WHAT IS ICT?

ICT is the technology required for information processing, in particular, the use of electronic
computers, communication devices and software applications to convert, store, protect, process,
transmit and retrieve information from anywhere, anytime.
INFORMATION
Information refers to the knowledge obtained from reading, investigation, study or research.
The tools to transmit information are the telephone, television and radio.

We need information to make decisions and to predict the future. For example, scientists can detect
the formation of a tsunami using the latest technology and warn the public to avoid disasters in the
affected areas.
Information is knowledge and helps us to fulfill our daily tasks. For example, forecasting the stock
exchange market.
COMMUNICATION
Communication is an act of transmitting messages. It is a process whereby information is exchanged
between individuals using symbols, signs or verbal interactions. Previously, people communicated
through sign or symbols, performing drama and poetry. With the advent of technology, these ‘older’
forms of communication are less utilised as compared to the use of the
Internet, e-mail or video conferencing

Communication is important in order to gain knowledge. With knowledge, we are more confident in
expressing our thoughts and ideas.
TECHNOLOGY
Technology is the use of scientific knowledge, experience and resources to create processes and
products that fulfill human needs. Technology is vital in communication

ICT Tools

ICT tools are components associated with ICT. They are either hardware or software items used to
process information. They include;
 Computers and Related Equipment  Communication Equipment
 Software programs .
Every year, a lots of ICT tools are manufactured by various companies in the world.
For example, Input output devices, application software etc.
Bar code readers Used in super markets & shops to read bar codes which contain
information about that particular product.
Bar code printers Used to print information about a particular product in Barcode format

Credit card readers Used to read credit cards

Telephones For communication and used connect to the Internet.

Software Edit Photos/Pictures and creating graphic arts.

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USAGE OF ICT IN DAILY LIFE
1. EDUCATION
Today, most schools and higher educational institutions have computers in the classroom for teacher
and students. In education, teachers, students, researchers and school administrators benefits from
the usage of ICT.

Teachers Teachers use computers to research for teaching materials, participate in online
forums and online conferences as well as to aid their teaching.
Students Students use the computers as a reference tool. They use computers to browse the
Internet to look for information
Researchers use computers tocollect and process data
School administrators use computers for administrative purposes to make sure that the entire
operation runs smoothly.

2. Business
The computer's characteristic as high speed of calculation, diligence,accuracy, reliability, or
versatility has made it an integerated part in all business organisations. Computer used in business
organisation for:
 Payroll Calculations  Financial forcasting

 Budgeting  Managing employees database

 Sales Analysis  Maintenance of stocks etc.

3. Banking
Today Banking is almost totally dependent on computer. Banks provide following facilities:
 Banks on-line accounting facility, which include current balances, deposits, overdrafts, interest
charges, shares and trustee records.
 ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up to date with the help of computer .The Insurance
Companies, Finance houses and Stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance Companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing
 how to continue with policies  interests due

 starting date of the policies  survival benefits

 next due installment of a policy  bonus

 maturity date
4. Marketing
In Marketing uses of computer are following:
 Advertising: With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise
copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
 At Home Shopping: At home shopping has been made possible through use of computerized
catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled
by the customers.
5. Health Care
Computers have become important part in all Medical Systems. The computers are being used in
hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing
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different diseases. ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc. are also done by computerised
machines. Some of major fields of health care in which computer are used:
 Diagnostic System: Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System:All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
 Patient Monitoring System:These are used to check patient's signs for abnormality such as in
Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc.
 Pharma Information System:Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful drug side
effects etc.
 Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in Engineering purposes. One of major areas is CAD(Computer aided
design).CAD provides creation,edition, and modification of image. Some fields are:
 Structural Engineering:Requires stress and strain analysis required for design of Ships,
Buildings, Budgets, Airplanes etc.
 Industrial Engineering:Computers deals with design, implementation and improvement of
Integrated systems of people, materials and equipments.
 Architectural Engineering:Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings, determining
a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings
6. Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is received and
understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant.Some main areas in this
category are:
 E-mail  FTP

 Chatting  Telnet

 Usenet  Video-conferencing

THE IMPACT OF ICT ON SOCIETY

1. FASTER COMMUNICATION SPEED

In the past, it took a long time for any news or messages to be send. Now with the Internet, news or
messages are sent via e-mail to friends, business partners or to anyone efficiently. With the
capability of bandwidth, broadband and connection speed on the Internet, any information can travel
fast and at an instant. It saves time and is inexpensive.
2. LOWER COMMUNICATION COST
Using the Internet is cost-effective than the other modes of communication such as telephone,
mailing or courier service. It allows people to have access to large amounts of data at a very low
cost. With the Internet we do not have to pay for any basic services provided by the Internet.
Furthermore, the cost of connection to the Internet is relatively cheap.

