FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPUTER

Introduction of Computer
The foundation of computer was laid on that day itself when man stated counting by means of
stones. Sticks and angers etc. The invention of number is the greatest gift for human being. It has
made counting and computing very easy. The number can be manipulated in different ways. The
real computer era stated with the invention of the ENIAC (electronic numerical integrator &
computer) computer in 1986 at the Moore school of engineering university of Pennsylvania
USA. Since then computer have come to dominate almost every walk of human life. In a short
period, computer technology has changed, from the early bulky computer which generated too
much of heat to the modern days small but fast, accurate. Versatile desktop computer and even
laptop computer.

What is Computer or PC?

For a layperson a PC or computer likes a super calculator. In technical term computer can be
define as an electronic device that accepts data, process information in a redefines fashion,
According to the instructions provided to it and produced the dicer output. The term PC itself
explanatory PCs stand for PERSONAL COMPUTER. This tem was adopted be IBM
(international business machine), the largest manufacturer computers to describe its first desk
sized computer. Computer difference in variety and size-from a simple game playing computer
like ZX-spectrum to large mainframe or super computer like India’s own super computer
PARAM. If follows the concept of what you give is what you get which means that whatever
instruction you give, according would be the result. A computer fed with wrong instruction
would get wrong result.

How Computer work?

Computer process information using the instructions from the user to produce the desired result.
The instruction that you feed in the computer, through software, is the basic input. This input
could be fed through a keyboard or mouse or a scanner, etc. these instruction are then sent to the
processor knows as the central processing. Units for processing after the task or processing has
been perform, the processor sent the result, knows as output to the screen or the printers decides
by you.

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Definition of Computer
1) A computer is high speed device capable of performing arithmetic & logic operations of
storing as well as executing a set of instruction which will enable it to perform a service of such
operations without manual intervention.
2) A computer is an electronic device that accepts data according to the instruction and given the
desired output on prescribed output device.
3) A computer is a combination of super calculator and a typewriter with a display. It can do
arithmetic and can manipulate text, graphics and is much faster than human beings but does not
have intelligence. It can only work on the instruction given to it by the user.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF COMPUTER

• Abacus (450BC)
Among the different method used for counting abacus was one of them. It is the earliest
and the oldest device developed hundreds of years ago (450BC approx.), used for
counting & computing. People say that it originated from china and later on countries like
green Egypt also started using the same. Today also you can see small school going
children making use of the abacus.
• Jacquard’s Loom (1801)
A French weaver named Joseph jacquard development an attachment for weaving looms
by using punched card to program a loom, to facilitate the production of woven clothes
with compiled patterns. The same pattern could be respected many times in get the same
design by using the same set of punched cards. These card were used with a code of two
alternatives hole and no hole. This is equivalent to binary code, as used in modern
computer. Here he was laying the foundation for sorting and retrieving data.
• Babbage analytical engine (1822)
Charles Babbage is considered as the father of computer, a professor of mathematics a
Cambridge University, proposed the construction of a difference engine for mathematical
calculation. In the 1830 with grant British government he belong the construction of the
machine. The machine was never completed due to mechanical difficulties as the
technology available at that time was inadequate to meet the design specification.
Punched card tabulating machine (Herman Hollenth): this was developed in USA by
Herman Hollenth when the government had collect and analyzes a lot of data regarding
the census of the year 1880. By the previous manual esteem they were not able to
tabulate data in time, so Herman Hollenth made this tabulate machine. These tabulators
used electronic contact which bruised tens card and made the contact through these hole.
Herman Hollenth later established his own company which name was named a tabulating
machine company later he sold company 1924 and the name of the come to be today
famous International Business Machine Corporation (IBM).
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GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers have undergone large metamorphosis from the day when the first
computer (eniac) was made. Since there has been great developments in the field of
electronics resulting in the rapid development of computer. Computers are classified
into different generations.
• First generation:1940-1956
Computer made of this generation used vacuumed tubes. (Values) as the basic
electronic component. The problem with vacuumed tube was that computer was very
huge, huge amount of power was consumed and also generate large hit.
• Second generation:1956-1963
Computer of this generation used transistors as the basic electronic component.
Transistors are semi-conductor device used for controlling the flow of current
between two terminals. This computer is smaller in size, consumed power and
generates less hit than first generation.
• Third generation:1964-1971
Computer of this generation consist of (integrated circuit are also known as chips) as
a main electronic component. They were faster, smaller and more useful than first &
second generations.
• Fourth generation:1971 & above
Computer of this generation used ice’s with integration. Computer on which were
working now a days are example of forth generation computer.
• Fifth generation:
The fifth generation of computer has artificial intelligence which enables them to
think almost like human being in other works, fifth generation computer as pro-
actives computer. Instruction can be fed in the same way as well as speak and write.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
• Speed
Computer was invented as a high speed calculator scientific projects which were
previously considered impossible are now possible thanks to the high speed of
computer. Real-time computing is required in such application as controlling a
space-craft, monitoring the nuclear reaction in an atomic power plant, positioning
an anti-missile gun etc., This wouldn’t be possible without computer. Electrical
pulses travel at incredible speed, As the computer is an electronic device that uses
electrical pulses, the internal speed is extremely high Even a small computer

