Mechanical Properties of Matter

My Notes on Physics /dkjindal 1
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

(A) ELASTICITY
When external forces are applied on a body, the body may get deformed. When deformed, internal
forces come into existence which tend to restore the body to its original shape and size. The property
or tendency to restore the original shape and size or to oppose the deformation is called elasticity.
The extent to which a body restores to its original shape or size after deforming forces are removed,
depends upon the nature of the matter constituting the body. If a body gets 100% restoration i.e., no
deformation is left in it after the removal of deforming forces, it is called a perfectly elastic body.
On the other hand, if a body remains in the deformed state and doesn’t regain the original shape
even slightly, it is called perfectly plastic body. Instead of being perfectly elastic or perfectly
plastic, oftenly bodies exhibit partially elastic behaviour. Only certain materials, including metals,
show approximate elastic behaviour and that too only if the deforming forces don’t exceed a certain
limit, called elastic limit.
Cause of elasticity :
It is the nature of interatomic forces between the atoms of a solid which paves the way for elasticity.
The atoms in a solid are spaced so that each atom is in stable equilibrium. The external or deforming
forces change the stable equilibrium spacing between the atoms. This result into modification of
interatomic forces in such a way that restoring forces are developed. These restoring forces tend to
bring the atoms back to their original position causing elasticity.
The situation is same as in case of a spring mass-system.
Further, the potential energy due to inter-atomic or intermolecular forces varies with interatomic
spacing as shown in the following figure.
 U
As F = , and
r
positive force means repulsion,
negative force means attraction, we conclude :
(i) r0 = equilibrium spacing between atoms
(ii) if r > r0 ; attractive forces pull the atoms back
(iii) if r < r0 ; repulsive forces push the atoms back.
That is, when deforming forces change r, restoring forces can restore r 0.
Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

Stress :
The internal restoring forces which come into play when deforming forces are applied, act on each
cross-section of the deformed body in a way to help restoration. The restoring force developed per
unit area of cross-section is called stress. It is denoted by  . To understand it clearly, consider a
body acted upon by external forces which tend to deform the body keeping its centre of mass
ext
stationary ( F total = 0 ). As soon the deformation takes place, internal forces are developed. Consider
any cross-section of area A of the body. The opposing parts of the body on the two sides of A exert
equal and opposite forces F and - F on each other. This pair of internal forces cause stress.
ext ext ext

F total = F 1  F 2  ............  0
The internal force F , on one side of the cross-section A, produces its effect both perpendicular to
A and tangential to A. The two rectangular components of F , one (Ft) tangential to A and the other
(Fn) normal to A do this. Ft provides tangential or shearing stress and Fn provides normal or
longitudinal stress.

(1) Normal stress or Longitudinal stress :

It is defined as the normal component of the restoring force per unit area of cross-section (on one
side of area only).
Fn
Longitudinal or Normal Stress n=
A
Further the longitudinal stress can be of two types (a) tensile stress (b) compressive stress.
(a) Tensile Stress :
(Fn1 = Fn2 = Fn, The normal restoring force)

This case appears when a rod or wire/string is pulled by two opposing forces. In this case, the
deforming forces tend to increase the length of rod or wire.
The resulting restoring force Fn is usually called tension in the rod or wire.
(b) Compressive Stress :
When the deforming forces ( F & - F ) push the rod inward at two ends, the rod tends to contract
Fn
length-wise, i.e., it is under compression. In this case the longitudinal stress is called compressive
A
stress.

(2) Tangential or Shearing Stress :

It is defined as the tangential component of the restoring force per unit area of the cross-section
(taking into consideration only one side of cross-section).
Ft
Tangential or Shearing Stress  t =
A
(3) Volume Stress :
When a body is acted upon by such type of deforming forces that they tend to change the volume of
the body, the internal forces developed inside the body produce volume stress. It happens when the
deforming forces satisfy following conditions :
(i) Forces act all around the body perpendicular to its surface at each point.
(ii) Magnitude of the force at any small area is proportional to that area.
As such type force proportional to area and acting perpendicular to surface all around the body can
be provided only by a fluid pressure, it is possible only if the body is immersed inside a fluid.
If at the location of a small area  S, the fluid pressure is P, then, the deforming force F = P  S,
acting perpendicular to  S. The restoring force Fin will be equal and opposite to F, therefore, the
stress developed, called volume stress is :
Fin F PS
Volume stress, v= = = =P
S S S
Thus volume stress comes out to be equal to fluid pressure.

Strain :
When the deforming forces cause change in shape or size, the amount of this change or deformation
is better understood in terms of strain. Instead of measuring total amount of change, it is better to
measure fractional change as it gives more useful information about effective deformation. ‘The
fractional change in shape or size is called strain’. Associated with each type of stress there is a
corresponding type of strain.
(1) Longitudinal Strain : If a rod of length  experiences a change in length of amount  

because of longitudinal deforming forces. The fractional change in length is called longitudinal

strain.

Longitudinal strain,  = .