3. RELIABLE MODE OF COMMUNICATION

Computers are reliable. With the internet, information could be accessed and retrieved from
anywhere and at anytime. This makes it a reliable mode of communication. However, the input to

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the computer is contributed by humans. If the data passed to the computer is faulty, the result will be
faulty as well. This is related to the term GIGO.
GIGO is a short form for Garbage In Garbage Out. It refers to the quality of output produced
according to the input. Normally bad input produces bad output.
4. EFFECTIVE SHARING OF INFORMATION
With the advancement of ICT, information can be shared by people all around the world. People can
share and exchange opinions, news and information through discussion groups, mailing list and
forums on the Internet. This enable knowledge sharing which will contribute to the development of
knowledge based society.
5. PAPERLESS ENVIRONMENT
ICT technology has created the term paperless environment. This term means information can be
stored and retrieved through the digital medium instead of paper. Online communication via emails,
online chat and instant messaging also helps in creating the paperless environment.
6. BORDERLESS COMMUNICATION
Internet offers fast information retrieval, interactivity, accessibility and versatility. It has become a
borderless sources for services and information. Through the Internet, information and
communication can be borderless.
7. SOCIAL PROBLEMS
There are some negative effects of ICT. It has created social problems in the society. Nowadays,
people tend to choose online communication rather than having real time conversations. People tend
to become more individualistic and introvert.
8. Another negative effect of ICT is :
· fraud
· identity theft
· Pornography
· Hacking
This will result a moral decedent and generate threads to the society.
9. HEALTH PROBLEMS
A computer may harm users if they use it for long hours frequently. Computer users are also
exposed to bad posture, eyestrain, physical and mental stress. In order to solve the health problems,
an ergonomic environment can be introduced. For example, an ergonomic chair can reduces back
strain and a screen filter is used to minimize eye strain.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
A computer is an electronic device or set of devices that work under the control of stored program
accepting data from outside itself and processing it to produce information.

A computer is a programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a computer are: it

responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner and it can execute a prerecorded
list of instructions (a program).

COMPUTER TERMINOLOGIES.

(i) Data - is a basic facts about any activity performed in a computer.

(ii) Information – This is result obtained after processing data or reliable world.
(iii) Processing – Turning data into meaningful information.
(iv) Input – To type or to key-in into the computer
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 (v) Output – To obtain a printout or softcopy of information fed into the computer
(vi) Retrieve – Making data that was stored accessible on the screen.
(vii) Store – To make data permanent into the computer memory.
QUALITIES OF A COMPUTER

(i) Its automatic – i.e. can work with minimum human intervention once supplied with data
and instructions.
(ii) Its data processor – processes raw facts and figures to produce information.
(iii) It’s a storage device – store information for later reference.
(iv) It’s electrical – Requires some form of power to drive it.
Advantages of using computers.

(i) Stores large chunks of information in limited space.

(ii) Speed- performs tasks in very short periods ( in comparison to working manually)
(iii) Efficiency – Creates an all round saving on space, time.
(iv) Consistency- Gives the same results given the same data and instructions
(v) Secrecy – information is fairly protected if the computer system is well managed
(vi) Versatility – can do the same thing over and over again without being worn out.
Disadvantages of computers

i) Computers are expensive

ii) Cuts down on employment opportunities
iii) Need expertise, which is expensive to hire and maintain
iv) They create eye problems
v) Loss of information if not well managed

Classification of computers
1. According to size
A number of different dimensions can be used to classify computers into different types.
Traditionally, the size and the capabilities of computers are used as the main criterion and
the computers are classified into the following types.

 PC – The personal computer (PC) is small in size and is designed for general use by a
single person.

Desktop – A PC that is not designed for portability. A desktop computer is

typically set up in a permanent location.
Laptops (Notebooks) – A portable computer that includes a battery to provide
power for some specific period of time.
Palmtop – More commonly known as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs).
Palmtops are small, lightweight and tightly integrated computers which usually
do not have keyboards but rely on touch screen technology for user input.
Palmtops are equipped with a battery with reasonable life.
Workstation – A desktop computer with a powerful processor, additional memory
and enhanced capabilities for performing a special group of tasks, such as 3D
graphics.

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  Server – A computer that has been optimized to provide services to other computers
over a network. Servers usually have powerful processors, lots of memory and large
hard drives.
 Mainframe – Mainframes are huge computers, which could fill an entire room or
even a whole floor. Over the years, the size of computers has diminished while the
power has increased; the term mainframe has fallen out of use. You will still

hear the term used, particularly in large companies to describe the huge machines
processing millions of transactions every day.
 Supercomputer – This type of computer is usually very expensive. Although some
supercomputers are single computer systems, most comprised multiple high
performance computers working parallel as a single system. The best-known
supercomputers are built by Cray Supercomputers.

