified by temperament,
of the interpretation of nature to be concluded. education, habit, environment, and accident.
2. The second phase of the method concentrates on the Thus and individual who dedicated his mind
process of exclusion. The aim of this procedure is the to some particular branch of learning
reduction of the empirical character of experience, so becomes possessed by his own peculiar
that the analysis converges with an anatomy of interest, and interprets all other learning
things. Here, too, tables of presence and of absence according to the colors of his own devotion.
are set up. The research work proper consists of The chemist see chemistry in all things, and
finding the relationship of the two natures of the courtier ever present at the rituals of the
qualities. Here exclusion functions as the process of court unduly emphasizes the significance of
determination. Bacon’s method starts from material kings and princes.
determination in order to establish the formal  Idols of the Marketplace. These idols are
determination of real causes, but does not stop there, based on false conceptions which are
because it aim at the progressive generalization of derived from public human communication.
causes. Here, again, the central element of the They enter our minds quietly by a
inductive method is the procedure of exclusion. combination of words and names, so that it
 In the Novum Organum (the new comes to pass that not only does reason
instrumentality for the acquisition of govern words, but words react on our
knowledge) Francis Bacon classified the understanding.
intellectual fallacies of his time under four  Idols of the Marketplace are errors arising
headings that he called idols. He from the false significance bestowed upon
distinguished them as idols of the Tribe, words, and in this classification Bacon
idols of the Cave, idols of the Marketplace anticipated the modern science of semantics.
and idols of the Theater. It is the popular belief that men form their
 An idol is an image, in this case held in the thoughts into words in order to communicate
mind, which receives veneration but is their opinions to others, but often words
without substance in itself. Bacon did not arise as substitutes for thoughts and men
regard idols as symbols, but rather as think they have won an argument because
fixations. In this respect he anticipated they have out talked their opponents. The
modern psychology. constant impact of words variously used
 Idols of the Tribe. The Idols of the Tribe without attention to their true meaning only
have their origin in the production of false in turn condition the understanding and
concepts due to human nature, because the breed fallacies. Words often betray their own
structure of human understanding is like a purpose, obscuring the very thoughts they
crooked mirror, which causes distorted are designed to express.
reflections (of things in the external world).  Idols of the Theater. According to the
 Idols of the tribe are deceptive beliefs insight that the world is a stage, the Idols of
inherent in the mind of man, and therefore the Theater are prejudices stemming from
belonging to the whole of the human race. received or traditional philosophical
They are abstractions in error arising from systems. These systems resemble plays in so
common tendencies to exaggeration, far as they render fictional worlds, which
distortion, and disproportion. Thus men were never exposed to an experimental
gazing at the stars perceive the order of the check or to a test by experience. The idols of
world, but are not content merely to the theatre thus have their origin in dogmatic

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philosophy or in wrong laws of names, and based the study of foreign tongues on the analogy
demonstration. of his own. In fact, his whole system was one of induction; of
 Idols of the Theater are those that are due to education rather than instruction. Differing from Melanchton,
sophistry and false learning. These idols are he would allow nothing to be learned by heart. Like most of
built up in the field of theology, philosophy, the men who have been educationally in advance of their age,
and science, and because they are defended he fell into disrepute, and for some alleged fault suffered
by learned groups are accepted without imprisonment for eight months.
question by the masses. When false
philosophies have been cultivated and have MARTIN LUTHER
attained a wide sphere of dominion in the (1483-1546)
world of the intellect they are no longer A German religious reformer, the inaugurator of the
questioned. False superstructures are raised Protestant reformation, who insisted on state-founded
on false foundations, and in the end systems compulsory education for both sexes especially in the
barren of merit parade their grandeur on the elementary level but also, compelled parents to send their
stage of the world. children to school. This provision was considered one of the
RICHARD MULCASTER most important influences of the reformation.
(1531-1611) The discipline he was subjected to was very severe.
He was an English schoolmaster, many of whose His father whipped him till the blood came, and it is on record
pedagogical theories were not generally accepted until at least that he received corporal punishment fifteen times in one day.
250 years after his death. He was educated at Eton, At the age of eighteen he went to the University of Erfurt, and,
Cambridge, and Oxford. In 1561, he became the first in 1505, became a doctor of Philosophy. Having been ordained
headmaster of the Merchant-Taylor’s School, and, after a priest in 1507, Luther subsequently took up the office of
teaching in his own private schools, he became high master at teacher in the newly founded university of Wittenberg. Here he
St. Paul’s. Mulcaster’s fame rests mainly upon his two books taught philosophy and physics. But it was his theological
Positions Concerning the Training Up of Children (1581) and teaching which was destined to almost revolutionize the
The First Part of the Elementarie (1582). He recommended intellectual world. He was the leader and mouthpiece of the
special university training for teachers, comparable to that for revolt against ecclesiastical absolutism. His Translation of the
doctors or lawyers, careful selections of teachers and adequate Bible into the vulgar tongue, coupled with the religious
salaries, assignment of the best teachers to the lowest grades, revivalism that he preached, tended greatly to extend the
and close association between teachers and parents. He blessings of education to the common people. As religious
emphasized the importance of individual differences in thought became more free, so did intellectual inquiry and
children, the adjustment of the curriculum to these differences, individual investigation extend. This probably may be
and the use of readiness rather than age in determining regarded as the foundation of the German system of education,
progress. which has been looked upon as the model for modern nations
to copy. Luther died in 1546.
FRANCOIS FENELON
(1651-1715) ST. JOHN BAPTIST DE LA SALLE
Francois Fenelon was an activist French educator and (1651-1719)
writer. Fenelon’s success at tutoring the Duc de Bourgogne, He founded the Institute of the Brethren of Christian
grandson of Louis XIV, won him an appointment to the Schools (La Salle Schools) that aimed to teach the poor and
Academic Française, the title of archbishop, and a favored the underprivileged and introduced a practical teacher training
position at court. He lost favor, however, by embracing the program. He was regarded as the patron saint of teachers.
ideas of Quietism (a religious movement that advocated
mystical union by withdrawing the soul from external objects The various educational reforms which de la Salle
and fixing it on the contemplation of God). Fenelon sealed his introduced prove that he legislated wisely. The courses of
fate with the publication of Telemaque, which, in offering study for elementary free schools, technical schools, and
political advice to the dauphin, indirectly criticized the colleges are evidences of his broad culture and wide grasp of
policies of the king. Fenelon was exiled to his diocese. Liberal educational problems. Hence, if the needs of a certain locality
in his political and educational theories, Fenelon expressed in called for special branches, or if the times and conditions
convictions in De l’Éducation des Filles [On the Education of demanded certain advanced studies, de la Salle was not slow
Girls], 1687). in responding nor in giving these subjects a place
commensurate in importance with their educational value. De
WOLFGANG RATKE la Salle, furthermore, displayed his genius in giving is institute
(1571-1635) a distinctive character, that of a teaching body, consecrated to
Wolfgang Ratich (Ratke or Ratichius) was one of the the work of popular education. Thus, he became the author of
next celebrated exponents of educational theory, as well as one a system of psychologic pedagogy that included the essential
of its practical demonstrators. Ratke was a German educator principles adopted by later workers in the field of educational
who initiated teaching in accordance with the child’s nature. reforms, notably by Pestalozzi, Fröbel, Herbart, and others. In
He advocated the principle of repetition to ensure mastery. making the vernacular the basis of all instruction, de la Salle
appealed to the intelligence of the child, prepared the way for
His was the revival of the methods of Socrates and the study of national literature, and opened up to the grown
Plato. Beginning with known things, he proceeded to their