If the length increases, the longitudinal strain is called tensile strain. If the length decreases from
its natural length, the strain is called compressive strain.
(2) Shearing Strain : It happens when tangential deforming forces are acting over a cross-section
of the body i.e., when tangential or shearing stress is present.
To understand it, consider a square cross-section over which deforming tangential forces are acting
ext ext
such that F tot = 0 and  tot = 0 , That is body is equilibrium after deformation.
Because of these tangential forces, the square shaped cross-section deforms into a parallelogram.
To measure strain, the parallelogram P’Q’ R’ S’ is rotated so that its base P’Q’ coincides with the base
PQ of original square PQRS. In this new drawing it appears as if the layer SR has sheared i.e.,
displaced to S’R’ and the layer PQ remains fixed. The shearing or displacing layer SR has undergone

a displacement  x and it is situated at a distance y from the fixed layer PQ.

The shearing strain is measured as the displacement or shifting of a layer divided by its distance
from a fixed layer. From the above figure :
SS' x
Shearing strain (or shear)  = =
SP y
x
as _
= tan  , and for small  x, tan  ~
y
x
 shearing strain  = = tan  ~ _ .
y
(3) Volume strain : When a body is under pressure i.e., volume deforming forces are acting, volume
strain & volume stress are developed in it. If the volume changes from V to V + dV, then the volume
strain is defined as
V
Volume strain  =
V
S.I. units of Stress & Strain : S.I. unit of stress 1 N/m2, (which can be called 1 Pascal also). The
strain is a dimensionless quantity and has no units.
Relationship between stress & strain, Hooke’s Law and Modulii of elasticity :
As stress arises as a result of intermolecular or interatomic forces, it can be theoritically proved and
can be experimentally tested that :
If the deformation is small, the stress developed in a body is proportional to the corresponding
strain.
The above fact is called Hooke’s Law.
Hooke’s Law : Stress  Strain (Valid for small deformation.)

or   
We can rewrite it as
Stress = (constant) Strain
Stress
or = constant (for small deformation only)
Strain
The above constant is constant for a given material only and that too for small deformations. It is
called Modulus of elasticity and its value depends upon the nature of matter. Thus, in terms of
Modulus of elasticity, Hooke’s law can be stated as
Stress = (Modulus of elasticity) × Strain
Depending upon the three types of stress and strain, the three types of Modulii of elasticity are
described as :
Young’s Modulus of Elasticyty (Y) :
When two equal and opposite forces, F each, pull or push a rod or stretch a wire, a longitudinal
F
stress is developed where A is the area of cross-section to which F is perpendicular..
A

If the original length  deforms by an amount   , the longitudinal strain is . Then if   is

small, Hooke’s law is valid and gives :

F 
=Y
A 
F
or Y= (same for tensile & compressive stress)
A
Here the modulus of longitudinal elasticity Y is called Young’s Modulus.
(2) Shear Modulus - Modulus of Regidily or Torsional Modulus : When a tangential force F
acting parallel to a surface of area A produces a shift of that surface area by an amount  x parallel
x
to the force F itself and the shifting layer is at a distance y from a fixed layer, the shear strain is
y
F
_  . The shearing stress is
= tan  ~ , and if  x is small, then Hooke’s law gives :
A
F x
=
A y
F
or = 
A
F Fy
or  = =
A Ax
Here the shear modulus of elasticity  , as given by above expression, is called Modulus of
Rigidity or torsional modulus as well.
(3) Bulk Modulus of elasticity : If a volume stress equal to pressure P is developed when a volume
V
V changes by an amount  V, the volume strain is related to the volume stress as :
V
V
P=-B (Hooke’s law ; when  V is small)
V

P
or B= 
V
V
Here B, the modulus of volume elasticity is called Bulk-Modulus of elasticity. The negative sign
ensures B to remain positive when P (the pressure) decreases the volume i.e., when  V is negative.
When the volume changes of fluids are taken into consideration, in such cases pressure difference
or pressure change  P is to be taken as the agency of volume change instead of pressure P..
Under such circumstances, Bulk Modulus is defined as :
P
B= 
V
V
dP dP
and during infinitely small changes , B =  = –V
dV dV
V
The reciprocal of Bulk Modulus is called Compressibility (K).
1 1 dV
Compressibility K= =–
B V dP
Problem : A brass bar, having cross-sectional area 10 cm2 is subjected to axial forces
as shown in the figure. Find total elongation of the bar. (Y = 8 ×10 3 KN/
cm2)
Solution : Dividing the above bar in three sections, the above forces can be shown to act as
under :
F 
As  =
A Y
F1 1 F2 2 F3 3
  1 =
AY
,  2 =
AY
,  3 =
AY
1
  Total
=  1 +  2 +  3 = AY [F1  1 + F2  2 + F3  3]
1
  Total
=
10  8  10 3
. [50 × 60 + 20 × 100 + 10 × 120] cm = 0.0775 cm

POISSON’S RATIO :
When a rod is subjected to tensile stress, its length increases. The increase in length is associated
with decrease in thickness. For example, if the rod or wire is cylindrical, the increase in length is
accompanied by decrease in the diameter of cross-section. In other words, we can say when a
longitudinal force increases the length parallel to it, at the same time it decreases the length
perpendicular or transverse to it.
 d 
The fractional change in transverse length    is proportional to the fractional change in the
 d 
  
longitudinal length  .
  