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 today, can add two 8-digit numbers in micro second, (1 micro second=1 millionth
part of a second).
• Storage
The main memory of the computer, which is part of the cup, is known as primary
storage data stored in the main memory can be accessed at a very high speed.
However, capacity of the main memory is limited, so it is only used to store
information that is required for immediate processing. Large volumes of data can
be stored outside the main memory, on secondary storage devices, such as
magnetic tapes, floppy disks, DVD etc.
• Accuracy
The accuracy of results obtained on a computer is consistently high. Thanks to
improved error-detecting techniques, today’s computer never makes mistakes.
The errors in computing are always due to incorrect programming or inaccurate
data or poor system design.
• Versatility
Computer can do almost anything-anything that is logical, and can be reduced to a
series. Of logical steps. For instance, preparing payroll or controlling traffic can
be easily done by a computer. A computer cannot, however, do such things as
composing music or writing essay-things that require originality. Although it can
do so many different things, a computer is really capable of performing only four
basic operations.
1. Communicate with the outside
2. World using I/O device
3. Transfer data internally within the CPU
4. Perform basic arithmetic operations
5. Do comparisons
• Automation
Once a computer is given the instruction for solving a problem, it carries out the
instructions without human intervention. A sequence of instructions is also known
as program the ability to remember a program is what makes a computer much
more than Just a calculator’ s computer can also be programmed to carry out the
same instructions repeatedly.
• Diligence
A computer never gets tired! It does not suffer from lack of concentration. When
we ask a computer to do a million calculations, the millionth calculations is done
with exactly the same accuracy and speed as the first one. There are many critical

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 applications where one can’t afford to make a mistake. A computer can be of a
great help in such cases.

COMPUTER LANGUAGE
A computer does not understand English Language. A language like English is
known as natural language, a language that computer understand is known as
programming language. Programming language further
Classified into:
1) Machine language.
2) Assembly language,
3) High-level language.
1. Machine language
This is a language of 0’s and 1’s.In the machine language, instructions are
coded as strings of 0’s and 1’s. Thus, instruction to add two numbers (25 and
J6) might like this: 001011011101… Machine
language is not same for all the computers. That means the instructions to add
two numbers may be represented by different codes on different machine.
2. Assembly language
Machine language is too difficult to use in practice. Assembly language uses
“mnemonics” denotes the instructions. Mult 15, 16 an instruction in assembly
language has to be translated into binary pattern (0010….) before it can be
understood by the machine.
3. High level language
Machine Language & Assembly language are example of low-level
languages. High Level Languages, are closer to the natural (human)
language, and are almost independent of the machine. In high-level language
instructions can be written using certain English words and conventional
mathematical notation. High-level languages are much easier than writing it in
machine languages, or an assembly, language

COMPILER/INTERPRETER
Compiler
Assume a program, which consists of 15 instructions in high-level language. A
compiler will take all these instructions together, converts them into machines

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 language instruction and stores them in external storages to execute when
required.
Interpreter
On the other hand an interpreter takes one instruction at a time, converts it to
machine language, executes the machine language instruction immediately and
proceeds to take up the next instruction for interpretation. This process is repeated
till the last instruction is executed.

COMPUTER HARDWARE & SOFTWARE

• Hardware
Hardware is physical components or spare parts of the
computer system, which you can touch && see. For e.g. Monitor,
keyboard, mouse etc.
• Software
Software is another name for programs. Programs are the
instructions that tell him computer how to process the data into the form you
want. You cannot touch physically to computer software. There are types of
software.
1: System Software
2: Application Software
You can think of application software as the kind you use. Think system software as the kind
the computer uses.
1. System Software
The user interacts with application Software, System software enables the application software
that Interacts with the computer hardware, for e.g. windows 2000, Dos UNIX etc.
2. Application Software
Application software might be might be described as "end-user" software application. Software
performs useful works on general purpose task such as Word processing and data analysis for
e.g. MS-word, MS-excel, MS-PowerPoint etc.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS
1: Micro computer
• Desktop
• Notebook
• PDA

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 2: Mini computer
3: Main-frame computer
4: Super computer
1: Micro computer
Microcomputer is most widely used & fastest growing of computer. This computer are also
known as Personal Computer(pc) are the smallest general, purpose Computer desktop Computer
are small enough to fit on top of or alongside desk yet are too big to carry around notebook
computer are portable weight between 4 and 10 pound , and fit into most briefcase. Personal
Digital Assistance (PDA) is also known as Palmtop Computer. They combine pen input writing
recognition, personal organization tool, and communication capabilities in a very small package.
2: Mini computer
Mini Computer is also known as midrange computer, minicomputer is desk-size machines.
Medium sized companies or department of large company’s computer to monitor certain
manufacturing process and assembly-line operations.
3: Main-frame computer
These large computer occupy specially wired, air-conditions rooms. Although not nearly as
powerful as supercomputer, Mainframe computer are capable of grate processing speed & data
device. For E.g. insurance companies used to mainframe computer to process information about
millions of policyholder.
4: Super computer
The most powerful type of computer is super computer. These machines are special high
capacity computer used by very large organization. For E.g. NASSA uses super computer to
Track & control space Exploration.