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man those avenues of real knowledge and delight that had Teaches Her Children in 1801. His writings exercised a
hitherto been closed against the eager multitude. widespread influence. His work came to a crucial point in the
history of education, when nations were beginning to establish
With true scientific insight he perceived the absurdity systems of compulsory elementary education.
of retaining Latin texts to teach the art of reading. For this
change he gave the following reasons: Born in Zurich, Pestalozzi took up Rousseau’s ideas
 The teaching of the art of reading, in primary and and explored how they might be developed and implemented.
elementary schools, through the vernacular, is of His early experiments in education ran into difficulties but he
greater and wider utility than by Latin texts. persisted and what became known as the “Pestalozzi Method”
 The vernacular is more easily taught to children, who came to fruition in his school at Yverdon (established in 1805).
already possess some knowledge of it, than the Latin Instead of dealing with words, he argued, children should learn
of which they are wholly ignorant. through activity and through things. They should be free to
 It requires considerably less time to learn the of pursue their own interests and draw their own conclusions.
reading through the vernacular than through a foreign
tongue. “I wish to wrest education from the outworn order of
 The boys and girls attending the primary and doddering old teaching hacks as well as from the new-fangled
elementary schools, can spend only a few years under order of cheap, artificial teaching tricks, and entrust it to the
instruction. Now, if they are taught reading from a eternal powers of nature herself, to the light which God has
Latin text, they generally leave school without being kindled and kept alive in the hearts of fathers and mothers, to
able to read the vernacular, and with only an the interests of parents who desire their children grow up in
imperfect knowledge of how to read the Latin. favor with God and with men.”
Hence, they will soon forget the little they have
learned, and, perhaps, even how to read the Pestalozzi goes beyond Rousseau in that he sets out
vernacular. some concrete ways forward – based on research. He tried
 Reading is one of the most efficacious means of reconcile the tension, recognized by Rousseau, between the
acquiring knowledge. With due care in the selection education of the individual (for freedom) and that of the
of books, children who can read in the vernacular citizen (for responsibility and use). He looks to “the
could spread the Christian doctrine in the family achievement of freedom in autonomy for one and all.”
circle, and, on evenings, read some useful or
instructive books to the assembled household; His initial influence on the development of thinking
whereas, if they could read the Latin only, without about pedagogy owes much a book he published in 1801: How
understanding it, they would be deprived of many Gertrude Teaches Her Children – and the fact that he had
valuable benefits resulting from the intelligent carried his proposals through into practice. He wanted to
reading of a good book. establish a “psychological method of instruction” that was in
 It is impossible for children in primary and line with the “laws of human nature.” As a result, he placed a
elementary to master the reading of Latin texts, special emphasis on spontaneity and self-activity. Children
because they are not acquainted with its subject should not be given ready-made answers but should arrive at
matter. It is, therefore, the part if wisdom to train answers themselves. To do this their own power of seeing,
children thoroughly to the intelligent reading of judging and reasoning should be cultivated, their self-activity
works written in the vernacular. Thus, having encouraged. The aim is to educate the whole child –
mastered the art of reading in the vernacular, a few intellectual education is only part of a wider plan. He looked
moths would suffice to make them read the Latin to balance, or keep in equilibrium, three elements – hands,
fluently, whereas, if the traditional method were heart and head.
followed, it would require at least several years.
Six principles that run through Pestalozzi’s efforts around
This fact proves that de la Salle was a profound schooling.
thinker, a genius in the work of popular education. He 1. Personality is sacred. This constitutes the ‘inner dignity of
embraced all classes, all conditions of society. By making the each individual for the young as truly as for the adult.
free schools popular, he grasped the growing needs of society
in his own day and for all times. No phase of the educational 2. As “a little seed... contains the design of the tree”, so in each
problem escaped his penetrating vision. child is the promise of his potentiality. “The educator only
takes care that no untoward influence shall disturb nature’s
18th – 19th Centuries march of developments.”
CHILD-CENTERED EDUCATION
3. Love of those we would educate is “the sole and everlasting
JOHANN HEINRICH PESTALOZZI foundation” in which to work. “Without love, neither the
(1764-1827) physical not the intellectual powers will develop naturally”. So
In his aim to psychologize education, he combined kindness ruled in Pestalozzi’s schools: he abolished flogging –
physical, moral, intellectual, and manual work. His major much to the amazement of outsiders.
emphasis was on helping children to learn by experience and
observation, rather than by verbalism and memorization. He 4. To get rid of the “verbosity” of meaningless words
wrote Leonard and Gertrude in 1781 and How Gertrude Pestalozzi developed his doctrine of Anschauung – direct

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concrete observation, often inadequately called “sense (1782-1852)

perception” or “object lessons”. No word was to be used for His theory was based on the concept of the absolute
any purpose until adequate Anschauung had preceded. The as a creative force, of which the child’s nature is a part. The
thing or distinction must be felt or observed in the concrete. function of the teacher is to promote the growth of the child as
Pestalozzi’s followers developed various sayings from this: a human plant in the direction of its own inner laws of growth.
from the known to the unknown, from the simple to the He stressed creative self-development and spontaneous
complex, from the concrete to the abstract. activity, making or unfolding the best in the child. He
formulated a philosophy of child development in his
5. To perfect the perception got by the Anschauung the thing Education of Man, Pedagogies of the Kindergarten, and
that must be named, an appropriate action must follow. “A Education by Development. As he worked out his theory in his
man learns by action... have done with [mere] words!” “Life school in Keilhau, which came to be known as the
shapes us and the life that shapes us is not a matter of words “kindergarten,” Froebel not only encouraged play but
but action.” elaborated series of “gifts” and “occupation” which developed
the idea of unity. He was known as the father of the
6. Out of this demand for action came an emphasis on kindergarten (German word for Garden of Children). The
repetition – not blind repetition, but repetition of action kindergarten was not accepted in Germany but it developed
following the Anschauung. widely in the united states.
 The First kindergarten was started by Ms. Carl
And what is his significance to informal educators today? Schurz, for German speaking in Winconsin (1855)
First, there is his concern with social justice and his  The first institution for English speaking children was
commitment to work with those who have suffered within established by Elizabeth Peabody in Boston (1860)
society. He saw education as central to the improvement of  The leading exponent of the Kindergarten was
social conditions. introduced in the infant’s schools of England and
France where some aspects of the theory of Maria
Second, he used his sympathy for peasant life and his Montessori, and Italian professor was combined with
remembrance of his mother’s care as paradigms – as ways of it.
thinking about the form education should take. In a famous
phrase he declared: “There can be no doubt that within the JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU
living room of every household are united the basic elements (1712-1778)
of all true human education in its whole range”. This Best known for his work “Emile”, which laid out s
underlines the potential of everyday life for educators. That naturalistic educational philosophy. He also wrote “social
said though, Pestalozzi force, (in contrast to Rousseaus’ contract” which made him the father of modern democracy.
emphasis on the tutor).
Perhaps Rousseau’s most important work is The
Third, there is Pestalozzi’s concern with equilibrium between Social Contract, which outlines the basis for a legitimate
elements – head, hands and heart – and the danger of attending political order. Published in 1792 it became one of the most
to just one. influential works of political philosophy tradition. Rousseau
claimed that the state of nature eventually degenerates into a
Fourth, Pestalozzi is a classic example of the “reflective brutish condition without law or morality, at which point the
practitioner”. He is concerned with action, with human must adopt institutions f law or perish. In the
experimentation and yet, at the same time, he is committed to degenerate stage phase of the state of nature, man is prone to
observation and reflection, and to trying to make sense of be in frequent competition with his fellow men while at the
experiences and situations. same time becoming increasingly dependent on them. This
double pressure threatens both his survival and his freedom.
Fifth, in his failed experiment at Neuhof he attempted to a
form of schooling that has subsequently appealed to Gandhi According to Rousseau, by joining together through
and others concerned with combating colonialism and its the social contract and abandoning their claims of natural
legacy. He wanted the school to combine education with work. right, individuals can both preserve themselves and remain
The school was to be a production unit so that children could free. This is because submission to the authority of the general
finance their own learning – and in so doing they would be will of the people as a whole guarantee individuals against
under no obligation to anyone. Furthermore, the school could being subordinated to the wills of others and also ensures that
be free from state interference. they obey themselves because they are, collectively, the
authors of the law.
Last and not least, he strove to combat the tyranny of method
and “correctness”. It is ironical that his approach should While Rousseau argues that sovereignty should be in
become known as a method; and that observers attempted to the hands of the people, he also makes a sharp distinction
systemize his thought. It was his commitment to people and between sovereign and government. The government is
their well-being that animated his life’s work – and in charged with implementing and enforcing the general will and
Aristotle’s terms he would put that which is “right” or good is composed of a small group of citizens, known as
before that which is “correct”. magistrates. Rousseau was bitterly opposed to the idea that the
people should exercise sovereignty via a representative
FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST FROEBEL assembly. Rather, they should make the laws directly. It has

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been argued that this would prevent Rousseau’s ideal state German philosopher and educator, who led the
being realized in a large society, though in modern times, renewed 19th-century interest in Realism and is considered
communication may have advanced to the point where this is among the founders of modern scientific pedagogy. He
no longer the case. Much of the subsequent controversy about advocated the culture-epoch theory, based on the premise that
Rousseau’s work has hinged on disagreements concerning his the growth of children corresponds to the development of
claims that citizens constrained to obey the general will are culture through the ages.
thereby rendered free.
Herbart’s position in the history of philosophy is due
Rousseau set out his views on education in Emile, a mainly to his contributions to the philosophy of mind. His
semi-fictitious work detailing the growth of a young boy of aims in this respect are expressed by the title of his textbook –
that name, presided over by Rousseau himself. He brings him Psychologie als Wissenschaft neu gegrundet auf Erfahrung,
up in the countryside, where, he believes, humans are most Metaphysik, und Mathematik, 2 vol. (1824-25; “Psychology as
naturally suited, rather than in a city, where we only learn bad Knowledge Newly Founded on Experience, Metaphysics, and
habits, both physical and intellectual. The aim of education, Mathematics”); of central importance is the inclusion of
Rousseau says, is to learn how to live, and this is Mathematik. He rejected the whole concept of faculties (in
accomplished by following a guardian who can point the way Kantian terms) and regarded mental life as the manifestation
to good living. of elementary sensory units or “presentations” (Vorstellungen).
These he conceived interactions gave rise to a statics and
The growth of a child is divided into three sections, dynamics of the mind, to be expressed in mathematical
first to the age of about 12, when calculating and complex formulas like those of Newtonian mechanics. Ideas need not
thinking is not possible, and children, according to his deepest be conscious; and they might either combine to produce
conviction, live like animals. Second, from 12 to about 16, composite resultants or conflict with one another so that some
when reason starts to develop, and finally from the age of 16 get temporarily inhibited or repressed “below the threshold of
onwards, when the child develops into an adult. At this point, consciousness.” An organized but unconscious system of
Emile finds a young woman to complement him. associated ideas formed an “apperception mass”; such a
system could apperceive a new presentation and thus give it
The book is based on Rousseau’s ideals of healthy richer meaning. On this basis Herbart developed a theory of
living. The boy must work out how to follow his social education as a branch of applied psychology.
instincts and be protected from the vices of urban
individualism and self-consciousness. His theory of education – known as Herbartianism –
was set out principally in two works, Pestalozzi Idee eines
Rousseau’s account of the education of Emile is, ABC der Anschauung (1802; “Pestalozzi’s Idea of an ABC of
however, not an account of education of a gender-neutral Sense Perception”) and Allgemeine Pädagogik (1806;
“child.” The education he proposes for Sophie, the young “Universal Pedagogy”), which advocated five formal steps in
woman Emile is destined to marry, is importantly different to teaching: (1) preparation, a process of relating new material
that of Emile. Sophie (as a representative of ideal to be learned to relevant past ideas or memories in order to
womanhood) is educated to be governed (by her husband) give the pupil a vital interest in the topic under consideration;
while Emile (as a representative of the ideal man) is educated (2) presentation, presenting new material by means of
to be self-governing. This is not an accidental feature of concrete objects or actual experience; (3) association,
Rousseau’s educational and political philosophy, it is essential thorough assimilation of the new idea through comparison
to his account of the distinction between private, personal with former ideas and consideration of their similarities and
relations and the public world of political relations. The differences in order to implant the new idea in the mind; (4)
private sphere as Rousseau imagines it depends on the generalization, a procedure especially important to the
(naturalized) subordination of women in order for both it and instruction of adolescents and designed to develop the mind
the public political sphere (upon which it depends) to function beyond the level of perception and the concrete; and (5)
as Rousseau imagines it could and should. application, using acquired knowledge not in a purely
utilitarian way, but so that every learned idea becomes a part
The education proposed in Emile has been criticized of the functional mind and an aid to a clear, vital interpretation
for being impractical, and the topic itself (the education of of life. This step is presumed possible only if the student
children) has led the text to be ignored by many studying immediately applies the new idea, making it his own.
Rousseau’s more “political” works. However, of particular
interest to anyone interested in Rousseau’s intentions in Emile Herbart maintained that a science of education was
is a letter he wrote to his friend Cramer on October 13, 1764. possible, and he furthered the idea that education should be a
In the letter, Rousseau answers the criticism of subject for university study. His ideas took firm hold in
impracticability: “You say quite correctly that it is impossible Germany in the 1860s and spread also to the United States. By
to produce an Emile. But I cannot believe that you take the the turn of the century, however, the five steps had
book that carries this name for a true treatise on education. It degenerated to a mechanical formalism, and the ideas behind
is rather a philosophical work on this principle advanced by them were replaced by new pedagogical theories, in particular
the author in other writings that man is naturally good.” those of John Dewey.