The constant of proportionality is called Poisson’s ratio.Thus,
d 
 
d 
 d / d
or, the Poisson’s Ratio :  =
 / 
Here the negative sign ensures that the Poisson’s ratio  is positive. The practical value of poisson’ss
1
ratio lies between zero and + . For most of the solids, its value lies between 0.2 and 0.4. When the
2
1
body is perfectly incompressible (  V = 0), Poisson’s ratio is greatest i.e., . Further, it can be
2
easily proved that relationship between volume strain & longitudinal strain is
V 
= [1 - 2  ]
V 
Elastic Constant : Young’s Modulus, Shear Modulus, Bulk Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio are called
elastic constants of a material. The relation between them is as under :
9 3 1
= +
Y  B
Y (3B  2 )
and  = 2 - 1 = 2(3B   )
Following table gives elastic constants of a few important materials.

Elastic Potential Energy of a Strained Body :

When a body is in its natural shape, its inter-molecular/atomic forces are in equilibrium and its
potential energy due to molecular forces is minimum. This potential energy can be supposed to be
zero of elastic potential energy. When the body is strained, restoring forces develop and work has to
be done against these molecular restoring forces. This work is stored in the form of increase of
intermolecular potential energy, and, it is called elastic potential energy. To calculate it suppose a
wire of Young’s modulus Y, original length  , area of cross-section A. Let us find it its elastic
potential energy when its length is increased upto an amount   (= x, say). Let the deforming
force F increases the length by such small amounts, that the force of tension (due to stress) remains
equal and opposite to F, so that
 Y.x 
F = A × Stress = A  
  
For a further increase in length by an amount dx, work done by the force F is
 Y.x 
dW = Fdx = A   .dx
  
This work is stored in the wire as its elastic potential energy. Thus, the total elastic potential energy
stored in the wire for the deformation x is obtained by integerating the above from 0 to x.
 Y.x 
x
1 AY 2
U=  A  dx = x
0    2 
1 AY 2 1 AY
2  
Thus, elastic potential energy U = x = ( )2
2 
1   
 AY  .
  
which can be further written as U =
2 
1
= (maximum stretching force) (extension)
2

1       
In another way : U= Y  .   . (A  )
2      
1
= (stress) (strain) (volume)
2
U 1
Further, the elastic P.E. per unit volume is : u = = (stress) (strain)
volume 2
Stress
Note : Putting strain = , another way of writting U is
Y
1 1
U= . (stress)2 volume
2 Y
Problem : A steel wire of length 2.0 m is stretched through 2.0 mm. The cross-sectional
area of wire is 4.0 mm2. Calculate the elastic potential energy stored in
the wire in the stretched condition. Ysteel = 2.0 × 1011 Nm–2.
 2mm
Solution : Strain, = = 10–3
 2m
  
Stress = Y   = 2 × 10111 × 10–3 Nm–2 = 2 × 108 Nm–2
  
Volume = A  = (4 × 10–6 m2) × 2m = 8 × 10–6 m3
1 1
 U= stress × strain × volume = × 2 × 108 × 10–3 × 8 × 10–6 J = 0.8 J
2 2
Elongation of a uniform rod under its own weight :
A bar of mass M and length L is hanging from point S as shown in figure. The Young’s
modulus of elsticity of the wire is Y and the area of cross-section of the wire is A
(i) Find the stress at x distance from bottom end.(ii)Consider a small section dx of the bar at a
distance x from the lowest point of bar.Find elongation (dL) in section dx.
(iii) Find total elongation in bar.(iv) Find energy density at x distance from bottom end.
(v) Find total elastic potential energy stored in bar.
 Mg 
Solution : (i) The weight of x length of the bar is W   x
 L 
W Mgx
So stress at x distance from bottom 
A AL
(ii) Consider a section of differential length dx at a distance x above the lower end of the rod .
Let the increment in this dx element is dL , then using , Stress = Y (strain) , we get
Mgx dL
Y
AL dx

Mgxdx
 dL 
ALY
L
(iii) Total elongation in wire L   dL

0
L
Mg MgL
 L  
ALY 0
xdx 
2 AY
1 1 (stress) 2
(iv) Energy density at x distance  (stress)(strain) 
2 2 Y
2
1  Mgx  M 2 g 2 x2
 u  
2Y  AL  2YA2 L2
M 2 g 2 x2
(v) Energy stored in Adx volume = Energy density x Adx  (Adx)
2YA2 L2
L
M 2 g 2 x2 M 2g2L
Total energy =   dx 
0
2YA L2 6 AY
Elongation in an accelerated rod : Consider a metal bar of mass M is pulled by forces F1
and F2 from two ends as shown in figure.Consider a small element at x distance from end A , Let
us find out (i) elongation (dL) in small element dx.(ii) total elongation in the bar
Solution :
F1  F2
Acceleration of the bar 
M
Let the tension in the bar at distance x from end A is T, then
Mx  F1  F2 
F1  T   
L  M 
 F  F2 
or T  F1   1 x
 L 
T F1 ( F1  F2 ) x
stress at this point  
A A AL
dL F1 F1  F2 x
As strain = stress/Y   
dx AY ALY
 F ( F  F2 ) x 
 dL   1  1  dx
 AY ALY 