MEMORY
Memory of a microcomputer can also be contained on a chip. Memory can be assemble on the
same chip as the microprocessor, but usually it comes as separate chip there is four types of
memory chip are commonly used in microcomputer.
A: RAM (Random Access Memory)
Ram is a read or writes type of memory i.e. you can read information from
RAM, & you can also ‘write’ information in to Ram. Ram is used as the main memory of
microcomputer. Ram is volatile i.e. Information has stored in Ram is lost when power is
switched off.
B: ROM (Read Only Memory)

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 Information stored in a ROM can only be ‘read’. It cannot be altered and fresh
information cannot be written in to it. Information is burnt in to ROM chip at the same time of
manufacturer, once stored the information becomes permanent. It is not affected even when the
power is switched off. Rom is mainly used to store some permanent program or data.
C: PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):
PROM is variation of ROM that can be burnt or programmed by the user.
However, once programmed the recorded information cannot be changed. We can store program
in PROM. It is programmable.
D: EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory):
Information stored in EPROM is also permanent like ROM but it can be erased by
exposing the chip to ultraviolet light. Once erased an EPROM can be used for storing some
different information. We can program it to any number of times.

INPUT DEVICE/OUTPUT DEVICE

Component and user need to know about the most commonly used input device including
Keyboard, Mouse, Digital, Cameras, Scanners and Voice Reorganization Device. Additionally
the need to know about commonly used output devices including Monitors, Printer, and Plotters
& Speakers.

INPUT DEVICE
Input device take a data & program people can read or understand & convert them to from that
the computer can process. The device which is used to send the data to the computer input is
called as input device of computers i.e. keyboard, mouse, scanner.
1: Keyboard
A computer keyboard combines a typewriter keyboard like type writer machine with a
numeric keypad. Additionally it has many special purpose keys. Some key as Caps lock, ctrl, Alt,
Function keys, print screen etc.
There are two types of keyboard
1: Standard keyboard (84keys)
2: Enhanced keyboard (101,105 & above keys)
• Typewriter keys: these are normal keys on the keyboard these include letter’s Number’s
Punctuation symbol (A to Z)
• Function keys: the keys label F1 to F12. These keys carryout different function
depending on software you are using e.g. you use F3 to repeat the last Dos command you
typed.
• Cursor control keys: These keys are marked by (Left), (Right), (Up), (Down). The
cursor keys are used to move the screen one line or one character at a time.
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 • Numeric keys: On the right hand side of keyboard is the numeric keypad containing
calculator like keys. Some of keys have Double function. For e.g. the key marked 7 also
has homed written on it. The Switch over between the two function of a key is controlled
by making NUM Lock on. (Indicating by the green Light).
• Caps Lock Key: Normally when alphabetic is type it is shown in lower case. When Caps
Lock Key is ON then letters will appear in upper case.
• Shift Key: Holding down Shift Key & then pressing a letter along with this key an upper
case letter.
• Enter key: It is use for two main purposes it attests about PC that we finish giving
instruction.
• Pause key: It helps the DOS to stop the scrolling of Information.
• Tab Key: It is use to indent the paragraph & line of columns.
• Escape Key: It is use to cancel or to ignore the entry or the command we have just
entered.
• Print Screen Key: If this key is pressed along with Shift key whatever is displayed on
screen gets printed on printer.
• Ctrl & Alt: These keys are often used in combination with her keys to produce action
• Back Space: Pressing Back Space key it erases the character to the left, moving cursor
character at a time
• Delete Key: It is use to erase the character or line right side of the cursor point.
I. MOUSE:
A mouse controls a pointer that is displayed on the monitor. The pointer appears in the
shape of an arrow (↗️). It frequently depending on application. The standard mouse has a ball on
the bottom and it is attached with the system unit. The standard mouse has evolved over time
with many predecessors. There similar devices to a mouse are track balls, touch surfaces, and
pointing stick. You can use track balls to control the pointer by rolling a boll with your thumb.
You can use touch surfaces to control the pointer by moving and typing your finger on surface of
pad. You can the pointing stick with your finger.
II. JOYSTICK:
The joystick is more popular input device for computer games. You control game actions
by varying the pressure, speed, direction of joystick. Add it on controls such as buttons and
triggers are used to specify commands or initiate specify actions.
III. TOUCH SCREEN:
A touch screen is a particular kind of monitor screen covered with plastic layer. We can
use to select action or commands by touching the screen with finger. It is easy to use, especially
when people need information quickly. They are commonly used at automated Teller machines
(ATM), Information centers, restaurants and department stores.
IV. DIGITIZER:

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 It is device that can be used to trace or a copying a drawing or photograph. The item to be
copied is placed on a flat digitizing tablet. After the image has been trace it displayed on the
screen, printed out on paper or stored on the computer for later use.
V. LIGHT PEN:
A light pen is a light sensitive pen like device. The light pen is placed against the monitor.
This closes a photo electric circuit and identifies the spot for entering or modifying data. Light
pen is used by engineers, for e.g. in designing anything from microprocessor chips to airplane
parts.
VI. DIGITAL CAMERA:
Digital camera is similar to traditional camera except that images are recorded digitally on
a disk or in the camera’s memory rather than on film. Although faster than traditional
photography, digital camera prices are typically higher, and image quality is not quite good.
Digital camera is particularly popular with real estate agents, who use them to capture images of
homes to be display on their Web pages.
VII. DIGITAL VIDEO CAMERAS:
Unlike traditional videos cameras, digital video cameras record motion digitally on a disk
or in the cameras memory. Compared to traditional video cameras, the image quality is better
and the price is higher. Webcams are specialized digital video cameras that capture images and
send them to a computer for broadcast over the Internet.
VIII. DIGITAL NOTEBOOK:
Taking class notes may never be the same again. Digital notebooks use a regular notepad
on a top of an electronic pad. Whenever you move a special pen across the notepad, a signal
tracing your movement is sent to and store in an electronic pad. These notebooks can store up to
50 pages of notes before they reach their capacity. The notes are transferred to a microcomputer,
where they can be viewed organized and edited as needed.
IX. SCANNER:
An Image scanner, also known simply as a scanner, copies or reproduces images. There
are two basic types Image scanner are commonly used in desktop publishing to scan graphic
images and in research to scan text.
• Flatbed scanner is much like a copy machine. The scanned document is to be placed
on a glass surface and the scanner records the image from below.
• Portable scanner is typical a handheld device that slides across the image, making
direct contact.
• Pen scanner is a highly portable device for capturing text. With these devices, the
light and dark areas as well as color of the image are recorded as points or dots.
X. VOICE-INPUT DEVICES:

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 Voice-input devices convert a person’s speech into a digital code; by far the most widely
used voice-input device is the microphone. This input device when combined with a sound card
and appropriate software forms a voice recognition system. These systems enable users to
operate microcomputers and to create documents using voice commands. These units typically
are able to create documents using voice command. These units typically are able to record for
up to one hour. They can also connect to a computer system through the system unit s serial port
to save files and print documents

OUTPUT DEVICE
Output devices convert machine-readable in formation into people -readable for data is input to
and them processed by the computer device make it people-readable .the output devices weld
scribe for microcomputers are monitors printers, plotters and voice-output.
• MONITOR (V.D.U)
Monitor standards indicate screen quality. Some monitors are used others are portable the most
frequently used output device is the monitor. Two important characteristic of monitor are size
and clarity. A monitor size is indicated by the diagonal length of its viewing area. Common sizes
are 15, 17, 19 and 21 inches. Larger monitors have however they are more expensive. Monitor
clarity is indicated by its resolution, which is measured in pixel. Pixels are individual dots or
picture element that from images on a monitor. For a given size monitor, the greater resolution
(the more pixels), the better the clarity of the image for a given level of clarity, larger monitor
require a higher resolution (more pixel).
Standards
To indicate a monitors resolution capabilities, several standard have evolved. The four most
common today are SVGA, XGA, SXGA, and UXGA.
• SVG stand or super video graphics array. It has a minimum resolution of 800 by 600
pixels; A few years ago SVGA was the most popular standard. Today it is used
primarily with 15inch monitor.
• XGA stands tor extended graphics array it has a resolution of up to 1024 by 7O8
pixels, I8 a popular standard today especially with 17 and 19 inch monitors.
• SAGA stands for super extended graphics array this standard has a resolution of 1024
by pixels, it is a popular with 19-inch and 21inch monitors.
• UXGA stands for ultra-extended graphics array. UXGA is the newest and highest
standard, although not as widely used as the XGA and SXGA monitors; its popularity
is extended to increase dramatically as 21 inch monitors are primarily used to high and
engineering design and graphic art.

PRINTERS
Basically printers are divided on following types
1) Impact printers

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a) Dot matrix printer
b) Daisy wheel printer
2) Non-impact printers
a) Ink Jet Printer
b) Laser printer
The image output on a monitor is often referred to as copy. Information output on a
paper-whether by a printer or by plotter is called hard copy. Three popular kinds of
printers used microcomputer are inkjet. Laser and thermal.
1: INKJET PRINTER
An ink-jet printer sprays small droplets of ink at high speed on to the surface of the
paper. This process not only produces a later-quality image but also ink-jet permits
printing to be done in a variety of colors. Ink-jet printers are used wherever color and
appearance are important, as in advertising and public relations.
2: LASER PRINTERS:
The laser printer uses a technology similar to that used in a photocopying machine. It
uses a laser beam to produce images with excellent letter and graphics quality. More
expensive than ink-jet Printers, laser printers are used in applications requiring high
quality.
3: THERMAL PRINTER:
A thermal printer uses heat elements to produce image on heat sensitive paper.
Originally these printers were used in scientific labs to record data. More recently, color
thermal have been widely used to produce very high quality color artwork and text.
4: DOT MATRIX PRINTER:
Dot matrix printers form characters or images using a series of small pins on print
head. Once the most widely used micro computer printer, dot matrix printers are
Inexpensive and reliable but quite noisy. In general, they are used for tasks where a high
quality image is not essential. They are often use for documents that are circulated with
an organization rather than shown to clients and public.
5: CHAIN PRINTER:
You won’t to find a chain printer standing alone on desk next to the microcomputer. This
is because a chain printer is an expensive, high speed machine originally designed to
serve microcomputer and mainframe.
PLOTTERS
Plotters are special- purpose drawing devices. Plotters are special purpose output devices
tor producing bar charts, maps, architectural drawings and even three-dimensional
Illustrations. There are four types of plotters: pen, ink-jet electrostatic, and direct
imaging.
• PEN PLOTTER: A Pen plotter creates plots by moving a pen or pencil over draining
paper. (With some pen plotters, the paper moves and the pen remain stationary). Pen
plotters are the least expensive plotters and the easiest to maintain. Their major
limitations are slower speed and an inability to produce solid fills and shading.