JOHANN FRIEDRICH HERBART 19th – 20th Centuries

(1776-1841) DEMOCRIZATION OF EDUCATION

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account of his spiritual development that is an acknowledged

PEDRO POVEDA classic of both religious autobiography and English prose.
(1874-1936) Because of his disagreement with Cardinal Henry Manning
Pedro Poveda, founder of the Teresian Foundation, over the wisdom of promulgating the doctrine of papal
was born in Linares, Spain on December 3, 1874. After he was infallibility – Newman did not oppose the doctrine per se – he
ordained priest in Guadix in1897, he exercised his first fell out of favor with the Vatican in 1870, a favor that was only
apostolic ministry among the poor cave dwellers. He restored in 1879, when, at the insistence of English Catholics,
organized a livelihood program for adults and stablished a Leo XIII made him cardinal. He died on August 11, 1890.
school for children. He gave himself to human and social
advancement of the poor and marginalized people. In Lectures on the Doctrine of Justification (1838)
Newman attempted to find a via media between justification
In 1906, he was assigned as Canon in Marian by faith and by works. His emphasis on sanctification and his
Sanctuary of Covadonga. While in Covadonga, he became suspicion of a merely imputed righteousness was marked by a
aware of the importance of education and the emerging trends, return to an emphasis on the imparted righteousness of the
so he dedicated himself to solve the problems that confronted indwelling Christ. His Essay on the Development of Christian
Christian education at that time. He wrote to the university Doctrine (1845) attempts to distinguish between true and false
sector of Madrid where women were just beginning to take doctrinal developments. He suggests a number of tests
active part in the academic life of the universities. including preservation of type or idea, continuity of principles,
power of assimilation, early anticipation, logical sequence,
Modified the past Christian education with his own preservative additions, and chronic continuance. He attempts
Christian Humanism which commits Christianity to the to apply these tests to particular historical instances in the life
upliftment of the and marginalized people. He founded the of the church. In addition to these tests he argues that for
Teresian Association in 1911, a group of Christians committed Christianity to be maintained through the flux of history, it
to the transformation of the World through the Gospel. must have an infallible expounder. A living magisterium was
necessary; and that was what Rome claimed to possess. By
When the Civil War broke out, he was identified as such process of argument Newman became a Roman Catholic.
an enemy by those who wished to dechristianize he schools.
On July 28, 1936, he was shot to death for his faith and for the Newman's other important writings include An Essay
cause of Christian education. in Aid of a Grammar of Assent (1870), a closely reasoned
defense of the rationality of religious belief. He expounds a
He was beatified by Pope John Paul II at St. Peter’s theory of cumulative arguments and the process of the
Basilica on October 10, 1993, together with Victoria Diez, a "illative" sense of moral judgment to defend the moral
member of the Teresian Association. propriety and intellectual integrity of faith. It retrains one of
the most important analyses of religious belief.
May 4, 2003 marked the canonization of Pedro
Poveda by Pope John Paul II in Madrid, Spain. Fr. Poveda was His The Idea of a University is a landmark in writing
declared SAINT. His work is continued by the many men, on the nature of university education, in which he defined the
women and youth in four continents where the Teresian function of a university as the of the mind rather than the
Association is. diffusion of practical information, and treats in training
particular the place of theology within such a comprehensive
JOHN HENRY NEWMAN framework. Newman also wrote the novels Loss and Gain
(1801-1890) (1848) and Callista (1856); The Dream of Gerontius (1865), a
A leader of the Oxford Movement and later a cardinal monologue in verse; and Verses on Various Occasions (1874).
of the Roman Catholic church, John Henry Newman,
outstanding religious thinker and essayist, was probably the The holiness of Newman's life and the importance of
most influential theologian of Victorian England. Born on his influence have led to a movement seeking to have him
February 21, 1801, Newman was educated at Trinity College, canonized. On January 22, 1991, Pope John Paul II, who
University of Oxford. Newman, whose own religious thinking greatly admires Cardinal Newman, declared him "venerable."
had for some time been along similar lines, soon became the
acknowledged leader of the Oxford group, a role for which his JOHN DEWEY
vital personality, fervent asceticism, and persuasive eloquence (1859-1952)
preeminently qualified him. He was one of the chief John Dewey has made the most significant
contributors to the Tracts for the Times (1833-41), for which contribution to the development of educational thinking in the
he wrote 29 papers, including the famous Tract 90, which twentieth century. Dewey's philosophical pragmatism, concern
terminated the series. That final tract provoked a storm of with interaction, reflection and experience, and interest in
opposition by its claim that the Thirty-nine Articles of the community and democracy, were brought together to form a
Church of England, which incorporate the creed of the highly suggestive educative form. John Dewey is often
Reformed Church in England, are aimed primarily at the misrepresented - and wrongly associated with child-centered
abuses and not the dogmas of Roman Catholicism. education. In many respects his work cannot be easily slotted
into any one of the curriculum traditions that have dominated
Newman in 1864 published his masterpiece, north American and UK schooling traditions over the last
Apologia pro Vita Sua (Apology for His Life), a memorable century. However, John Dewey's influence can be seen in

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many of the writers that have influenced the development of students passed the public examinations. At the turn of the
informal education over the same period. century Maria Montessori, a thirty-year old medical doctor,
mothered her only child – outside of marriage.
John Dewey's significance for informal educators lies
in a number of areas. First, his belief that education must Maria Montessori developed a science of education
engage with and enlarge experience has continued to be a based on the observation of children’s needs; she looked to the
significant strand in informal education practice. Second, and child to teach her. She analyzed her observations to uncover
linked to this, Dewey's exploration of thinking and reflection - how children learn. She published many books on how to
and the associated role of educators - has continued to be an understand and educate the child. Maria Montessori observed
inspiration. Third, his concern with interaction and that children under six have an extraordinary power of mind in
environments for learning provide a continuing framework for which they all have a once-in-a-lifetime ability to absorb
practice. Last, his passion for democracy, for educating so that knowledge from their environment; their minds are like
all may share in a common life, provides a strong rationale for sponges and do not analyze what they soak up (i.e., it is much
practice in the associational settings in which informal easier for a child to learn a foreign language than it is for an
educators work. adult). Maria Montessori called this “the absorbent mind”. In
more of her observations, Maria Montessori discovered that
Dewey's Works children have sensitive phases of development in which a
 Democracy and Education (1916). An introduction child reveals an especially strong all-encompassing interest
to the philosophy of education (1966 ed.), New York: towards a piece of knowledge or skill. For a child under age
Free Press. Classic discussion of education for six, Maria Montessori observed there to be sensitive phases for
democracy (‘sharing in a common life') that includes acquiring language, a sense of order, an interest in tiny things,
an important reconceptualization of vocational the exploration of the senses, tactile information, writing,
learning. It remains an infuriating book to read. At words, numbers and counting, manners, and precise
times ideas are not expressed with the clarity they movement. The key is for the educator to observe and identify
deserve; there is repetition; and not enough a sensitive phase and then take advantage of this concentrated
signposting for readers. But... there is gold in these interest by the child to promote periods of intense learning that
hills. comes easily and with little effort for the child.
 How We Think (1933). A restatement of the relation
of reflective thinking to the educative process In addition, Maria Montessori learned from her
(Revised ed.), Boston: D.C. Heath. Brilliant, observations that children learn best by being given the
accessible exploration of thinking and its relationship opportunity to discover and learn by manipulating objects. She
to learning. Dewey’s concern with experience, advocated then for what is now called a hands-on approach to
interaction and reflection – and his worries about learning. She carefully designed materials (through trial and
linear models of thinking still make for a rewarding error) to help children explore and classify, using their senses.
read. Furthermore, she observed the young child’s need for order
 Experience and Education (1938), New York: and the innate need to know where and how things belong; her
Collier Books. (Collier edition first published 1963). classroom design included child-sized materials and furniture
In this book Dewey seeks to move beyond dualities arranged for optimal movement without congestion. She
such as progressive/traditional – and to outline a highlighted the child’s need for movement and repetition.
philosophy of experience and its relation to Children were encouraged to move and learn and not sit at
education. desks all day.
 Experience and Nature (1929), New York: Dover.
(Dover edition first published in 1958). Explores the Children learn in many different ways. A child can
relationship of the external world, the mind and learn directly from a lesson given by the teacher, from a small
knowledge. group lesson, directly from another child, or from watching
another child use the materials. All these observations of the
MARIA MONTESSORI child’s needs have been incorporated into the didactic
(1870-1952) materials and the methods of working with the materials;
Maria Montessori was a unique individual. She was Maria Montessori combined theory into practice. She focused
born August 31, 1870, Chiaravalle, Ancona, Italy to Renilde on how to teach children to teach themselves in which the
Stoppani and Alessandro Montessori an only child filled with prepared environment is central to children’s learning. Maria
strong determination and love. Montessori saw the teacher as a guide to the environment. She
was a strong advocate for mixed aged groups of a three-year
Today the news media would describe her as a person span within a non-competitive environment that would allow
who thinks outside of the box – a pioneer in enabling children each child to develop at his or her own pace.
to learn through meaningful experiences. The culture of her
time, the late 1800’s in Italy, expected her to become a teacher “Education is a natural process spontaneously carried
or a nun – she earned a medical degree. At an international out by the human individual and is acquired not by listening to
congress on women’s rights he presented Italy and advocated words but by experiences in the environment.”
equal pay for equal work. As a new medical doctor she worked
initially with young subjects in a psychiatric clinic and then Maria Montessori traveled to many countries to
with children classified as “mentally defective” students. Her lecture and educate the world on her scientific discoveries and