(ii) Total elongation in the bar =  dL

0
L
 F (F  F ) x 
L    1  1 2  dx
0
AY ALY 
L
 F L (F  F ) L 
L    1  1 2 
0
AY 2 AY 
(F1  F2 ) L
L 
2 AY
 F  F2  L
 L   1 
 2A  Y
Elongation in a rotating rod : Cosider a thin uniform copper rod of length l and mass m
rotates uniformly with an angular velovity  in a horizontal plane about a vertical axis passing
through one of its end . We have to find the elongation of the rod.
Solution : When rod is in rotatory motion, every particle of rod moves on a circular path.
Hence, centripetal force in required which is provided by excess tension.
For the small element of length dx
T  (T  dT)  dm. 2 .r
m
 dT  dr 2 r
L
0 L
m 2
T dT  r L rdr ( At free end B. T = 0)
m 2  L2  r 2 
T  
L  2 
m 2 L2  r 2 
T 1  
2 L  L2 
m 2 L  r 2 
T 1  
2  L2 
This gives us the tension (T) at a distance of r from the rotational axis

Elongation of the rod : Let dl is elongation in the small element (of original length dr)
dl
Now strain in this element is , strain = .................(1)
dr
stress T
Also , strain =  (if S = Area of cross section of rod)
Y SY
m 2 L  r 2 
Strain = 1   ...................(2)
2SY  L2 
From equation (1) and (2)
dl m 2 L  r 2 
 1  
dr 2SY  L2 
L
m 2 L  r 2 
L
 dl  
0 0
1  .dr
2SY  L2 
L
m 2 L  r3  m 2 L   L3  
L   r     L   2  
2SY  3L2  0
2SY   3L  
m 2 L  L
L  L 
2SY  3
m 2 L2
 L 
3SY

Relationship between Stress & strain - Elastic limit and Stress-Strain curve :
Hooke’s Law is valid only for small values of strain. For large values of deformation, stress doesn’t
remain proportional to strain. The variation of stress with various values of strain is plotted in the
following graph which shows how longitudinal stress in a wire or rod changes with longitudinal
strain. Initially, when the strain is small (say < 0.01) the stress is proportional to strain i.e., Hooke’s
law is obeyed & Young’s Modulus has well defined value. This goes till a point P is reached which
represents proportional limit i.e., the limit upto which stress and strain are proportional. If the strain
is increased a little bit beyond P, the stress is no longer proportional to strain. Elasticity still remains
intact till a point E is reashed on the graph (E is close to P). Point E represents elastic limit i.e., the
limit upto which the removal of deforming force the solid regains its natural length. The point E is
also called yield point. The value of stress at E (  E) is called limiting stress or yielding stress.
If the wire/rod is stretched beyond elastic limit, the strain increases much more rapidly than stress.
Now, if the deforming force is removed, the strain doesn’t become zero, some permanent deformation
takes place. The behaviour of material now becomes plastic. In the graph, dotted line from C to D
indicates this plasticity. Value of strain O to D represents permanent set or permanent deformation
when stress becomes zero at point C. If the deformation is further increased the wire comes closer
to breaking. The point B on the graph is called breaking point or fracture point. It represents that
value of stress & strain where the wire breaks down. The stress corresponding to B is called breaking
stress or ultimate strength or tensile strength.
If large deformation takes place between elastic limit & fracture point, material is called ductile. If
it breaks soon after elastic limit it is called brittle.

(B) FLUID STATICS

Fluids : Liquids and Gases
Hydrostatics (or Fluid Statics) deals with behaviour of fluids at rest. A fluid is a substance that can
flow and therefore the term fluid includes liquids and gases. A solid can sustain tangential force (or
shearing stress). When a tangential force is applied to a solid body fixed at one end, it is sheared,
but when a tangential force is applied to a fluid its layers would simply slide over one another. In
fact, it is the inability of fluids to resist such tangential forces (or shearing forces) that gives them
the ability to change their shape or to flow. A liquid surface always rests at right angles to the force
to which it is subjected due to this property. This is why normally the free surface of liquid is
horizontal and oceanic surface is spherical.
Pressure and Density
The force acting on a fluid and by a fluid is described by the term pressure which is defined as the
magnitude of the normal force per unit surface area. If F is the force exerted by the fluid on an
elementary area  S, then the pressure of the fluid at the surface is defined as
lim
F
p= (F is perpendicular to S ) ..... (1)
S
S  0
The total force exerted by a fluid on the whole of the area in contact with it is called the thrust.
Thus,
Thrust = Pressure × Area
 
Pressure is a scalar quantity. Its unit is newton per square meter Nm 2 or pascal (Pa)
The density of a fluid is defined as the mass per unit volume of that fluid. If  m is the mass of the
fluid in an elementary volume  V surrounding a point, then the density of the fluid at the point is
defined as
m dm
 = lim