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 • INK-JET PLOTTER: Inject Plotter creates line drawings and solid color output by
spraying droplets of ink on to paper. Their best features are their speed, high quality
output, and quiet operation.
• ELECTROSTATIC PLOTTER: whereas pen plotter use Pen, electrostatic plotters use
electrostatic charges to create images made up of tiny dots on specially treated paper.
The image is produced when the paper is run through a developer.
• DIRECT IMAGING PLOTTER: Direct imaging plotter or thermal plotters create
images using heat sensitive paper and electrically heated pins. This type of plotter is
comparable priced with electrostatic plotters, quite reliable and good for high-volume
work.
VOICE OUTPUT DEVICE
Voice output devices vocalize prerecorded sounds. Voice output device make
sounds that resemble human Speech but actually are prerecorded vocalized sounds. The
most widely used voice output devices are stereo speakers and headphones. These
devices are connected to a sound card in the system unit.
SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES
When the pc is turned off, anything stored in RAM is lost. A computer is of little use
if you lose the letter you have just written or the calculation you have made every time
you shut down. The computer in order to overcome this drawback uses magnetic disk to
store data permanently so that it won’t be affected when turn off your computer. The
amount of data can be stored on disk is measured in kilobytes (thousands of bytes) or
megabytes (millions of bytes). There are basically two types of disks that are floppy disk
and hard disk.
FLOPPY DISK:
Floppy disk is a storage media on to which data can be permanently recorded assorted. It
is very delicate object therefore, it should be handle very carefully and stored in safe
place protect from heat, moisture, magnetic object etc. floppy disk of comes in two Sizes
i.e. 5¼ & 3½. Protective jacket: than floppy disk has outer jacket. The purpose of the
jacket is to protect the inner recording medium (disk) from dust, contamination, touch
etc. Recording medium: it consists of flexible disk coated on both sides with a magnetic
material. Information written on to by magnetizing this coating. Index Hole: the smallest
circular hole on the recording medium and the disc jacket is called the index hole. This is
used by the drive as the starting point for all the sectors and the disk. Label Area: this
area has been assigned so that label can be fixed to the floppy that indicates the
information/data stored in it.
Read/Write Media: this is the area where the read/write heads of the floppy disk drive
can access the disk. Through this area, the computer is able to read contents of the floppy
or write to a floppy.
Write Protect Notch: this prevents you or anyone else from accidentally or changing or
erasing anything from the diskettes. It means when your diskettes is write protect you
cannot add or delete anything from it. But it can read or copy the contents of the disk on
to the computer, when we cover or stick a label or write protects notch is disk become
write protected and when we remove it the disk becomes unwritten-protected.
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 Track and sectors: data is recorded on a disk in rings called tracks. These tracks are
closed concentric circles, not a single spiral as on a phonograph record. Unlike a
phonograph record these tracks have no visible grooves. Looking at an Exposed floppy
disk. You would see just a smooth surface. Each track is divided into invisible Wedge-
shaped sections known as sectors (Note. It is advisable to never touch this area as this
may lead to corruption of data stored in the floppy)
TYPES OF FLOPPIES
Floppy comes in various sizes and varying storage capacities. They are 5¼ &3¼ in
size. Storage capacities of floppies are measured in kilobytes (KB) or megabytes (MB).
Tomorrow’s Standard Floppy Disk:
• Zip disks are produced by omega and typically have a 100MB or 25OMB
capacity over 170 times as much today’s system units. They are widely used
to store multimedia, Database, large text and spreadsheet files.
• Super disk are produced by Imation and have a 120 MB capacity. They have
one major advantage over zip disk super disk drives are able to read and write
data on today’s 1.44 MB standard disk. Super disk are popular for use with
notebook computers.
• HIFD disk they have the capacity of 200 MB, and super Disk drive, hiFD disk drive are
able to use today’s 1.44 MB standard disk.
Description Capacity
2HD 1.44
Zip 100MB/250
Super disk 120MB
HiFD 200MB

No Technical term Size Storage capacity

1. (DSDD) 5¼ 360 KB
Sided double density Double
2. (DSHD) 5¼ 1.2 MB
Sided high density Double
3. (DSDD) 3½ 720KB
Sided double density Double
4. (DSHD) 3½ 1.44 MB
Sided high density Double