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method of education. She experienced the misfortunes of both learn by using the manipulative didactic materials to make
world wars and became a strong proponent of peace. She discoveries, develop concentration and self-discipline and a
strongly believed that peace could be achieved through the love of learning. The children have the opportunity to learn via
child. In her book Education for a New World, she wrote, a group lesson, an individual lesson from the teacher or
another child or merely from observing another child working
“... it follows that, if we wish to alter the habits and customs of with the material. The children responsibly tend to keep their
a country, or if we wish to accentuate more vigorously the classroom and school clean and orderly. The Montessori
characteristics of a people, we must take as our instrument the teacher’s role is to be constantly observing and reflecting on
child, for very little can be done in this direction by acting the children and her classroom and to use these observations to
upon adults. To change a generation of nation, to influence it guide her in planning the curriculum and environment.
towards either good or evil, to re-awaken religion or add
culture, we must look to the child, who is omnipotent. The HERBERT SPENCER
truth of this has been demonstrated of late by Nazis and (1820-1903)
Fascists, who changed the character of a whole peoples by Herbert Spencer was born in Derby, England, on
working on children.” April 27, 1820, the son of William George Spencer, an
officious but respected educator. Coming from a family of
Maria Montessori was nominated in 1949, 1950 and teachers (including his grandfather and uncle) he was
1951 for the Nobel Peace Prize. In parts of a letter that she encouraged to learn at an early age.
sent to numerous governments, Maria Montessori summarized
her life’s work: In 1855 Spencer wrote the Principles of Psychology,
which explored a theory of the mind as a biological
“My life has been spent in the research of truth. Through the counterpart of the body rather than as an estranged opposite.
study of children, I have scrutinized human nature at its origin In this model human intelligence was something that had
both in the East and the West and although it is forty years slowly developed as a response to its physical environment.
now since I began my work, childhood still seems to me an Such an evolutionary standpoint on the origin of man alienated
inexhaustible source of revelations and – let me say – of conservative publishers, once again leaving Spencer to publish
hope.” his work at his own expense.
Childhood has shown me that all humanity is one. All children In 1862 Spencer was able to publish First Principles,
talk, no matter what their race or their circumstances or their an exposition of his evolutionary theory of the underlying
family, more or less at the same age; they walk, change their principles of all domains of reality, which had acted as the
teeth, etc. at certain fixed periods of their life. In other aspects foundational beliefs of his previous works. His definition of
also, especially in the physical field, they are just similar, just evolution explained it as the ongoing process by which matter
as susceptible. is refined into an increasing complex and coherent form. This
was the main canon of Spencer’s philosophy, a developed and
Children are the constructors of men whom they build, taking coherently structured explanation of social evolution (that
from the environment language, religion, customs and the predated Darwin’s major works). By this time Spencer was
peculiarities not only of the race, not only of the nation, but achieving an international reputation of great respect. His view
even of a special district in which they develop. on man’s place in nature were very influential and broadly
accepted.
Childhood constructs with what it finds. If the material is poor,
the construction is also poor. As far as civilization is In 1844, his work Man versus the State was
concerned the child is at the level of the food-gatherers. published, outlining his political philosophy. In 1902, shortly
before his death, he was nominated for the Noble Prize for
In order to build himself, he has to take by chance, whatever Literature. He continued to write throughout his life, often by
he finds in the environment. dictation in his later years, until he succumbed to his poor
health at the age of 83.
The child is the forgotten citizen, and yet, is statements and
educationalists once came to realize the terrific force that is in He attempted to compile all knowledge in his
childhood for good or for evil, I feel they would give it “Synthetic Philosophy.” He also advocated the theoretical
priority above everything else. concept, “survival of the fittest,” and defined education as
complete living.
All problems of humanity depend on man himself; if man is
disregarded in his construction, the problems will never be Herbert Spencer coined the phrase “survival of the
solved. fittest,” to describe changes in society. London School of
Economics Professor Rodney Barker writes:
Today there are over 7,000 Montessori schools
worldwide. You can find schools that serve children from Like Darwin, Spencer employed a selective principle
infancy all the way through adolescence. A Montessori school to explain social evolution, but he complemented natural
today has an orderly and beautiful child-sized environment in selection with the Lamarckian notion of adaptation, and of the
which the teacher serves as the guide to the environment. The inheritability of a predisposition to successful adaptation. His
children, with the guidance of their teacher and a large block familiar phrase, “the survival of the fittest”, can thus be
of time to work without interruption (ideally three hours), misleading, in so far as it suggests an arbitrary process

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depending on the absence of presence of qualities over which (Gadotti 20). By making words (literacy) relevant to the lives
the individual or society has no control. The fittest were those of people, the process of conscientization could begin, in
who adapted, and there was in principle no limit to the number which the social construction of reality might be critically
who might make this accommodation. The struggle for the examined.
survival was thus not of man against man, but of man against a
changing environment. The year 1962 saw the first experiments in Freire’s
method when 300 farmworkers were taught to read and write
PAULO FREIRE in just 45 days (15). As a result, the government approved
(1921-) thousands of cultural circles to be set up all over Brazil.
EDUCATOR PAULO FREIRE was born Unfortunately, the military coup if 1964 halted the work, and
September 19, 1921. He grew up in the Northeast of Brazil changed Freire’s life.
where his experiences deeply influenced his life work. The
world economic crisis forced Freire to know hunger and In June 1964, Freire was imprisoned in Brazil for 70
poverty at a young age. He recalls in Moacir Gadotti’s book, days as a traitor. After a brief stay in Bolivia, he lived in Chile
Reading Paulo Freire, “I didn’t understand anything because for five years working in the Christian Democratic Agrarian
of my hunger. I wasn’t dumb. It wasn’t lack of interest. My Reform Movement. In 1967 he published his first book,
social condition didn’t allow me to have an education. Education as the Practice of Freedom, bringing him acclaim
Experience showed me once again the relationship between and a position as visiting professor at Harvard in 1969. In
social class and knowledge.” Because Freire lived among poor 1968 he wrote his famous Pedagogy of the Oppressed,
rural families and laborers, he gained a deep understanding of published in Spanish and English in 1970, but not in Brazil
their lives and of the effects of socio-economics on education. until 1974.

Freire became a grammar teacher while still in high Freire has been recognized worldwide for his
school. Even then his intuition pushed him toward a dialogic profound impact on educational thought and practice. He
education in which he strived to understand students’ received numerous awards including honorary doctorates, the
expectations. While on the Faculty of Law in Recife, Freire King Balduin Prize for International Development, the Prize
met his wife, Elza Maia Costa de Oliveira, an elementary for Oustanding Christian Educators in 1985 with Elza, and the
school teacher and an important force in his life. They married UNESCO 1968 Prize for Education for Peace.
in 1944 when Freire was 23 and eventually had five children,
three of whom became educators. It was Elza who influenced Pedagogy of the Oppressed
Freire to intensely pursue his studies, and helped him to “I can’t respect the teacher who doesn’t dream of a certain
elaborate his groundbreaking educational methods. kind of society that he would like to live in, and would like the
new generation to live in. Educators should pursue “a dream
Freire’s arsenal of education thought began to of society less ugly than those we have today,” he urged – a
manifest with his appointment in 1946 as director of society that is “more open” and less marred by prejudice.” –
Education at SESI, an employer’s institution set up to help Paulo Freire
workers and their families. Here he began to see more
disconnections between elitist educational practices and their SIGNIFICANCE/BELIEFS/PRINCIPLES OF FREIRE
real lives of the working class. During this time Freire also 1. His work “enlightened our awareness if the causes
participated in the Movement for Popular Culture, and and consequences of human suffering, and about the
supported the active exercise of democracy in lectures and in need to develop an ethical and utopian pedagogy for
Ph.D. theses, “Present-day Education in Brazil,” written in social change.”
1959. His convictions would earn him the title of “traitor.” 2. Freire believed that education could improve the
human condition and counter the psychological
Freire’s pedagogy of literacy education involves not effects of oppression.
only reading the word, but also reading the world. This 3. His goal in educating the oppressed was
involves the development of critical consciousness (a process humanization.
known in Portuguese as conscientização). The formation of 4. Freire’s work has been considered quite controversial
critical consciousness allows people to question the nature of over the years. Pedagogy of the Oppressed describes
their historical and social situation – to read their world – with what he terms as liberatory educator in which he
the goal of acting as subjects in the creation of a democratic focuses on the education of adults.
society (which was new for Brazil at that time). For education, 5. The world is broken into a dichotomy of two parts,
Freire implies a dialogic exchange between teachers and the oppressed and the oppressors. He believes that the
students, where both learn, both question, both reflect and both oppressed are kept in their oppressed condition
participate in meaning-making. primarily through the pedagogy of banking
education. In the banking education method, the
Concretely, this pedagogy begins with the teacher oppressed are seen a passive learner whose minds are
mingling among the community, asking questions of the empty slates which are to be filled with preselected,
people and gathering a list of words used in their daily lives. predetermined knowledge. Oppressors treat the
The teacher was to begin to understand the social reality of the oppressed like objects and use banking to promote
people, and develop a list of generative words and themes negative myths which are then internalized by the
which could lead to discussion in classes, or “cultural circles” oppressed. The oppressed, believing that they are