V 0
V dV
In a homogeneous fluid at rest the density is the same at the points in the same horizontal level. The
unit of density is obviously kilogram per cubic meter (kg m –3). The density of a substance relative to
water at 4°C is called the relative density or specific gravity. The density of water is 1000 kg m –3 (or
1gm / cc or 1kg per litre ) at 4° C.
 The density of any substance = The relative density of the substance × density of water at 4°C.
Pressure at a Point in a Fluid

If a fluid is at rest every portion of it is in equilibrium. Let us consider a very thin tubular element
of the fluid submerged within the body of the fluid. Let l be the length of this element and its two
ends are at depths y1 and y 2 from a common horizontal line, as shown in the figure .The thickness
of the element is negligible and its cross-sectional area is  A . The mass of this element is
 m   l  A and its weight is  l  Ag The forces exerted on the element by the surrounding fluid
are perpendicular to its surfaces. As the tube is unaccelerated in any direction , therefore, the net
force on it in any direction due to its weight and the thrust of fluid must be zero . If P1 be the
pressure on the upper cross-section and P2 at its lower cross-section then for its equilibrium along its
length , we get

 mg sin   P1  A  P2  A
or  l  Ag sin   P1  A  P2  A
but , l sin   y2  y1
therefore ,   y2  y1  Ag  P1  A  P2  A
or P2  P1    y2  y1 g  P1  hg
Thus , if there are two points A and B in a fluid at rest and the point B is at a depth h below the point
A then , PB  PA  h g
Laws of Fluid Pressure (a) A fluid at rest exerts pressure equally in all directions.
(b) The pressure at any point on the same horizontal line in a fluid at rest is the same.
(c) The pressure at a point of a fluid at rest is proportional to the depth of the point
from the free surface of the fluid (provided the density of the fluid remains constant).
Atmospheric Pressure (P0) It is pressure of the earth’s atmosphere. This changes with weather
and elevation. Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level (an average value) is 1.013 × 10 5 Pa. Thus,
1 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa
Barometer : It is a device used to measure atmospheric pressure.
In principle, any liquid can be used to fill the barometer, but mercury is the substance of choice
because its great density makes possible an instrument of reasonable size. See the following figure
showing a barometer in principle (Torricelli’s Eperiment ) :
P1 = P2 = atmospheric pressure (P0)

But P2 = 0 +  gh =  gh
where,  = density of mercury  P0 =  gh
Thus, the mercury barometer reads the atmospheric pressure (P 0) directly from the height of the

mercury column.
For example if the height of mercury in a barometer is 760 mm, then atmospheric pressure will be,
P0 =  gh = (13.6 × 103) (9.8) (0.760) = 1.013 × 105 N/m2
Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure
The excess pressure above atmospheric pressure is usually called gauge pressure and the total
pressure is called absolute pressure. Thus,
Gauge pressure = absolute pressure - atmospheric pressure
Absolute pressure is always greater than or equal to zero. While gauge pressure can be negative
also.
Manometer : It is device used to measure the pressure of a gas inside a container.
The U-shaped tube often contains mercury ,  is the density of murcury

Then P1 (=P) = P2
where, P1 = pressure of the gas in the container (P) , atmospheric pressure = P 0
Then P2 = P0+  gh  P = P2 = P0 + h  g
This can also be written as P - P0 = gauge pressure = h  g
Thus by measuring h we can find absolute (or gauge) pressure in the vessel.
Problem : A U-tube is partly filled with water. Another liquid, which does not mix with
water, is poured into one side until it stands 5 cm above the water level on the other side,
which has meanwhile risen a distance 10 cm. Find the density of the liquid.
Solution :
Consider a horizontal line AB through the point of contact : Pressure at A = Pressure at B

or 0.25 ×  × g = 0.20 × 1000 × g
0.20
or  = × 1000 kgm–3 = 800 kgm–3
0.25
Problem ( Hare’s Apparatus ) : The two limbs of an inverted U-tube provided with a stop-cock
in the side tube near the bend are dipped in two breakers, one containing water and the other
a liquid. A little air is then sucked out by opening the stop-cock which is subsequently closed.
The water and the liquid rise in the limbs up to 20 cm and 16 cm from their respective free
surface. Calculate the relative density of the liquid.
Solution : Considering equilibrium of water column we have

P = (atmospheric pressure) = P0  0.20  w g
where P0 = pressure of the enclosed air..
Considering equilibrium of the liquid column, we have
P = P0  0.16 g
 P0  0.20  w g  P0  0.16 g
 20
or  w = 16 = 1.25
This example illustrates the way of finding the density of a liquid miscible with water. The
arrangement is known as Hare’s Apparatus.
Problem : A glass full of water upto a height of 10 cm has a bottom of area 10 cm2, top of
area 30 cm2 and volume 1 litre. Find (a) the force exerted by the water on the bottom. (b) Find
the resultant force exerted by the sides of the glass on the water. (c) If the glass is covered by
a jar and the air inside the jar is completely pumped out, what will be the answers to parts (a)
and (b)?
(d) If a glass of different shape is used provided the height, the bottom area and the volume
are unchanged, will the answers to parts (a) and (b) change?
(Take g = 10 m/s2 density of water = 103 kg/m3 and Patm = 1.01 ×105 N/m2)
Solution :(a) Force exerted by the water on the bottom F1 = (P0 +  gh)A1 ..... (i)
Here,P0 = atmospheric pressure ,  = density of water , h = 0.1 m , A1 area of base = 10 m2–3
Substituting in Eq. (i), we get