2. Computer Generations

a. First Generation
The period of first generation was 1946-1959. First generation of computer started with using
vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU(Central Processing Unit).
These tubes like electric bulbs produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing of the
installations, therefore, were very expensive and could be afforded only by very large organisations.
In this generation mainly batch processing operating system were used. In this generation Punched
cards, Paper tape, Magnetic tape Input & Output device were used. There were Machine code and
electric wired board languages used

The main features of First Generation are:

 Vacuum tube technology  Non portable

 Unreliable  Consumed lot of electricity

 Supported Machine language only Some computer of this generation were:

 ENIAC
 Very costly
EDVAC
 Generate lot of heat
 UNIVAC
 Slow Input/Output device
 IBM-701
 Huge size
 IBM-650
 Need of A.C.
b. Second Generation
The period of second generation was 1959-1965. This generation using the transistor were cheaper,
consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first generation
machines made of vaccum tubes.In this generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory
and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. In this generation assembly

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language and high level programming language like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. There were
Batch processing and Multiprogramming Operating system used

The main features of Second Generation are:

 Use of transistors  Still very costly

 Reliable as compared to First generation  A.C. needed

computers
 Support machine and assmebly languages
 Smaller size as compared to First Some computer of this generation were:
generation computers  IBM 1620

 Generate less heat as compared to First  IBM 7094

generation computers
 CDC 1604
 Consumed less electricity as compared to
First generation computers  CDC 3600

Faster than first generation computers  UNIVAC 1108

c. Third Generation
The period of third generation was 1965-1971. The third generation of computer is marked by the
use of Integrated Circuits (IC's) in place of transistors.A single I.C has many transistors, resistors
and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.The I.C was invented by Jack Kilby. This
development made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient. In this generation Remote
processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-programming Operating System were used. High level
language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used
during this generation

IC used  Consumed lesser electricity

 More reliable  Support high level language

Some computer of this generation were:
 Smaller size  IBM-360 series

 Generate less heat  Honeywell-6000 series

 Faster  PDP(Personal Data Processor)

 Lesser maintenance  IBM-370/168

 Still costly  TDC-316

 A.C needed
d. Fourth Generation
The period of Fourth Generation was 1971-1980. The fourth generation of computers is marked by
the use of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits.VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors

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and other circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth Generation computers became more powerful,
compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution. In
this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating System were used. All the
Higher level languages like C and C++, DBASE etc. were used in this generation

The main features of Fourth Generation are:  Concept of internet was introduced
 VLSI technology used
 Great developments in the fields of
 Very cheap networks

 Portable and reliable  Computers became easily available

 Use of PC's Some computer of this generation were:

 DEC 10
 Very small size
 STAR 1000
 Pipeline processing

 No A.C. needed

5. Fifth Generation
The period of Fifth Generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor
chips having ten million electronic components. This generation is based on parallel processing
hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science,
which interprets means and method of making computers think like human beings. All the Higher
level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this generation.
AI includes:  Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Robotics
 Advancement in Superconductor
 Neural networks technology

 Game Playing  More user friendly interfaces with

multimedia features
 Development of expert systems to make
decisions in real life situations.  Availability of very powerful and compact
computers at cheaper rates
 Natural language understanding and
generation Some computer types of this generation are:
The main features of Fifth Generation are:  Desktop
 ULSI technology
 Laptop
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 NoteBook
 Development of Natural language
processing  UltraBook

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 ChromeBook

3. In terms of purpose, computers are classified into special purpose or general

purpose.

Special purpose computer is designed for only one purpose. A computer which guides space
shuttles, and which cannot be used for any other purpose is an example of special purpose computer.

General-purpose computer, on the other hand, can be used for many purposes. For example, the
same general-purpose computer may be used to handle payroll, do balance sheet, and produce
graphics for the design of buildings, solve complex mathematical equations, or play games. It is
possible to provide a long list under this heading. Here is a least of varied examples are given below

 Home Computer – This is a low-cost microcomputer of limited capability designed

for domestic use with programs that typically are used for such things as computer
game or controlling family finance.
 Word Processor -- This is a special purpose computer used in the production of
office documents, letters, contracts, etc.
 Personal Computer (PC) – These are microcomputers designed for independent use
by individual at work or in home mainly for business purposes. Some PCs are
portable. Many can be connected to minicomputers and mainframe computers so that
the PC user can also gain access to the facilities offered by the larger machine.
 Desktop Computer -- These are microcomputers designed to be placed on top the
desk for independent use by individual at work or in home mainly for business
purposes. It therefore implies that Home computers and Personal Computers are
example of Desktop Computers.
 Workstation Computers -- These are another type of microcomputers which are also
examples of desktop computers. Although larger and more powerful PCs are
sometime called workstations in order to denote the presence of advanced features
not provided by all PCs. These include in-built capabilities for their interconnection
and operation in conjunction with other computers.
 Lap-top Computers -- These are another type of microcomputers which are smaller
in size compared to desktop computers and as a result they can be placed on the lap
of an individual to do any job. Although smaller and sometime very powerful
features not provided by all PCs. These include in-built capabilities for their
interconnection, mobile computing, with an in-built backup battery that allows one to
work without direct power connection and also operation in conjunction with other
computers.
 Notebook Computers -- These are another type of microcomputers which are
smaller in size compared to desktop computers and the laptop computers as a result
they can placed on the lap of an individual, carried around easily to do any job.
Although smaller and sometime confused for Laptop computers, they can as well be
very powerful in their operations and usages. These include in-built capabilities for
their interconnection, mobile computing, with an in-built backup battery that allows