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incapable objects, submit to the oppression placed on the experience and enacted elements of curriculum
them by those in power. design; very little of the teacher's time is spent
6. Freire believes that by altering this educational planning lessons because the curriculum of study
process, the road to revolution can be taken. comes directly from the learners who are subjects and
7. Liberatory education is Freire’s answer to oppression. participants in their own learning.
8. Liberatory education is based on conscientization 16. Following Freire many literacy and basic education
whereby the learner moves towards critical program incorporated "peer interaction and the use of
consciousness or the ability to interpret problems by 'people's knowledge' as the basis for curriculum."
keeping an open mind and analyze problems in depth 17. Another activity, which is central to liberatory
through discussion with others. education, is praxis. Praxis is a complex activity
9. Conscientization involves “becoming part of the which involves a cycle of action - reflection - action
process of changing the world” by using dialogue and characteristically includes the four elements of
with others who are oppressed. Freire terms this self-determination, intentionality, creativity and
method of discussion as the dialogical method. rationality.
10. The dialogical method features cooperation and a 18. This is opposite to the elements of coercion, reaction,
sense of mutual learning between teacher and student. homogeneity, and chance which are commonly found
Contrary to banking education, where the teacher in the pedagogues which lead to oppression rather
holds all knowledge and the student holds none, than empowerment.
liberatory education emphasizes that in both sides of 19. Freire was known as a philosopher and theoretician
the relationship there is equality in teaching and of education, "never separating theory from praxis.”
learning. 20. That the practice of reflection (on readings, current
11. There must be dialogue between the two parties events, situation and questions) would lead students
because dialogue is the key to changing the oppressed to take action:
from objects into subjects of their own learning 21. "Humankind can emerge from their submersion and
stresses the importance of collegiality and acquire the ability to intervene in reality as it is
cooperation so that both teacher and learner become unveiled." Their intervention in many cases results in
co-investigators of knowledge. “in dialogical theory, political action, revolution and freedom from
at no stage can revolutionary action forgo oppressors.
communication with the people. Communication in 22. He also describes cultural action and cultural
turn elicit cooperative.” synthesis as the act of learning about culture along
12. Freire uses culture circles to facilitate dialogue. with the people: “In cultural synthesis, the actors who
Culture circles are groups of people who are working come from ‘another world’ to the world of the people
together towards literacy by using a process of do so not as invaders. They do not come to teach or
codification and decodification takes real life or to transmit or to give anything, but rather to learn,
relevant human world relationships provided by the with the people, about the people’s world... In
learners to create generative themes. These generative cultural synthesis, there are no spectators; the object
themes are “codifications of complex experiences of the actors’ action is the reality to be transformed
which are charged with political significance and are for the liberation of men.”
likely to generate considerable discussion and 23. The goal of liberatory education is to take oppressed,
analysis.” illiterate people and guide them into humanization,
13. In language learning, the themes are codified into collective empowerment and literacy. It is important
generative words which are broken down into to remember that no one is able to empower another;
syllabic parts and are used to build or generate new empowerment is something that is comes from within
words. A codification is a representation of the and he believes that his method of education can
learner's relevant daily life; a codification could provide the appropriate learning environment and
include a photograph or a drawing, a single word or attitude to facilitate this transformation.
an entire story. 24. Freire repeatedly cautions those who wish to be
14. The benefit of a representation is that is allows the revolutionary leaders that they “must not use the
students to analyze the situation from a non- same antidialogical procedures used by the
threatening theoretical viewpoint while still making oppressors: on the contrary, revolutionary leaders
connections with the situation to their own lives. He must follow the path of dialogue and of
states: "The task of the dialogical teacher in an communication”. With respect to curriculum
interdisciplinary team working on the thematic approach, the curriculum of Paulo Freire appears to
universe revealed by their investigation is to 're- fit into the category of experienced curriculum. The
present' that universe to the people from who she or content of his curriculum is not something that is
he first received it - and 're-present' it not as a lecture, planned ahead of time. However, Freire somewhat
but as a problem. Hence, problem-posing or contradicts himself by stating that the content of
problematization that is relative to the learners' study must come from the experiences of the students
experience is the key to education.” but then it is appropriate to plan lessons if material
15. Teachers are also encouraged to be aware of present is relevant to the learners. So in a way, the
teachable moments where learning can occur enacted curriculum comes into play because it
spontaneously. The "Freirean" curriculum is based in

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became the role of the teachers is very important in emptied of their concreteness and become a hollow, alienated,
promoting dialogue. and alienating verbosity.
25. The decisions that are made about curriculum came
from the students according to Freire. With regard to The outstanding characteristic of this narrative
curriculum definition, Freire would define curriculum education, then, is the sonority of words, not their
as “all the experiences that learners have in the transforming power. "Four times four is sixteen: the capital of
course of living.” It is from these experiences that Para is Belem." The student records, memorizes, and repeats
learning occurs and the experiences become the these phrases without perceiving what four times four really
curriculum in the model of Freire. It is also the ‘lived’ means, or realizing the true significance of "capital" in the
curriculum because the curriculum model focuses affirmation “the capital of Para is Belem,” that is, what Belem
heavily on what each person individually means for Para and what Para means for Brazil.
experiences. The pathway of learning is not just one
direction, according to him because both teacher and Narration (with the teacher as narrator) leads the
learner interact and work as co-investigators of the students to memorize mechanically the narrated account.
problems presented. Worse yet, it turns them into "containers,” into "receptacles” to
26. In Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Freire uses the nature be "filled" the teachers. The more completely she fills the
of society as the focal point around which decisions receptacles, the better a teacher she is. The more meekly the
about curricula are made. receptacles permit themselves to be filled, the better students
27. In his book, Freire reflects the “broad range of they are.
cultural, political and economic characteristics of the
social context in which it exists so that the students Education thus becomes an act of depositing, in
may both fit into the society in the future yet also be which the students are the depositories and the teacher is the
able to change that society. depositor. Instead of communicating, the teacher issues
28. His curriculum reflects this broad range of social communiqués and makes deposits which the students patiently
context in Brazil at the time in 1970’s. Freire receive, memorize, and repeat. This is the “banking” concept
describes his work with Latin American peasants who of education, in which the scope of action allowed to the
were oppressed by a militant government and students only extends as far as receiving, filing, and storing the
depressed economic situation. The students in his deposits. They do, it is true, have the opportunity to become
program fit into the society and yet there was collectors or cataloguers of the things they store. But in the
evidence that the students were feeling empowered last analysis, it is the people themselves who are filed away
by the program to create revolutionary changes in through the lack of creativity, transformation, and knowledge
society. Like the Progressive Education movement in in this (at best) misguided system. For apart from inquiry,
twentieth century, the main thrust of work by Freire apart from the praxis, individuals cannot be truly human.
(1997) was to improve the life of the individuals and Knowledge emerges only through invention and re-invention,
thus society as a whole for Latin Americans. The through the restless, impatient continuing, hopeful inquiry
curriculum that Freire proposes has utilitarian value human beings pursue in this world, with the world, and with
during this time period and in this situation. each other.
In the banking concept of education, knowledge is a
What is it about Pedagogy of the Oppressed that gift bestowed by those who consider themselves
aroused so much heated discussion and that caused it to be knowledgeable upon those whom consider to know nothing.
banned by governments. First of all, this book is a critique of a Projecting an absolute ignorance onto others, a characteristic
certain educational method (known as the 'banking' method, of the ideology of oppression, negates education and
which Paulo Freire acknowledged that he himself had knowledge as inquiry. The teacher presents himself to his
previously unreflexively engaged in. students as their necessary opposite; by considering their
ignorance absolute, je justifies his own existence. The
A careful analysis of the teacher-student relationship students, alienated like the slave in the Hegelian dialectic,
at any level, inside or outside the school. reveals its accept their ignorance as justifying the teacher’s existence –
fundamentally narrative character. This relationship involves 'a but unlike the slave, they never discover that they educate the
narrating Subject (the teacher) and patient listening objects teacher.
(the students). The contents, whether values or empirical
dimensions of reality, tend in the process of being narrated to This solution is not (nor can it be) found in the
become lifeless and petrified. Education is suffering from banking concept. On the contrary, banking education
narration sickness. maintains and even stimulates the contradiction through the
following attitudes and practices, which mirror oppressive
The teacher talks about reality as if it were society as a whole:
motionless, static, compartmentalized, and predictable. Or else a. the teacher teaches and the students are taught;
he expounds on a topic completely alien to the existential b. the teacher knows everything and the students know
experience of the students. His task is to “fill” the students nothing;
with the contents of his narration – contents which are c. the teacher thinks and the students are thought about;
detached from reality, disconnected from the totality that d. the teacher talks and the students listen — meekly;
engendered them and could give them significance. Words are e. the teacher disciplines and the students are
disciplined;