F1 = (1.01 × 105 + 103 × 10 × 0.1) × 10–3 N = 102 N (downwards)

Force exerted by atmosphere on water : F2 = (P0)A2
Here, A2 = area of top = 3 × 10–3 m2
 F2 = (1.01 × 105) (3 × 10–3) = 303 N (downwards)
Force exerted by bottom on the water
F3 = – F1 = 102 N (upwards)
Weight of water W = (volume) (density) (g) = (10–3) (103) (10) N = 10 N (downwards)
(b) Let F be the force exerted by side walls on the water (upwards).
Then, from equilibrium of water , Net upward force = Net downward force
or F + F3 = F2 + W
 F = F2 + W – F3 = 303 + 10 – 102
or F = 211 N (upwards)
(c) If the air inside the jar is completely pumped out,
F1 = (  gh)A1 = (103) (10) (0.1) (10–3) = 1 N (downwards) (as P0 = 0)
In this case, F2 = 0 and F3 = 1 N (upwards)
 F = F2 + W – F3 = 0 + 10 – 1 = 9 N (upwards)
(d) No, the answer remains same. Because the answers depend upon P 0,  , g, h, A1 and A2.
Our Exponential Atmospheric Pressure :

The atmospheric pressure goes on decreasing as we go up. If P0 is the atmospheric pressure at
the surface of the earth ( P0  1.013  105 Nm 2 ) , M = average molar mass of air ,T = absolute
temperature of air (taken constant), then due to the variation of density of air as we go up, the
air pressure goes on decreasing exponentially, according to the expression : P  P0 e  Mgh / RT .
To see how does it happens , we consider an infinitely thin layer of thickness dh at the hight h
above the surface of earth as shown.
Let the density of air in this layer is  . For a layer of area A, its mass is  m   Adh
If the pressure at height h is P and at a height h+dh it is P + dP , then for the layer to be in
equilibrium (P + dP)A + (  m )g = PA A
 - dP A = (  m )g
or - dP A =  Adh.g

or - dP =  gdh ....................... (1)

But  dV = (  m ) = nM . ....................... (2)
Where dV = dhA, the volume of this layer of area A and n = no. of moles of air in it and M =
average molar mass of air.
Also, P dV = nRT ...................... (3)
Dividing (2) by (3)
 M PM

 ....................... (4)
P RT RT
Putting the values of  from eq (4) into equation (1), we get :
PM
 dP  gdh
RT
dP Mg
  dh
P RT
Integerating the above from h = 0 to h = h, we get
P R
dP Mg
P P   RT 0 dh
0
P Mgh
ln 
P0 RT
Mgh
P 
Taking antilog  e RT
P0
Mgh

or P  P0 .e RT
x x 2 x3 x 4
We know that e  1      ........
x
Special Case :
1! 2! 3! 4!
for x << 1 , e x  1  x
Mgh 2
 Mgh 1  Mgh 
Similarly e RT
 1     .......
RT 2  RT 
Mgh
For small height h << 1
RT
Mgh
 Mgh
 e RT
 1
RT
 Mgh 
 P  P0  1  
 RT 
PM 
P  P0   0  gh
 RT 

P0M
From equ (4)  0 density of air at earth’s surface (ground)
RT
 P  P0  0 gh , for small height above ground
Problem : A circular tube of narrow uniform cross-section is filled with two liquids of density
1 &  2 ( 1   2 ) such that each liquid occupies one quarter of the tube. If the line joining the
free surfaces of the liquids makes an angle  with horizontal, find  .
Solution : y1  R  OM  R  RCos or y1  R (1  Cos  )

y2  R  ON  R  RSin or y2  R (1  Sin )
Height of liquid of density 1 about point C h1  y2  y1
h1  R (Cos   Sin  )
y3  RC os  and y 4  RSin
Height of liquid of density  2 above point C = h2  y3  y 4
h2  R (Cos   Sin  )
As the system is in equilibrium, the pressure at C is same from both sides
 h1 1 g  h2  2 g
R (Cos   Sin  ) 1 g  R (Cos   Sin  )  2 g
1 Cos  Sin

 2 Cos  Sin
By componendo and dividendo

1   2
 T an 
1   2
 1   2 
  Tan 1  
 1   2 
Centroid of a planar area : Consider a planar area A whose centroid is to be obtained .Then , if we
choose an area element dA of extent dy , the y - cordinate of the centroid is found as :
y
1 2
A y1
yc  ydA
For example , let us find the y-cordinate of the centroid of a tringular lamina of height h ( y-axis
may or may not lie alog its height ). As shown in the figure the shaded strip of length l and thickness
dy has area dA  ldy
l h y

h  y a
but , , therefore , l  ,
a h h
h  y a dy
and so , dA  , then by definition ,
h
y h  y a
y y2
1 2 2
yc  
A y1
ydA 
ah 
y1
h
dy
h
h
 hy 2 y 3 
 