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 HARD DISK
Hard disks are of three types:
Internal Hard disk
Hard disk cartridge
Hard disk pack
Hard disk use thicker ridged metallic platters. Hard disks are able to store and read
Information much faster and have a greater capacity. A head crash happens when the
surface of the read-write head or particles surface contact the magnetic disk surface.
Internal hard disk
An internal hard disk is known as a fixed disk because it is located inside the system
unit. It is used to store programs and large data files. Internal hard disks have two
advantages over floppy disks capacity and speed.
Hard disk cartridge
While internal hard disks provide fast access, they have a fixed amount of storage
cannot be easily removed. Hard disks cartridges are as easy to remove as a cassette from
video cassette recorder. The amount of storage available to a computer system is limited
only by the number of cartridges. The typical capacity for a hard disk cartridge is
gigabytes.
Hard disk pack
Hard disk packs are removable storage devices used to store massive amounts of
information. Their capacity far exceeds the other types of hard disks. Microcomputers
have access to external hard disk packs through communication lines. Banks and credit
card companies use them to record finance information. Hard disk packs consists of
several platters aligned one above the other. A disk pack with 11 disks provides 20
recording surface. This is because the top and bottom outside surfaces of the pack are not
used. Access time is the time between the computer request for data from secondary
storage and the completion of the data transfer.

TYPE DESCRIPTION
Internal Fast access to application, Fixed
Cartridge disk, removal Complement to internet to hard
Disk pack removal
DISK PACK Massive storage capacity
Removal
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 OPTICAL DISK:
Optical disks use laser technology. CD and DVD are optical disk formats. Today’s
optical disks can hold over 4.7gigabytes of data. That is the equivalent of over million
typewritten page or
Medium- sized library all on single disk. Optical disks are having a great impact on
storage today, but we are probably only beginning to see their effects. In optical disk
technology, a laser beam alters the surface of a plastic metallic disk to represent data.
Unlike Floppy and hard disks, which use magnetic charges to represent is and 0s. Optical
disks use reflected light. The Is and 0s are represented by flat areas called lands and
bumpy areas called pitch on the disk surface, The disk is read by a laser that project a tiny
beam of light on these areas, The amount of reflected light determines whether the
area represents a 1 or 0. Optical disks come in many different sizes including 3¼, 4¾,
5¼, 8, 12, 14 inches. The most command size is 4 inch.

COMPACT DISK:
Compact disk, or as it is better known, CD, format is the most widely used today. CD
drives are standard on much micro computer system. Typically, CD drives can store 650
megabytes of data on one side of a CD, One important characteristic of 1CD derives is
their speed. The rotational speed is important because speed. The rotational speed is
important because it determines how fast data can be transferred from the CD. For
example a 24x or 24-speed CD drive can transfer 4.8MB per second. The faster the drive,
the faster data can be read from the CD and used by the computer system. There are three
types of CDs: CD-ROM, CD-R and CD-RW
• CD ROM, which stands for compact disk-read only memory, is Similar to commercial
music CD. Read only means it cannot be written on or erased by the user. CD-ROM is
used to distribute large Debases and references. They are also used to distribute large soft
application packages for Example, Microsoft office on a single CD- ROM.
• CD-R stands for compact disk recordable. Also known as WORM, write once read many;
CD-R can be written once. CD-R is used to create custom music CDs.
• CD-RW stands for compact disk rewritable. Also known as erasable optical disks, these
disks are very similar to other. CD-R except that the disk surface is not permanently
altered when data is recorded. Because they can be changed. CD-RWs are often used to
create and edit multimedia presentations.

DIGITAL VERSATILE DISK

DVD stands for digital versatile disk or digital video disk. This is a relatively new &
evolving format. DVD and DVD drives are very similar to CDs except that more data can
be packed into the same amount of space. The DVD drives can store 4.7 gigabytes on one
side of a DVD more than seven times the capacity of a CD. DVD ROM stands for digital

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 versatile disk – read only Memory. DVD-ROM can provide over two hours of Very high
quality video and sound comparable to that found it picture theaters.
MAGANETIC TAPE
Magnetic tape Streamers and magnetic tape reel are used primarily for backup Purposes.
To find a particular song on an audio tape you may have to play several inches of tape
Provide the disc provides fast, direct access. Tapes provide sequential access with tape
Information is stored in Sequence, Such as alphabetically. It is an effective way of
marking a backup, or duplicate. There are two form of tape storage. These are magnetic
tape streamers for use with microcomputers, and magnetic tape Reel, for use with
minicomputer & Mainframe.
MAGANETIC TAPE STREAMERS
Magnetic tape streamer or a backup tape cartridge unit, this enables you to duplicate or
make a backup of the data on your guard disc onto a tape cartridge. Typical Capacities of
such tape cartridge are 10or 20 gigabytes. Advanced from of backup technology known
as digital audiotape (DAT) drive, which use 2-inch by 3-inch cassettes, store 4 gigabytes
or more.
MAGANETIC TAPE REEL
The cassette tape you get an audiotape recorder are only about 200 feet long they record
200 characters to inch. A reel of magnetic tape used with minicomputer & Mainframe
streams, by contrast, is inch wide and mile long. It store 1,600 to 6,400 characters to the
inch. Such tape is run on magnetic tape drive or magnetic tape units.