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f. the teacher chooses and enforces his choice, and the HISTORY OF PHILIPPINE EDUCATION SYSTEM
students comply;
g. the teacher acts and the students have the illusion of From the pre-Spanish to the present, the educational
acting through the action of the teacher; system of the Philippines has undergone several stages of
h. the teacher chooses the program content, and the development. These stages have affected largely by the
students (who were not consulted) adapt to it; changing political regimes that have controlled the Filipinos.
i. the teacher confuses the authority of knowledge with
his or her own professional authority, which she and EDUCATION DURING THE PRE-SPANISH PERIOD
he sets in opposition to the freedom of the students;  Educational Aims
j. the teacher is the Subject of the learning process, - for survival and conformity
while the pupils are mere objects. - for enculturation
 Training
It is not surprising that the banking concept of - Domestic chores and practical/occupational honing
education regards men as adaptable, manageable beings. The of skills in hunting, farming etc.
more students work at storing the deposits entrusted to them, - Theoretical/moral and spiritual awakening e.g.
the less they develop the critical consciousness which would worship, laws, codes
result from their intervention in the world as transformers of  Teaching Methods
that world. The more completely they accept the passive role - "Tell me" and "show me" or demonstration method
imposed on them, the more they tend simply to adapt to the - Observation and imitation
world as it is and to the fragmented view of reality deposited - Indoctrination
in them.  Teaching Content
- broad, indefinite and unwritten
The capability of banking education to minimize or - unstructured/incidental
annul the student's creative power and to stimulate their  Evidences to support the claim that Filipinos had
credulity serves the interests of the oppressors, who care an elaborate civilization prior to Western Contact
neither to have the world revealed nor to see it transformed. o Effective Technology
The oppressors use their "humanitarianism" to preserve a Ceramic industry as early as 4000 BC
profitable situation. Thus they react almost instinctively o Predictive Sciences
against any experiment in education which stimulates the Preserved mummies in Central Cordillera
critical faculties and is not content with a partial view of Mountains
reality always seeks out the ties which link one point to o Art and Religion
another and one problem to another. Petroglyphs or Line Drawings in Angono
o Foreign Trade
Indeed, the interests of the oppressors lie in Full-scale trading with the Chinese during
"changing the consciousness of the oppressed, not the situation the Tang Dynasty in 9th century AD
which oppresses them," (1) for the more the oppressed can be o Big Population center
led to adapt to that situation, the more easily they can be 20,000 people in Manila
dominated. To achieve this, the oppressors use the banking o Megalithic Structures
concept of education in conjunction with a paternalistic social
Rice Terraces in Ifugao
action apparatus, within which the oppressed receive the
o Government
euphemistic title of "welfare recipients." They are treated as
Barangay with its council of elders
individual cases, as marginal persons who deviate from the
o Laws
general configuration of a "good, organized and just" society.
The oppressed are regarded as the pathology of the healthy Code of Kalantiaw
society which must therefore adjust these "incompetent and o Warfare
lazy" folk to its own patterns by changing their mentality. Barangay vs. Barangay
These marginals need to be "integrated," "incorporated" into
the healthy society that they have "forsaken.” EDUCATION DURING THE SPANISH PERIOD
 Educational Aim
What is to be done then? Freire points to a Marxist The Royal decree of 1555 mandated these goals of
idea, which is in fact free of any so-called communist or Spanish education in the country:
socialist values. According to Marx, the motor force of history - Indoctrination of Christianity
is not located with any supra-human agency, be it - Promotion of the Spanish language
"Providence" or the "Objective Spirit." Men make their own - Imposition of Spanish Culture
history. In this follow-up book Pedagogy of the Heart, Paulo  Agencies/Contents Studied/Training
Freire wrote: "It is necessary that the weakness of the - the education of the Filipino was focused
powerless is transformed in a force capable of announcing mainly on the learning of the Christian
justice. For this to happen, a total denouncement of fatalism is Doctrine. It was a simple catechism, the
necessary. We are transformative beings and not beings for doctrina, not the same as Christian
accommodation." education in Europe.
- it took three and half centuries before the
CHAPTER 9 Spanish government set up a school system.

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- the Augustinians, Franciscans, Dominicans, - government supervision and control of

and Jesuits introduced the parochial school school thus breaking 3 century church
concept practiced in Europe during the Dark domination in education
Ages. o Linguistics
- the rise of parochial schools started in Cebu - produced the first grammars and dictionaries
in 1565 by the Augustinian missionaries. that led to the development of Filipino
- Subjects other than the Doctrina were languages.
arithmetic, music, and various arts and - "Arte y Vocabulario de Lengua Tagala" by
trades. Juan Quiñones in 1581 was the first Tagalog
- training was done formally through the grammar and dictionary in the country.
visitas which served as the first schools. - Another popular Tagalog grammar was
- through parochial schools established in the “Arte y Regla de la Lengua Tagala" by
19th century Francisco Blancas de San Jose, printed by
- in due time, academic institutions higher Tomas Pinpin in 1610.
than the parochial schools were established.
- secondary schools established such as the EDUCATION DURING THE AMERICAN ERA
colegios for the boys, beaterios for the girls.  Educational Aim
These were equivalent to present-day high To promote democratic ideals and way of life.
schools.  Agencies/Contents Studied
- Colegio de San Ignacio by the Jesuits in - The defeat of Spain by American force
1589 in Manila was the first colegio. paved the way for Aguinaldo’s Republic
- the Dominicans put up the Colegio de Santo under a Revolutionary Government.
Rosario which later became Colegio de - The schools maintained by Spain for more
Santo Tomas now the Pontifical University than three centuries were closed for the time
of Santos Tomas. being but were reopened on August 29, 1898
- the Beaterio de Santa Isabel was founded in by the Secretary of the Interior.
1632 and became the oldest existing school - The Burgos Institute in Malolos, the Military
for girls. Academy of Malolos, and the Literary
- the Beaterio de Santa Potenciang, in 1594 University of the Philippines were
was the first beaterio for girls. established.
- institutions established for higher learning to - A system of free and compulsory elementary
provide the church with centers of learning education was established by the Malolos
and the state with much needed judges and Constitution.
lawyers. - Training was done through the schools both
 Teaching Methods public and secular manned by Chaplains and
- dictation military officers of the US army and the
- memorization Thomasites brought here by the vessel
- other techniques such as moro-moro, cenaculo, and Thomas.
other theatrical performances - The University of the Philippines was
 The Media of Instruction founded in 1908. It was the first state school
- Spanish of university status.
- Latin - Reading, Writing, arithmetic, good manners
and right conduct (GMRC), civics, hygiene
 Type of Education and sanitation, gardening, domestic science,
- authoritarianism American history, and Philippine history
- teacher-dominated subject centered were the subjects for study.
- imposition of severe discipline - Philippine education during this period was
 Outstanding Contributions of the Spanish Friars highly influenced by the Philosophy of John
to Philippine Education Dewey.
o Upliftment of the Philippine Education  Teaching Method
Through Royal Decree of 1863 (Education - Teaching was done through democratic way
Act 1863 by Minister Jose dela Concha) of teaching.
- first attempt of the Spaniards to establish an  Outstanding Contributions of the Americans to
overall public school system Philippine Education (Curricular Programs
- provision for training of teachers through a Patterned from the United States)
normal school attached to Escuela Pia, now - Religious freedom was enforced
Ateneo de Manila University - Development of the intelligence, right
- complete system of education attitudes and habits of children who were to
- free system of education become citizens of the future were
- reorganization of the school curriculum emphasized.
- Citizenship for adults became important.

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- Democratic ideal as a philosophy was  Education During the Commonwealth Period

emphasized. (1935-1942)
- Supervision of schools took the role of After a persistent negotiation with the Americans led
guidance and consultancy. by Manuel L. Quezon, the Americans set up a “preparatory
 Legal Mandate period” to enable the Filipinos to deserve independence. The
- The Treaty of Paris in December 1898 put Constitution for the Philippines was formulated, adopted and
an abrupt end to the newly born republic. subsequently approved by the President of the United states. It
President Mckinley issued his "Benevolent completely replaced the 1898 Malolos Constitution.
Policy of Assimilation" by which America
would assume full control and The fundamental aims of education set forth in the
administration of Philippine affairs. In 1899, 1935 Constitution are:
he appointed a commission to study the 1. to develop moral character, personal discipline, civic
newly acquired territory and this became conscience, and vocational efficiency, and
known as the Schurman Commission. 2. to teach the duties of citizenship.
- In 1900 another commission was appointed
and this was the Taft Commission. Its task Training was done through the public schools and the
was to organize a civil government. private schools (sectarian and non-sectarian).
- In March 1900, the Office of Superintended
of Public Instruction was created with Capt. Curricular emphasis was on character education and
Albert Todd as the general superintendent of citizenship training.
schools.  Legal Mandate
- The Educational Act of 1901, also known - Executive order No. 17 of president
as Act No. 74 of the Philippine Commission, Quezon promulgated the so-called "Quezon
was promulgated to establish a Department Code of Ethics” which laid the foundation of
of Public Instruction to oversee the the emerging philosophy of Philippine
operation of public schools. education.
 Sections 1 to 13 of the Act were - Executive Order No. 134 in 1936 of
meant to establish a highly President Quezon designated Tagalog as the
centralized system. basis of a national language.
 Section 14 to 15 provided for the - Executive Order No. 263 in 1940 required
importation of American teachers the teaching of the Filipino national
(Thomasites). Section 16 provided language in the senior year of all high
for the separation of church and schools and in all years in the normal
state. schools.
 Section 17 created the Philippine - The Education Act of 1940 (C.A. 586),
Normal School, now Philippine approved by the Philippine Assembly on
Normal University (PNU). August 7, 1940, provided for the following:
- The Department of Public Instruction set up a. reduction of the 7-year elementary
a three level school system. The first level course to 6 years
consisted of a four-year primary and three- b. fixing the school entrance age at at
year intermediate or seven-year elementary 7 6 years
school. The second level was a four-year c. national support for elementary
high school. The third level was at first a education
two-year junior college and later a four-year d. compulsory attendance of primary
program. children enrolled in Grade 1
- In 1925, the Monroe Survey Commission, e. adoption of double-single sessions
headed by Paul Monroe was created to in the primary grade with one
evaluate the entire school system the teacher one class assignment of
Americans set up, the first of its kind in the intermediate teachers.
country. Act No. 3162 and 3196 made
possible the conduct of the Monroe survey EDUCATION DURING THE JAPANESE ERA (1943-
and recommended the following: 1945)
 educational reforms regarding The Asia-Pacific War or Second World War
methods and techniques of interrupted the Ten-year Commonwealth. The Japanese
teaching, supervision, teacher occupied the country in 1942 after the bombing of Pearl
training and curriculum. Harbor on December 7, 1941.
 evaluation of teaching and learning.
- In 1927, the American Director of the Order No. 2 if the Japanese Imperial Forces set up
Bureau of Education spelled out the aims the war-time educational objectives in the country on February
for education: 1.) training for self- 17, 1942.
government and 2.) provision of English as a  Education aimed at:
common language.