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 one to work without direct power connection and also operation in conjunction with
other computers.
 Palmtop Computers -- These are another type of microcomputers which are smaller
in size compared to the Laptop computers and the Notebook computer. They are
hand held computers and which can be easily carried around to do some jobs.
Although smaller and sometime confused for a calculator, they are actually
computers, they can as well be very powerful in their operations and usages. These
include in-built capabilities for their interconnection, mobile computing, with an in-
built backup battery that allows one to work without direct power connection and
also operation in conjunction with other computers.
 Embedded Computers – These are computers that are embedded within some other
devices or system but is not accessed directly. Examples of such system can be find
in watches, video recorder, petrol pumps, cameras, lift elevators, cars and a host of
other industrial and domestic devices.

4. Classification of computer according to technology

Analog Computers
An analog computer represents data as physical quantities and operates on the data by manipulating
the quantities. It is designed to process data in which the variable quantities vary continuously (see
analog circuit); it translates the relationships between the variables of a problem into analogous
relationships between electrical quantities, such as current and voltage, and solves the original
problem by solving the equivalent problem, or analog, that is set up in its electrical circuits. Because
of this feature, analog computers were especially useful in the simulation and evaluation of dynamic
situations, such as the flight of a space capsule or the changing weather patterns over a certain area.
The key component of the analog computer is the operational amplifier, and the computer's capacity
is determined by the number of amplifiers it contains (often over 100). Although analog computers
are commonly found in such forms as speedometers and watt-hour meters, they largely have been
made obsolete for general-purpose mathematical computations and data storage by digital
computers.
Digital Computers
A digital computer is designed to process data in numerical form (see digital circuit); its circuits
perform directly the mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
The numbers operated on by a digital computer are expressed in the binary system; binary digits, or
bits, are 0 and 1, so that 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, etc., correspond to 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. Binary digits
are easily expressed in the computer circuitry by the presence (1) or absence (0) of a current or
voltage. A series of eight consecutive bits is called a "byte; the eight-bit byte permits 256 different
"on-off combinations. Each byte can thus represent one of up to 256 alphanumeric characters, and
such an arrangement is called a "single-byte character set (SBCS); the de facto standard for this
representation is the extended ASCII character set. Some languages, such as Japanese, Chinese, and
Korean, require more than 256 unique symbols. The use of two bytes, or 16 bits, for each symbol,
however, permits the representation of up to 65,536 characters or ideographs. Such an arrangement
is called a "double-byte character set (DBCS); Unicode is the international standard for such a
character set. One or more bytes, depending on the computer's architecture, is sometimes called a
digital word; it may specify not only the magnitude of the number in question, but also its sign
(positive or negative), and may also contain redundant bits that allow automatic detection, and in
some cases correction, of certain errors (see code; information theory). A digital computer can store
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the results of its calculations for later use, can compare results with other data, and on the basis of
such comparisons can change the series of operations it performs. Digital computers are used for
reservations systems, scientific investigation, data processing and word-processing applications,
desktop publishing, electronic games, and many other purposes.
Hybrid Computers

A hybrid computer is designed as a combination of analog and digital computer (see digital and
analog computer); its circuits perform directly on the technology of both analog and digital circuits
as a result its more powerful than the other two logic computers.

COMPUTER SYSTEM
It’s made up of the following

(i) Hardware

a. Input devices
b. Output devices
c. Cpu
d. Storage devices
e. Bus sytem
f. Computer ports

(ii) Software
 System software
 Application software

(iii) Orgware/Operator

Hardware components
1. CPU – Central Processing Unit
CPU consists of the following features:
 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data , intermediate resulta and instructions(program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of computer.

` CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory Or Storage Unit:
 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory Or Storage Unit:

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This unit can store instruction, data and intermediate results.This unit supplies information to the
other units of the computer when needed.It is also known as internal storage unit or main memory or
primary storage or Random access memory(RAM). Its size affects speed, power and
capability.There are primary memory and secondary memory two types of memories in the
computer.Function of Memory Unit are:
 It stores all the data to be processed and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer.It does not carry out any actual data
processing operations. Functions of this unit are
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them and directs the operation of the
computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.
ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsection namely
 Arithmetic section
 Logic Section
ARITHMETIC SECTION
Function of Arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of above
operations.
LOGIC SECTION
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching and
merging of data.