2 2
or , yc  2 hy  y dy  2
2
  
h 0
h  2 3 0
h
or , yc 
3

Horizontal Thrust - Hydro-static force on a vertical surface (From one side only):
See the following figure , a vertical planar patch of area A lies in a static fluid of density  .
An area element dA at a depth y below the top end of the patch is shown , it experiences a force
dF  P0  yg dA . Clearly the total horizontal thrust due to fluid pressure is obtained as :
F  dF   P  yg dA
patch patch
0
  P dA    yg dA
patch
0
patch
gA
 P0 A 
A  ydA
patch
1
but ,  ydA  Yc is the vertical co-ordinate of the centroid of the patch , therefore
A patch
F  P0 A  gAYc  P0  gYc A

Further , P0  gYc  is the fluid pressure at the centroid of the patch, therefore , we conclude :
Hydro-static horizontal Thrust on a flat vertical area  PAt centoid of the patch   Area of the patch 
F  PAt centoid A
Note : Net Hydro-static Thrust on a vertical planner surface placed well inside a fluid is zero
because the fluid pressure on one side is equal to pressure on the other side .
Hydro-static Thrust on a curved surface : If the surface is curved then we resolve it into horizontal
and vertical projections. If Av is its vertical projection then the horizontal force (thrust) on the
curved surface is equal to the thrust on its vertical projection Av , given by

FH  Av P0  Yc g 
Where Yc is the depth of the centroid of Av below y  0 position where pressue is P0 .
Vertical Thrust FV on the curved surface as well as on a planar surface is equal to the weight of the
fluid placed vertically above the curved surface .
Centre of Hydro-static force (or centre of Pressure ) - Hydrostatic torque on a vertical wall
about the bottom line :
The point at which whole of the horizontal thrust due to a fluid on a plannar vertical surface
(wall ) can be supposed to act to get the resultant torque about the base line of the surface is called
the centre of pressure.
Consider a fluid of density  exerting hydrostatic force on a vertical area A . As clear from the
figure the total thrust on this area is
H 
FH  AYc g   A g  ............... (1)
 2 

H
Here A  l H is the area of the wall and Yc  is the depth of the cetroid of the wall from its
2
top where fluid pressure is zero (Atmospheric pressure is note taken into consideration).
If H c is the height of centre of hydrostatic force above the base line , then by definition
H  H 
 about base  A  g  H c  l H  g  H c ............... (2)
 2   2 
Consider a thin strip of area dA  ldy at y depth from top , i.e H  y height above the base.
The thrust on dA is equal to dF  gyldy ,  Torque due to this thrust about base line is
d  H  y dF  H  y gyldy
Therefore total torque about the base line is
H
 about base   H  y gyldy
0
H

 gl  Hy  y dy  gl
2
6

H3
............... (3)
0
Comparing eqns (2) and (3)

3
H  H
l H  g  H c  gl
2  6
H
which gives Hc 
3
H
Thus the centre of hydro-static force is height above the base line.
3
Archimedes’ Principle : Buoyancy
“ When a body is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid at rest, the body is buoyed up with a force
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body”.
When a body is wholly or partly immersed in a fluid at rest, the fluid exerts pressure on every part
of the body’s surface in contact with the fluid. The pressure is greater on the parts immersed more
deeply (the third law of fluid pressure). So the thrusts on all sides result in an upward force called

buoyancy. As a result of this the body is buoyed up, i.e., made lighter.
Proof : (i) Simple proof for a fully immersed body :
Consider a solid rectangular block inside a liquid with its top face parallel to the free surface of the
liquid at a depth h. The thrusts on the vertical faces of the block are equal and opposite and so they
neutralise each other. The top surface experiences a thrust downward and the bottom surface
experiences an upward thrust.
The downward thrust on the top surface = preessure × area = (P 0 +  gh) × A
The upward thrust on the bottom surface = (P0 +  gh’) × A
 The resultant upward thrust = (P0 +  gh’) A - (P0 +  gh) A
=  g (h’ - h) A
But A (h’ - h) is the volume of the block; so the resultant upward thrust, that is, the buoyancy is equal
to the weight of the liquid displaced by the block.
Proof : (ii) General proof for a fully or partially immersed body :
Let us take a thin closed pot, immerse it fully (or partially) in water . Make a hole and allow the
liquid (water) to enter the into the pot . If the pot is fully immersed , water enters the pot through the
hole till the pot is completely filled with water . If the pot is partially immersed , water fills the pot
till the level inside the pot will be equal to the level of water outside the pot .
Since the pot is thin , pressure difference across thickness of the pot is negligible. hence each
element of the pot is pressed by the surrounding water (liquid) with equal and opposite forces.
In the consequence the net hydroststic on the pot is zero in both the case (total and partial
immersion).It means the net downward force F1 acting on the pot due to liquid inside the pot is