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- Making the people understand the position - social orientation as manifested by the
of the Philippines as a member of the East conservation of the Filipino heritage
Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere; - training for occupation
- Eradication of the old idea of reliance upon - promotion of democratic nation building
western states particularly the United States - a new thrust on community development
and Great Britain;  Legal Mandates
- Fostering a new Filipino culture based on o The Board of Textbooks was created
the consciousness of the people as Orientals; pursuant to R.A. 139, enacted on June 14,
- Elevating the morals of the people giving up 1947. Its function was to screen and approve
over-emphasis on materialism; textbooks for use in all public schools for a
- Diffusion of elementary education and period of 6 years from the date of their
promotion of vocation education; adoption. Private schools may use books of
- Striving for the diffusion of the Japanese their choice provided the Board has no
language in the Philippines and the objections.
termination if the use of the English o On June 15, 1954, the civil service
language in schools, and eligibility of teachers was made permanent
- Inspiring the people with the spirit to love pursuant to R.A. 1079.
labor. o The Board of National Education (BNE),
 Agencies/Content Studied tasked with formulating educational policies
- Training was done formally through the to give direction to Philippine education was
schools, which gave more emphasis on: create pursuant to R.A. 1124, approved on
vocational, technical and agriculture. June 16, 1954. However, BNE was later
- Opening of vocational schools renamed National Board of Education
- Establishment of agricultural schools and (NBE) by P.D. 1; abolished with the creation
colleges of Board of Higher education by B.P. 232.
- Curricular content was centered on values The Board’s function is now under CHED
roots on love for labor; emphasizing under R.A. 7722.
vocational education; diffusing the use of o A daily flag ceremony was made
Nippongo, and teaching physical education compulsory in all schools including the
and singing Japanese songs. singing of the National Anthem pursuant to
 Legal Mandate R.A. 1265, approved on June 11, 1955.
Proclamation No. 1 o In terms of curricular offerings in all
- Informed the people that the sovereignty of schools, the life, the works, and writings of
the United Sates over the Philippines was Jose Rizal especially the Noli Me Tangere
over and that Martial Law was to reign. and El Filibusterismo; shall be included in
- Made the Philippines a member of the all levels pursuant to R.A. 1425, approved
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. on June 12, 1956.
o Elementary education was nationalized and
EDUCATION DURING THE REPUBLIC (1945-1972)
abolished matriculation fees pursuant to
Even before independence was granted, Sergio
R.A. 4007.
Osmeña who became President after the death of Quezon
o To promote the socio-economic status of the
affirmed the principles of freedom and democracy. On July 4,
public school teachers, their living and
1946, President Roxas reaffirmed such faith in democracy.
working conditions, their employment and
career prospects, The Magna Carta for
The 1935 Constitution continued to be implemented
Public School Teachers (R.A. 4670) was
during the entire Period.
enacted on June 18, 1966. It contains
 Educational Aims
provisions on the following:
Education aimed at the full realization of the
a. recruitment qualification of teachers
democratic ideals and way of life.
b. Code of Professional conduct for Teachers
c. teaching load of 6 hours of classroom
The characteristics are: teaching (maximum load) and additional
- democracy is predicated upon the intrinsic worth of compensation for overtime (25% of the
the individual. regular remuneration).
- individuals realize their capacities best in a social d. health and injury benefits through GSIS.
contract. e. one year study leave (sabbatical leave)
- society is not separated from the individual. after 7 years of continuous teaching (teacher
- democracy thrives on change; it is dynamic and gets 60% of the monthly salary).
flexible. f. one-range salary increase upon retirement
- it fosters persuasion and consensus and rejects (basis of computing retirement benefits).
coercion and indoctrination. g. teacher's freedom to form organizations.
 Curricular Content Stressed

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o To finance and support provincial schools, - ISOSA - In School-Off School Approach

Special Education Fund and local school - CPS - Continuous Progression Scheme
board were created pursuant to R.A. 5447, - PRODED - Program for a Decentralized
enacted in 1968. Educational Development
o The period also saw the rise of Barrio High - NCEE - National College Entrance
Schools, originally advocated by Dr. Pedro Examination
T Orata (father of barrio high school - NEAT - National Elementary Assessment
movement), pursuant to R.A. 6054. Test for Grade VI (Battery of Achievement
o President Ferdinand Marcos created the Tests of Multiple Choices)
Constitutional Convention, to be presided - NSAT - National Secondary Assessment
over by President Macapagal as mandated Test replaces NCEE (not a prerequisite to
by R.A. 6132. entrance to college; 20% of the result is
o Executive Order No. 202 issued by computed to the GPA)
President Marcos in 1969 created the  Legal Mandates
Presidential Commission to Study the  PD No. 1 - Integrated Reorganization Plan
Philippine Education (PCSPE). (September 24, 1972)
- decentralization of the Department of
EDUCATION DURING THE NEW SOCIETY (1972- education, Culture and Sports
1986) - decision-making is shared by the 13 DECS
 Educational Aim regional offices
One of the offshoots of the Presidential Commission  The National College Entrance Examination
to Study Philippine Education (PCSPE), done in 1969-1970 (NCEE, as per PD 146 issued on March 9,
and headed by then Minister of Education Onofre D. Corpuz 1973, required all senior high school
was the issuance of P.D. 6-A (Educational Decree of 1972) students to pass the NCEE as prerequisite
which embodied into law the national development goals and for admission to any post-secondary
the goals of the educational system geared towards their academic or professional degree program for
attainment. The educational aims are as follows: a minimum of 4 years of study in any
 Provision for a broad education which will private or public college/university to start
enhance self-actualization; on SY 1972-1973.
 Manpower training in middle-level skills,  Tertiary honor students (summa cum laude,
and magna cum laude, cum laude) are granted
 Development of the high-level professions civil service eligibility, pursuant to PD 907
and evaluation. issued on March 1976 starting school year
1972-1973.
Proclamation 1102 of President Marcos on January  Department Order No. 25 s. 1974
17,1973 announced the ratification of the 1973 Constitution (Bilingual Education Program) mandates the
through a referendum of assemblies (barangays) on January use of English and Filipino separately as
10-15, 1973. This culminated the work of 320 delegates media of instruction in schools.
headed by Macapagal.  Teachers are considered professionals and
teaching as profession upon passing the
The fundamental aims of education in the 1973 Professional Board Examination for Teacher
Constitution are: (PBET) as per PD 1006 issued on
 to foster love of country; September 22, 1976. It created the National
 teach the duties of citizenship, and Board for Teachers that was tasked to
 develop moral character, self-discipline, and prepare, administer, and evaluate the PBET.
scientific, technological and vocational efficiency. R.A. 7836 that mandates the Licensure
 Agencies/Contents Studied Examination for Teachers (LET) to be
- curricular changes in elementary education administered by the Professional
- focused on education Regulations Commission (PRC) later
- integration of values in all learning areas repealed this.
- emphasis on mastery learning  Batas Pambansa Blg. 232 (Education Act
- curricular changes in secondary education of 1982) entitled "An Act Providing for the
- increased in time allotment Establishment and Maintenance of an
- YDT and CAT introduced as new courses Integrated System of Education," which
- elective offerings as part of the curriculum covers both formal and non-formal
 Media of Instruction education at all levels. This law carried over
Bilingual Education Policy: use of English and the national development goals and
Filipino as media of instruction in specific learning areas. educational aims contained in PD 6-A.
 Educational Programs Initiated  The Act also provided for maintenance of
- Project IMPACT - Instructional “quality education” through:
Management by Parents, Community, and
Teachers