MODEMS
There are three types of conventional modems: external, internal, and wireless. The
external modem stand apart from the computer and is connected by a cable to the
Computer serial port. Another cable connect the modem to the telephone will jack. The
internal modem consists of a plug-in circuit board inside the system unit. A Telephone
cable connects the modem to the telephone wall jack. The wires modem is very similar to
the external modem. It connects to the computer serial port. Unlike an external Modem, it
does not connect to telephone lines rather wireless modem receives through the air.

SOFTWARE CONCEPT
As we know that SOFTWARE implies to the programs or set of instructions that
enable the computer to solve problem successfully. We will examine the various
categories of software that constitute the various categories of software that constitute the
software family.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE

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 APPLICATION SOFTWARE
• SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software is a collection of related programs required to operate and control the
functioning of a computer, these programs make computers easy to be used by layman,
since the complex internal functions of the computer can be achieved by the use of
Standard English phrases called commands. System software consists of operating
systems, utilities, device drivers, and language translators. System software deals with the
physical complexities of computer hardware. It consists of four kinds of programs:
Operating systems, utilities device drivers, and language Translators.
• OPERATING SYSTEM
OPERATING SYSTEMS are programs that operate your microcomputer. They
coordinate computer resources, provide an Interface between users and computer, and run
applications. Every computer has an operating system and every operating system performs
three basic functions: managing resources, providing a user interface, and running
applications DOS, WINDOWs, MAC-OS, and UNIX are popular operating systems.
The operating systems can be of two types:
1: Single user it means that at one point of time, only one person can use the
computer. Some common examples are MS-DOS (MICROSOFT DISC
OPERATING SYSTEM), CP/M (CONTROL PROGRAM FOR MICRO
COMPUTERS), OS/2 etc.
2: MULTI USER: these operating systems can support more than one terminal at
any point of time i.e. more than one Person can have access to the computer
(CPU) at the same time. Popular examples of this type of OS are UNIX and
XENIX.
UTILITIES
UTILITIES, also known as services programs, perform specific tasks related to managing
computer resources or files. They include programs to help users identify hardware problems,
locate lost files, and back up data. Device drivers are specialized programs designed to allow
particular input or output devices to communicate with the rest of the computer system.
Language translators convert the programming instructions written by programmers into a
language that computers Understand and process.
• APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software is a set of programs written for any specific application whether it is
scientific or commercial. This is mainly written to simplify various tasks of that particular
application.

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 These are sub divided in to standard and customized
Standard Software/Package
These are pre-defined, pre-formatted, standardized ready-made packages essentially, menu-
driven, interactive.
Examples
MS-WORD word processing
EXCEL Accounting/Graph
POWER POINT Presentation
Customized Software
It is developed keeping in mind the requirements of the user. It has several stages called as
system analysis and design (SAD). It takes several weeks/ months for developing a full-
fledged system.
MULTITASKING AND MULTI PROCESSING
Buffers from a portion of the memory which the I/O devices access. Hence the user can
keep inputting data from the keyboard into the input buffer while the CPU can execute a
program and the printer keeps printing data from the output buffer. Periodically the OS
program looks if the keyboard buffer is full or the printer buffer is empty. If the keyboard
buffer is full the OS transfer the data for processing and when the printer buffer is empty, it
puts in new data. Thus, the I/O operations are arrived on independently without the CPU
having to idle.
NETWORKING OF COMPUTER
A computer network is a communication system connecting two or more computers that
work together to exchange information and share resources.
TYPES OF NETWORK
• LOCAL AREA NETWORK(LAN):
Network with computers and peripheral devices in close physical proximity-
within the same building For instance, network linked by cable telephone, coaxial or fiber
optics etc. Are called local area network (LAN). LAN is often use in a bus form of
organization.
• METROPOLITIAN AREA NETWORK
(MAN):
The next step from the LAN might be the MAN the Metropolitan’s area network.
These networks are used as links between office buildings in a city. Cellular phone system
expands the flexibility of MAN by allowing links to car phone and portable phones.

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 Computers placed at different places or offices in the same city or town when connected
together by means of cellar phones, portable phones that is called MAN.
• WIDE AREA NETWORKS (WANs):

Wide area networks are countrywide and worldwide networks. Among other
kinds of channels, they use microwave relays and satellites to reach users our long distance
for example, from Los Angeles to parts. Of course, the widest of all WANs is the Internet,
which spans the entire globe.