2. Input Devices
Following are few of the important input devices which are used in Computer Systems
 Keyboard  Magnetic Ink Card
 Mouse Reader(MICR)

 Joy Stick  Optical Character

Reader(OCR)
 Light pen
 Bar Code Reader
 Track Ball
 Optical Mark Reader
 Scanner

 Graphic Tablet

 Microphone
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Keyboard
Most common and very popular input device is keyboard. The keyboard helps in inputting the
data to the computer.The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although
there are some additional keys provided for performing some additional functions. Keyboard are
of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now 104 keys or 108 keys keyboard is also available
for Windows and Internet.
The keys are following Keys Description
Sr. No.
1 Typing Keys These keys include the letter keys (A-Z)
and digits keys (0-9) which are generally
give same layout as that of typewriters.
2 Numeric Keypad It is used to enter numeric data or cursor
movement. Generally, it consists of a set of
17 keys that are laid out in the same
configuration used by most adding machine
and calculators.
3 Function Keys The twelve functions keys are present on
the keyboard. These are arranged in a row
along the top of the keyboard.Each function
key has unique meaning and is used for
some specific purpose.
4 Control keys These keys provides cursor and screen
control. It includes four directional arrow
key.Control keys also include Home,
End,Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
5 Special Purpose Keyboard also contains some special
Keys purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps
Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print
Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is most popular Pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device. It is a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the buttons. Generally it has two buttons called left
and right button and scroll bar is present at the mid. Mouse can be used to control the position of
cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
ADVANTAGES
 Easy to use

 Not very expensive

Joystick

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Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is
a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in
a socket.TheJoystic can be moved in all four directions. The function of joystic is similar to that
of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing(CAD) and playing computer games
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item
or draw pictures on the monitor screen.It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a
small tube. When light pen's tip is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the
CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square
Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer for
further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the
digital form that can be stored on the disc.These images can be edited before they are printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into a digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts graphics and
pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for doing fine works of
drawing and images manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone
is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing
music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition(MICR). The main advantages
of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a
hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar
code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to which
bar code reader is connected

3. Output Devices
Following are few of the important output devices which are used in Computer Systems
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 Monitors

 Graphic Plotter

 Printer

Monitors
Monitor commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU) is the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels, that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the no. of the pixels. There are two kinds of viewing
screen used for monitors.
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat- Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

In the CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels for short.The smaller the
pixels, the better the image clarity, or resolution.It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form
whole character, such as the letter e in the word help. A finite number of character can be
displayed on a screen at once.The screen can be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed
location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. The most screens are capable of
displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. There are some
disadvantage of CRT
 Large in Size

 High Power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement compare to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your
wrists. Current uses for flat-panel displays include calculators, videogames, monitors, laptop
computer, graphics display. The flat-panel display are divided into two categories
 Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. Example are plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or
light from some other source into graphics patterns.Example is LCD(Liquid-Crystal Device)
Printers
Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print information on paper. There
are two types of printers
 Impact Printers

 Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon and onto the paper, are called
impact printers. Characteristics of Impact Printers are following
 Very low consumable costs
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 Impact printers are very noisy

 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types

 Character printers
 Line printers
Character Printers:
Character Printers are printers which print one character at a time. These are of further two types
 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market one of the most popular printer is Dot Matrix Printer because of their ease of
printing features and economical price. Each character printed is in form of pattern of Dot's and
head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size(5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which comes out to form a
character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
 Inexpensive

 Widely Used

 Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages
 Slow Speed

 Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and Pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy(flower
name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-
processing in offices which require a few letters to be send here and there with very nice quality
representation.
Advantages
 More reliable than DMP's

 Better quality

 The fonts of character can be easily changed.

Disadvantages
 Slower than DMP's

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 Noisy

 More expensive than DMP's

Line Printers
Line printers are printers which print one line at a time.
These are of further two types
 Drum Printer

 Chain Printer

Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape so it called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided into
number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e for a paper width of 132 characters,
Drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The different characters sets
are available in market 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set.One rotation of drum prints one
line. Drum Printers are fast in speed and speed in between 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
 Very high speed

Disadvantages
 Very expensive

 Characters fonts can not be changed

Chain Printer
In this printer chain of character sets are used so it called Chain Printers.A standard character set
may have 48, 64, 96 characters.
Advantages
 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages
 Noisy

 Do not have the ability to print any shape of characters.

Non-impact Printers
The printers that print the characters without striking against the ribbon and onto the paper, are
called Non-impact Printers. These printers print a complete page at a time, also called as Page
Printers. These printers are of two types
 Laser Printers

 Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers.

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 They are not noisy.

 High quality.

 Support many fonts and different character size.

Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produces the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages
 Very high speed.

 Very high quality output.

 Give good graphics quality.

 Support many fonts and different character size.

Disadvantage
 Expensive.

 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.

Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
with presentable features. They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have
many styles of printing modes available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet
printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages
 High quality printing

 More reliable

Disadvantages
 Expensive as cost per page is high

 Slow as compare to laser printer

4. Computer Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction. Computer memory
is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is
called cell. Each location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size
minus one. For example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536

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memory location. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535. Memory is primarily of
three types
 Cache Memory

 Primary Memory/Main Memory

 Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program
which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from
disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.
ADVANTAGE
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

 It stores data for temporary use.

DISADVANTAGE:
 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working.
It has limited capacity and data get lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction
required to be processed earlier reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories
RAM and ROM. Characteristic of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories.

 It known as main memory.

 Usually volatile memory.

 Data is lost in case power is switch off.

 It is working memory of the computer.

 Faster than secondary memories.

 A computer cannot run without primary memory

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main
memory. These are used for storing Data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access
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these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it.For example: disk,
CD-ROM,DVD etc. Characteristic of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories.

 It is known as backup memory.

 It is non-volatile memory.

 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

 It is used for storage of the data in the computer.

 Computer may run without secondary memory.

 Slower than primary memories.

Random Access Memory
ARAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program result.
It is read/write memory. It is called random access memory (RAM). Since access time in RAM is
independent of the address to the word that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy
to reach as other location & takes the same amount of time. We can reach into the memory at
random & extremely fast but can also be quite expensive. RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is
lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence a backup
uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small , both in terms
of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold. RAM is of two types
 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power remains applied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix
of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM
need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis. Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM
uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space, thus making the
manufacturing costs higher. Static RAM is used as cache memory needs to be very fast and
small. Characteristic of the Static RAM
 It has long data lifetime

 There is no need to refresh

 Faster

 Used as cache memory

 Large size

 Expensive
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High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order for it to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per
second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells. These cells are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristic of the Dynamic RAM
 It has short data lifetime

 Need to refresh continuously

 Slower as compared to SRAM

 Used as RAM

 lesser in size

 Less expensive

 Less power consumption

Read Only Memory
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instruction as are required to start computer
when electricity is first turned on, this operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip are not
only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and
microwave oven.
Following are the varioys types of ROM

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.

PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM programmer.Inside the PROM chip there
are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and
is not erasable.

EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of upto 40 minutes.
Usually, a EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because the
charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz
crystal window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use

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the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about
ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one
byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is
flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
 Non-volatile in nature

 These cannot be accidentally changed

 Cheaper than RAMs

 Easy to test

 More Reliable than RAMs

 These are static and do not require refreshing

 Its contents are always known and can be verified

Hardware Devices: Secondary storage devices

This section will be looking at the various forms of secondary storage device (media). For each
device you should be familiar with the following details:

 seek time - Average time taken from requesting data to starting to read the requested data
 Capacity - The amount of data it is possible to store on a media
 Access type - Whether a device is Random Access or Serial Access
 Write type - Whether it is read only, write only or readable and writable
 Cost - how much does it cost per megabyte

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sequential access requires all memory locations before the one sought to be read, before reaching
it. Random access memory allows you to jump directly to the memory location you are seeking

Pay special attention to devices with an orange background, you need to be able to describe
exactly how they work!

Contents

 1 Magnetic media
o 1.1 Hard disk
o 1.2 Tape drive
 2 Optical media
o 2.1 CD-ROM
 3 Solid-state memory
o 3.1 USB Flash Drive
o 3.2 Memory cards

Magnetic media

Magnetic media stores data by assigning a magnetic charge to metal. This metal is then
processed by a read head, which converts the charges into ones and zeros. Historically, magnetic
media has been very popular for storing programs, data, and making backups. It looks set to
continue in this role for some time. However, solid state technology to starting to be used more
and more, storing programs and data on new devices such as mobile phones and cameras.

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 Solid-state memory
Device Size
Hard Disk Up to 4 Terabytes
Tape Up to 2 Terabytes

Hard disk

Video of exposed hard disk drive (HDD)

Hard disks are usually found inside computers to store programs and data. They are increasingly
cheap and more and more companies are using them to back things up. Hard disks can vary in
physical size with some disks getting as small as your thumb. The capacity of a commercial disk
is currently up to about 2 terabytes allowing users to read and write to them. They are
constructed from several key components:

 Platter - Metallic disks where One or both sides of the platter are magnetized, allowing
data to be stored. The platter spins thousands of times a second around the spindle. There
may be several platters, with data stored across them
 Head - The head reads magnetic data from the platter. For a drive with several platters
there may two heads per platter allowing data to be read from top and bottom of each
 Actuator Arm - used to move the read heads in and out of the disk, so that data can be
read and written to particular locations and you can access data in a Random fashion, you
don't need to read your way through the entire disk to fetch a particular bit of
information, you can jump right there. Seek time is very low.
 Power connector - provides electricity to spin the platters, move the read head and run
the electronics
 IDE connector - allows for data transfer from and to the platters
 Jumper block - used to get the disk working in specific ways such as RAID

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For the exam you must be able to explain how a hard disk works:

1. The platters spin around the spindle

2. data is requested to be read from a particular area of a platter
3. the actuator arm moves the read head to that track
4. Once the data sector that is required has spun around and under the read head, data is read
5. Read data is sent from the IDE connector to main memory

Description of a hard disk platter

Writing data is very similar:

1. The platters spin around the spindle

2. data is sent to the hard disk using the IDE connector
3. the actuator arm moves the write head to the track that will be written to
4. Once the data sector that is required has spun around and under the write head, data is
written to the platter

Pros

Fast seek times

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 Random access
High capacities possible
Low cost per megabyte

Cons

Very susceptible to damage from physical shocks

Tape drive

DDS tape drive. Above, from left right: DDS-4 tape (20 GB), 112m Data8 tape (2.5 GB), QIC
DC-6250 tape (250 MB), and a 3.5" floppy disk (1.44 MB)

Increasingly obsolete, the tape has been a medium to deliver software and back up data since the
early days of computing. Nowadays they are used mostly for corporate backing up and archiving
of data. Tapes are sequential data stores, meaning that if you had information stored at the end of
the tape you would have to wind your way through the entirety of the tape before you could read
it. There is no random access like with a hard disk! Tapes can be several terabytes in size and
reading and writing can be very fast as long as you read or write continuous sections of the tape
at once.

Pros

Fast
High capacity
Cheap per megabyte

Cons

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 Serial read and write capabilities

Optical media

Optical media works by creating a disc with a pitted metallic surface. There are several different
types of disk out there ranging from 650 MB to 128 GB, with the pits and lands getting closer
together for higher volume disks. The principle behind how each of them works is the same.

pitted surface visible on the surface of a CD. Massively zoomed in!

Optical media
Device Type Size Image
 CD-ROM  Read Only
650 -
 CD-R  Write once then Read only
900 100px
 CD-RW  re-Writable
MB
 DVD-ROM  Read Only
 DVD-R  Write once then Read only 4.7 -
 DVD-RW  re-Writable 9.4
 DVD-RAM  re-Writable GB

 Blu-ray Re-Writable and Read Only versions available,

25 -
(BD) disc using a Blue laser, that is able to recognise smaller
128
 HD DVD pits and lands. Allowing for the pits and lands to be
GB
more closely packed

CD-ROM

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close up of the surface of a CD being read

1. A single track runs in a spiral pattern from the centre of the disc to the outside, this track
is made of pits and lands to represent the ones and zeroes.
2. A laser is shone on the metallic surface and the reflection is captured in a photodiode
sensor, the lands reflect differently to the pits, meaning it can tell the difference between
a 1 and a 0
3. The disc spins and the laser follows the track

Pros

Cheap

Cons

Slow seek time

Data degrades with time, discs from 20 years ago might not work!
Depending the on the disk, you might not be able to write to it, or re-write to it

Solid-state memory

Solid-state memory
Device Description
USB flash drive Up to 256 GB
Memory card Up to 256 GB

USB Flash Drive

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 Internals of a typical USB flash drive
1 USB Standard-A plug
2 USB mass storage controller device
3 Test points
4 Flash memory chip
5 Crystal oscillator
6 LED
7 Write-protect switch (Optional)
8 Space for second flash memory chip

USB Flash drives are solid state, that means that there are no moving parts. This is very useful
for seek times as we don't have to wait for mechanical movement, meaning seek time is very low
and it allows for fast Random Access Memory. Flash drives can be set to read only mode, but
they will always allow for reading and writing. The size of flash drives is not as great as a Hard
Disk and they are generally much more expensive per megabyte

1. put drive into USB socket

2. USB driver loads, providing the computer with code on how to read and write from the
USB
3. The USB is read, giving information on the file and folder structure (File Allocation
Table) to the Computer
4. [Reading] The user chooses to open a file, the Computer sends the address wanted to the
USB port
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 5. [Reading] The USB returns the data at the location requested
6. [Writing] The computer sends data to the USB port where it is place into empty space on
the drive
7. [Writing] The computer then requests a new version of the file and folder structure

Pros

Very fast seek times

Very portable

Cons

Limited capacity
expensive per MB when compared to Hard Disks

Memory cards

Work in much the same way as a Flash drive and can often be converted into Flash Drives. They
have different connectors and are generally smaller than USB Flash drives allowing for them to
be used in cameras, mobile phones and game consoles.

comparison of different memory cards

5. Ports
What is a Port?

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 A computer port is a physical docking point using which an extenal device can be connected
to the computer.
 A computer port can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows
from a program to computer or over the internet.

Characteristics
 External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.

 Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged in.

 Examples of external devices attached via ports are mouse, keyboard, monitor, microphone ,
speakers etc.

Following are few important types of ports

Serial Port
 Used for external modems and older computer mouse.

 Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model.

 Data travels at 115 kilobits per second.

Parallel Port
 Used for scanners and printers

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 Also called printer port.

 25 pin model.

 Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port.

PS/2 Port
 Used for old computer keyboard and mouse

 Also called mouse port.

 Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for mouse and keyboard.

Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port.

Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port
 Can connect all kind of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer, scanner,
mouse, keyboard etc.
 Introduced in 1997.
 Most of the computers provide two USB port as minimum.
 Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds
 USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port

VGA Port
 Connects monitor to a computer's video card.

 Has 15 holes.

 Similar to serial port connector

Power Connector
 Three-pronged plug

 Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket.

Firewire Port
 Transfer large amounts of data at very fast speed.

 Connects camcorders and video equipments to the computer

 Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds

 Invented by Apple

 Three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector and 9-Pin
FireWire 800 connector
Ethernet Port
 Connects to a network and high speed Internet

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 Connect network cable to a computer.

 This port resides on an Eternet Card.

 Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the network
bandwidth.

Game Port
 Connect a PC to a joystick

 Now replaced by USB.

Digital Video Interface , DVI port
 Connect a Flat panel LCD monitors to the computer's high end video graphic cards.

 Very popular among video card manufacturers.

Sockets
 Connect microphone, speakers to sound card of the computer

6. Bus System
A bus, in computing, is a set of physical connections (cables, printed circuits, etc.) which can be
shared by multiple hardware components in order to communicate with one another.
The purpose of buses is to reduce the number of "pathways" needed for communication between
the components, by carrying out all communications over a single data channel. This is why the
metaphor of a "data highway" is sometimes used. If only two hardware components
communicate over the line, it is called a hardware port (such as a serial port or parallel port).
Characteristics
A bus is characterised by the amount of information that can be transmitted at once. This
amount,expressed in bits, corresponds to the number of physical lines over which data is sent
simultaneously. A 32-wire ribbon cable can transmit 32 bits in
1. Data Bus
The data bus transfers instructions coming from or going to the processor. It is a bidirectional
bus.

Data bus is the most common type of bus. It is used to transfer data between different
components of computer. The number of lines in data bus affects the speed of data transfer
between different components. The data bus consists of 8, 16, 32, or 64 lines. A 64-line data bus
can transfer 64 bits of data at one time.

The data bus lines are bi-directional. It means that:

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 1. CPU can read data from memory using these lines
2. CPU can write data to memory locations using these lines

2. Address Bus.

The address bus (sometimes called the memory bus) transports memory addresses which the
processor wants to access in order to read or write data. It is a unidirectional bus

Many components are connected to one another through buses. Each component is assigned a
unique ID. This ID is called the address of that component. It a component wants to
communicate with another component, it uses address bus to specify the address of that
component. The address bus is a unidirectional bus. It can carry information only in one
direction. It carries address of memory location from microprocessor to the main memory.

3. Control Bus

3. Control bus
The control bus (or command bus) transports orders and synchonisation signals coming from
the control unit and travelling to all other hardware components. It is a bidirectional bus, as it
also transmits response signals from the hardware

Control bus is used to transmit different commands or control signals from one component to
another component. Suppose CPU wants to read data from main memory. It will use control is
also used to transmit control signals like ASKS (Acknowledgement signals). A control signal
contains the following:

1 Timing information: It specifies the time for which a device can use data and address bus.

2 Command Signal: It specifies the type of operation to be performed.

Suppose that CPU gives a command to the main memory to write data. The memory sends
acknowledgement signal to CPU after writing the data successfully. CPU receives the signal and
then moves to perform some other action.

The primary buses

There are generally two buses within a computer:
the internal bus (sometimes called the front-side bus, or FSB for short). The internal bus
allows the processor to communicate with the system's central memory (the RAM).
the expansion bus (sometimes called the input/output bus) allows various motherboard
components (USB, serial, and parallel ports, cards inserted in PCI connectors, hard drives,
CD-ROM and CD-RW drives, etc.) to communicate with one another. However, it is mainly
used to add new devices using what are called expansion slots connected to the
input/outpur bus.

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Chipset
A chipset is the component which routes data between the computer's buses, so that all
thecomponents which make up the computer can communicate with each other. The
chipsetoriginally was made up of a large number of electronic chips, hence the name. It
generally hastwo components:
The NorthBridge (also called the memory controller) is in charge of controlling
transfersbetween the processor and the RAM, which is way it is located physically near
theprocessor. It is sometimes called the GMCH, forr Graphic and Memory Controller Hub.
The SouthBridge (also called the input/output controller or expansion controller)
handlescommunications between peripheral devices. It is also called the ICH (I/O Controller
Hub).
The tem bridge is generally used to designate a component which connects two buses

Relationship between Hardware and Software

 Mutually dependent.Both of them must work together to make computer produce a useful
output.

 Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.

 Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.

 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the
hardware

 Hardware is a one time expense.

 software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.

 Different software can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.

 A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.

 If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its 'soul'.Both are complimentary to
each other

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East Africa Institute Of Certified Studies 2015