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 lOMoARcPSD|24671982

- Voluntary accreditation for schools, colleges  The New Society officially ended on February 25,
or university to upgrade their standards 1986 which culminated the “People Power
(section 29); Revolution" (People Power 1). Mrs. Corazon Aquino
- Obligations and qualifications of teachers took her oath of office as President.
and administrators (section 16 & 17), and  A new Constitution was drafted by a 50-meter
- Government financial assistance to private Constitutional Assembly headed by Justice Cecilia
schools (section 41). Muñoz-Palma. It was subsequently ratified on
February 2, 1987.
EDUCATION DURING THE PRESENT PERIOD (1986-
present) Section 3, Article XIV of the 1897 Constitution
 Educational Aim contains these fundamental aims of education. To wit:
Education aimed to promote national development o Shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism
and values education. o Foster love of humanity
 Educational System and Curricular Reforms o Respect for human rights
- Implementation of NESC – addressed to
o Appreciation of the role of the national
civic, intellectual, and character
development of the child. Its features are: heroes in the historical development of the
- Fewer learning areas, emphasis on mastery country
learning; o Teach the rights and duties of citizenship
- Focused on the development of 3R’s, and o Strengthen ethical and spiritual values
- Emphasis on the development of intellectual o Develop moral character and personal
skills which are as important as work skills. discipline
- Focus on the development of humanism and o Encourage critical creative thinking
Filipinism in all learning areas. o Broaden scientific and technological
 Implementation of SEDP in response to the need to knowledge
continue pupil development. To meet these needs, it o Promote vocational efficiency
aims to improve policy making and increase the  The government also enacted a new civil service
internal efficiency if the educational system. Its eligibility law, R.A. 6850, February 8, 1990, which
features are: provides for the granting of civil service eligibility to
- Subjects generally oriented to the all government employees with provisional or
development of values; temporary status who have rendered a total of at least
- Specific competencies; seven (7) years of efficient and dedicated service.
- Concept-based subject areas, and  A nationwide educational survey spearheaded by the
- Uni-disciplinary treatment of curriculum Congressional Commission on Education, popularly
content. known as EDCOM (headed by Senator Angara and
 Implementation of the New Secondary Education Congressman Padilla), came up with its report in
Curriculum (NSEC). Its features are: 1991 with the following recommendations:
- Multi-disciplinary treatment of curriculum o the breakup of DECS into Department of
content Basic Education (BSE); Technical Education
- Student-centered and Skills Development Authority
- Cognitive-affective manipulative based (TESDA), and Commission on Higher
curriculum Education (CHED);
- Values education offered as separate subject o establishment of Teacher Education Centers
area of Excellence (CENTREXES);
- Emphasis in Science and Technology o Professionalization of teachers, and
- Uses bilingual policy o Technical-vocational reform.
- Critical thinking emphasized  DECS Order NO. 6 s. 1988, issued by then
 Values Education is offered as a separated subject in Education Secretary Lourdes R. Quisumbing,
the NSEC and integrated in all subject areas in both strengthens the teaching of values in the New
curricula. Elementary School Curriculum (NESC) launched in
 Future Direction for the Philippines - - “Education SY 1982-1983 and in the New Elementary Secondary
for All” School Curriculum (NSEC) implemented in SY
 EFA – mandated by Presidential proclamation 480 1989-1990 under the Program for Decentralized
whose vision is anchored on humanitarianism and Educational Development (PRODED) and
equalitarianism. Its components are: Secondary Education Development Program (SEDP)
o ECCD - Early Childhood Care and respectively.
Development  During the term of President Corazon Aquino, free
o UQPE - Universal Quality of Primary public secondary education became a reality through
Education the passage of R.A. 6655 on May 26, 1988. The
o EOI - Eradication of Illiteracy pertinent provisions are on the following:
o CE - Continuing Education  Tuition fee supplement for students in
private schools, vocational and technical

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 lOMoARcPSD|24671982

courses which charge less than P1,500 into primary and serious consideration the
tuition fee; systems provisions also for guaranteeing
 High school textbook assistance; that it has the students to work on.
 Expansion of Educational Service  Establishing viable alternative between
Contracting Scheme; school, home, and community and local
 Voucher system of the Private Education government - expanded the PTA into parent-
Student Financial Assistance Program teacher-community association (PTCA) as
(PESFA); part of the self-management under the Third
 Scholarship grants to graduating Elementary Education Project (TEEP)
valedictorians and salutatorians; package of reforms.
 Tuition fee supplements to students in  DECS response to the Social Reform
private colleges and universities; Agenda of the government which aims to
 Educational loan fund, and raise the participation of school-aged
 College faculty development fund. children in elementary education, improve
 The government also looked at the welfare of poor the six-year completion in the elementary
but deserving students by enacting the Student schools and increase academic achievement
Employment Law (R.A. 7232), February 3, 1992. in the project provinces.
Students whose ages range form 15-25, may be  Upgrading of teacher competencies and
employed during summer or Christmas vacation with improving their welfare was seen in EFA as
a salary not lower than the minimum wage – 60% of fundamental and long-term policy measure
it shall be paid by the employer and 40% by the to bring about quality basic education.
government.  NEAP - National Educators Academy of the
 Congress acted on EDCOM’s recommendations on Philippines was established while better - in
the division of DECS into CHED (R.A. 7722), May - serve and pre-service training were
18, 1994, which assumed the functions of the Bureau included in TEEP and the Aus Aid-assisted
of Higher Education, TESDA (R.A. 7796), August Program in basic Education (PROBE).
35, 1994, which absorbed the Bureau of Technical-  Internalize EFA's philosophy and goals.
Vocational Education and the National Manpower  The quality goal of EFA is emphasizing
and Youth Council (NMYC). It also enacted into the creative and critical thinking.
establishment of Centers of Excellence in Teacher  Recommendations:
Education in each region of the country (R.A. 7784), o Strengthening the Foundation of Education
August 4, 1944, good for a period of five years. o Priorities:
These educational developments happened during the - advancement of ECCD (Early Childhood
term of President Fidel Ramos. Care and Development) with proper
 Heeding public clamor, Congress repealed the maternal, child health, care and nutrition.
National College Entrance Examination (P.D. 146) by - expansion of pre-school services
virtue of R.A. 7731 on June 2, 1994. - impact of the 8-week Early Childhood
 Along the professionalization of teachers started by Experiences in Grade I scheme should be
P.D. 1001 R.A. 7836 was signed into law on studied.
December 16, 1994. It has these important o Improving the Quality of Primary Education
provisions: - program intervention
o creation of the Board for Professional Teachers - plan investments by scaling up and
composed of 5 commissioners under PRC; institutionalizing pilot projects.
o replacement of PBET by LET (Licensure - DIP (Drop-Out Intervention Program)
Examination for Teachers); Differentiated approaches should be allowed
o transfer of authority of administering the LET from for males and females and for urban rural areas when
CSC and DECS to the BOARD of Professional formulating intervention to combat the low survival
Teachers under PRC, and rate and high dropout and repetition rates.
o the formulation, adoption, and promulgation of the Special children that required focused and
Code of Ethical and Professional standards for differentiated approaches such as distance learning.
Professional Teachers by the Board for Professional These need alternative learning approaches because
Teachers pursuant to paragraph (e), Article II of R.A. of the serious structural difficulty in maintaining school
7836. attendance.
 DEC’s Master Plan for Basic Education Multi-level materials assisted instruction
 Looking beyond the realism of the School feeding with parent-teacher
educational system. partnership and community.
 Strengthening its bonds with its present and - multi-grade-Strengthening this MTG
potential partners. teaching as the norm for difficult-to-reach
 Employing more non-traditional means of areas and sparsely populated areas.
ensuring that children stay in school. - comprehensive teacher education and
 Realizing that the planning of education and development program
the implementation of its program must take

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Upgrade teaching approaches and o Environmental Education - integrated into

techniques through school-based inset by the curriculum specifically in Science
principals and supervisors. o Environmental Ethics - study of man's moral
Teaching approaches which promote active obligation to preserve the environment and
participatory and experiential learning. the natural order of things.
o Curriculum and Content o Population Education - integrated into the
- broad based curriculum review involving curriculum specifically in Science and
stakeholders outside of education should be Social Studies
conducted. o Gender Fairness and Peace education are
- new basic education curriculum integrated in Social Studies
Rationale: o Global education - education for responsible
 To be relevant and responsive to a participation in an interdependent world
rapidly changing world community
 To empower the Filipino learner for Objectives:
self-development throughout his Help children develop social,
life political, and ecological sense; a sense of the world as set of
 To help raise the achievement level interconnected and interdependent environmental social and
of students political system; understand the direction of global trends;
- conceptual framework explore solutions for global problems.
The Context – defines the sources
of the curriculum in terms of the following: List of Secretaries of Education
 The Constitution
 Education Act of 1982 Month Month Name Position
 The National Development Goals started finished
in the MTPDP
 The needs of society in terms of Secretaries of Public Instruction
citizens who are:
 Makabayan 1935 1940 Sergio Osmeña
 Makatao 1940 1941 Jorge Bocobo
 Makakalikasan
 Makadiyos Secretaries of Public Instruction, Health, and Public
- paramenters of the Curriculum Welfare
 The environment Commonwealth War Cabinet
 The society
 The learner 1942 1944 Sergio Osmeña
o The Learning Areas, Process, and Outcomes
 Filipino Commissioner of Public Instruction
 English Philippine Executive Commission
 Science
 Mathematics 1942 1943 Claro M. Recto
 Makabayan
o The Support System Minister of Public Instruction
 Training of Teachers 2nd Republic
 Provisions of materials, equipment,
and facilities 1943 1945 Jorge Bocobo
 Enabling policy and administrative
support Secretaries of Education, Culture and Sports
o Monitoring and Evaluation
 Conduct of pre-implementation, February 1986 December 1989 Lourdes Quisimbing
process and post-implementation
monitoring January 1990 June 1992 Isidro Cariño
 Evaluation of the curriculum to
access progress and provide July 1992 July 1994 Armand Fabella
intervention if necessary
 Testing August 1994 December 1997 Ricardo Gloria
Enhance the use of NEAT results for analyzing sub-
sector performance and improving individual school January 1998 June 1998 Erlinda Pefianco
performance.
July 1998 January 2001 Br. Andrew Gonzalez
Development and use of more varied instruments to
February 2001 August 2001 Raul Roco
measure multi-level intelligence including life skills in
classroom teaching.

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Secretaries of Education

August 2001 August 2002 Raul Roco

September 2002 July 2004 Edilberto de Jesus

July 2004 July 2005 Florencio Abad

July 2005 September Ramon Bacani OIC

2005
September 2005 July 2006 Fe Hidalgo Acting

July 2006 Present Jesli Lapus

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