INTERNET
The Internet is like a highway that connects you to millions of other people and organization
unlike typical highway that move people and information. Rather than moving through
geographic space you move through cyberspace. The internet was launched in 1669 when the
United State funded a project that development a national computer network called Advance
Research Project Agency Network, (ARPANET). The WEB, also known as WWW and
World Wide Web, was introduced in 1992 at the center for European Nuclear Research
(CERN) In Switzerland. Form the web provided multimedia interface to resources available
on the Internet. Form these research beginnings, the Internet and the Web have evolved as
tools for all of us to use. For Example, you can chat with friend and collaborate on group
projects using the Internet and instant messaging. Internet Application the most common
internet applications are communicating, shopping, researching, entertainment and
Communicating Via e- mail is the most popular internet activity. You can exchange e-mail
with your friends and family located almost anywhere in the world, you can also Join and
listen to discussions and debates on a wide variety of special- interested topics.
SHOPPING
One of the fastest growing Internet applications is electronic commerce. You can visit a cyber-
mall to window shop at the best stores look for the latest fashions search for bargains and make
purchases. You can purchase goods using checks. Credit cards or electronic cash.
RESEARCH
By visiting virtual libraries you can browse through the stacks, read selected items and even
check out books.
ENTERTAINMENT
Do you like music, books, magazines, or computer games? You’ll find live concerts, movie
previews, book club, and Interactive live games.
INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDERS
An internet services provider (ISP) offers access to the Internet for a fee. The best known
national internet service providers are AT &T WorldNet IBM internet connection and
MindSpring. Local providers are also available in many areas at a slightly lower cost.

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E-MAIL
An e-mail message has three basic elements. Internet addresses use the domain name system.
You can communicate with anyone in the world who has an internet and an internet address or
the internet and a C-mail account with a system connected to the internet. Two of the most
widely used e-mail programs are Microsoft’s outlook express and Netscape’s Navigator
BROWSERS
BROWSERS connect to web sites using URL addresses. A Web portal offers services; the web
is accessed through your computer using special software known as a browser. This software
connects you to remote computers, opens and transfer files, displays text and images, and
provides in one tool an uncomplicated interface and web documents, two well-known browsers
are Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet explorer.
WEB PAGES
Browsers interpret HTML documents to display web Pages. Once the browser has connected to a
web site a document file is sent to you. Computer this document contains hypertext Markup
Language (HTML) COMMANDS the browser interprets the HTML commands and display the
documents As a Web Page. Typically, the first page of a Web site is referred to as its home page.
The home page present Information about the site along with references and Hyperlinks, or
connections to other documents that contain related information text files, graphic images, audio
and Video clips.
POST (Power on self-test)
When your machine does a self-test the first it thing it looks through is it memory the RAM each
and every bite of which is checked. Look at the screen when you first switch on and you will see
it counting up this memory in Kilobytes (K.B.) once the memory check is computers the PC test
its other major components Some machines display information on their screen as each
component is checked others report only errors.

SPECIAL FILES
AUTOEXEC.BAT
This file is ordinary batch file containing DOS command. The advantage on this file is when
computer is put on after post (Power on Self-Test) Program is over. This file get executed
automatically the Autoexec.bat file has got more priority then operating system files, its main
advantages are that different anti viruses utilities etc. can be Booted in this files of that they will
be automatically executed the movement power is put on. Config.sys another special file that dos
execute before autoexec.bat file this file is basically use for configure computer hardware with
software.
COMPUTER VIRUS

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 Computer virus is basically program which is specially mode for disturb the computer
program. Once the virus enters the system attach every file and speed rapidly. There are two
types of virus
A. Boot sector virus or partition tables virus
B. File virus
THE BOOTSECTOR VIRUS is most sensitive virus if it appear on only disk this make the
entire disk unless this virus attack the boot sector of the disk this is most deadly virus some of
the diehard two GUMBAM 1½. FILE VIRUS these viruses attach only executed files like .com
and exe when the in effected files executed the virus spared to other.com exe.
FILE VIRUS these viruses attach only executed files like .com and exe when the in effected
files executed files executed the virus spared to other .com exe.
ANTI VIRUS this is basically program that is used to remove or delete or kill different virus
some of them different antivirus are: VIRU SCAN, SCAN, SAFE, CPAV, V SCAN, TOOKIT,
NASH SCAN, MICROSOFT ANTIVIRUS this virus can be remove 5000 different virus.
WHAT IS BOOTING? HOW MANY TYPES OE
BOOTING IS THERE?
When we switch on the computer, in Other words the process of switching on the computer is
called as booting.
There are two types of booting, they are:
A: COLD B0OTING
B: WARM BOOTING
COLD
BOOTING:
When we switch on the computer it passes through all the stages of booting i.e. Process
(power on self-test) this is called as COLD BOOTING.
WARM BOOTING:
When we press Ctrl+alt+delete keys simultaneously, this type of booting is called as Warm
Booting there when the system is booted by pressing Ctrl+alt+delete keys it does not pass
through all the booting System.
LOCATING AND LOADING MS-DOS
Your PCs last task during the self-test is to load the operating System i.e. MS-DOS, DOS usually
comes pre-installed on the Hard disks, but when the computer looks for DOS it checks floppy
disk drive a first. If the computer does not find it there it looks for it on the hard disk and if it
finds DOS loads the DOS program file into memory. After locating is complete DOS takes over
and displays a command prompt, indicating it is ready for action.
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THE COMMAND PROMPT OR DOS PROMPT
After you boot the system the screen may look something like the one shown below. The pattern
c :\> 0n the above Screen is the DOS prompt.
WHAT IS BOOTING FROM A:
The process of loading the MS-DOS from the floppy disk is called as booting from A and the
prompt in this case would appear as A:\>.

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