equal and opposite to the net upward force F2 exerted by the liquid outside the pot ( F1  F2 ) .
Since the liquid inside the pot is stationary , F1  mg and therefore F2  mg , where mg is the
weight of the liquid inside the pot .
Now let us close the hole and remove the liquid from the pot by a syringe . We will immediately con-
clude that the net hydrostatic force on the pot is unbalanced . The outside liquid continues to push up or
buoy up the pot with the same force F2  mg ( the weight of the liquid which was inside the pot) .It is
this force which we call the Buoyant Force ( FB )
When the same pot having no hole is fully or partially immersed in the liquid , it will displace the same
same amount of liquid which it would have inside it when it had hole at bottom during immersion.
Therfore the force of buoyancy FB = The weight of the liquid displaced.
If m is the mass , V is the volume and  is the density of the displaced liquid then
Force of buoyancy FB = mg = V  g = The weight of the liquid displaced.
Centre of Buoyancy : As the force of bouyancy replaces the weight of that liquid which would have
been there at the same position had it not been displaced , therefore it acts at the centre of gravity (or
centroid ) of that immersed part (volume) of the body which displaces the liquid . The point at which
FB acts is called Centre of buoyancy..
An Interesting example of ‘Buoyancy’ and Downward Thrust

A beker containing water is weighed on a balance. Now a body is immersed in water and
suspended by a thread from an external support. What happens to the beam of the balance ?
The beam tilts on the side of the beaker. When the solid is immersed in water, it is buoyed up by
water. By Newton’s third law the body in its turn exerts an equal force on the water in the downward
direction. This accounts for the tilting of the beam on the side of the beaker.

Problem : The volume of a balloon is 500 m3. It is filled with hydrogen whose density is 0.089
kgm–3. The density of air is 1.25 kgm–3. What weight can be lifted by the balloon ?
Solution : Weight of the balloon = 500 × .089 g
Buoyancy = Weight of the displaced air = 500 × 1.25 g
 Weight that can be lifted = 500 × 1.25 – 500 × 0.089 g
= 500 × (1.25 – 0.089) g
= 500 × 1.161 kg Wt = 580.5 kg Wt
Equilibrium of a Floating Body : Its Stability and Metacentre
Conditions (LAWS) of Equilibrium of a Floating Body
1. The weight of the floating body is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced. If V0 is the total
volume of the body and V is the volume of the displaced liquid , then for a floating body V < V0 .
Further , if  0 is the mean density of the floating body and  is the density of the liquid , then the
V0  V0
floating condition gives  0V0 g  Vg , that is , V   . As  1 , we get  0   .
0 V
2. The centre of gravity (C.G ) of the body and the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid (called
the centre of buoyancy, C.B ) must lie on the same vertical line.
The first condition is needed for translational equilibrium and the second condition is needed for
rotational equilibrium of the body.
Stability of Equilibrium and Metacentre
When a floating body is tilted a little from its equilibrium position, the shape of the displaced liquid
is changed and consequently the centre of buoyancy shifts to a new position but not the centre of
gravity of the body. The vertical line through the new position of the centre of buoyancy cuts the
initial vertical line YY’which carried C.G and C.B of the body at some point called the metacentre
(M.C ) of the body. The position of the metacentre relative to the centre of gravity of the body plays
a very important role in the stability of equilibrium of the body.
When the vessel or body has heavy bottom the metacentre M lies above the centre of gravity of the
body the couple formed by the weight (W) of the body and the upward thrust (F) tends to restore the
body to its position of equilibrium (figure a). Hence in this case when the M.C lies above the C.G
of the body, the equilibrium of the body is stable.

On the other hand ,when the vessel or body is heavy topped , the metacentre M.C lies below the
C.G of the body (figure b), the couple formed by W and F tends to overturn the body. Hence the
equilibrium in this condition is unstable.
Note : Fluid pressure acts perpendicular to any surface in the fluid no matter how that surface is
oriented. Hence, pressure has no intrinsic direction of its own, its a scalar. By contrast, force is a
vector with a definife direction.
Problem : A solid hemisphere of radius R is immersed into a liquid of density  . If the hemisphere
is at a depth 2R then find the (i) Force on the flat surface of hemisphere by the liquid (ii) Force
exerted by the liquid on the curved surface of the hemisphere .
Solution :(i) Pressure on the flat surface  P0  2 Rg

 Force on flat surface  P0  2 Rg R
2
(ii) Net hyrdostatic force on the hemisphere(upward)  Fcurved (upward )  F flat ( downward )
 Fcurved  FB  F flat
2R 3
But FB  g = Weight of liquid displaced by the hemisphere
3
2R 3
 Fcurved  g  P0  2 Rg R 2
3
 8 
 Fcurved   P0  Rg R 2
 3 
Problem : If the hemisphere of above problem is inverted find the force on the flat and curved
surface of the hemisphere by the liquid
Solution : (i) Pressure on the flat surface  P0  3 Rg

 Force on flat surface(up-ward)  P0  3 Rg R
2
(ii) Net hyrdostatic force on the hemisphere(up-ward) , FB  F flat (upward )  Fcurved ( downward )

 Fcurved ( downward )  F flat (upward )  FB
2R 3
But FB  g = Weight of liquid displaced by the hemisphere
3
2R 3
 Fcurved  P0  3Rg R  g 2
3
 7 
 Fcurved   P0  Rg R 2
 3 
Apparent weight of a body immersed in a fluid : Consider a body of true weight W0 and density
 B . Clearly the volume of the body will be V  W0 .When it is immersed in a fluid of density  F ,
g B
its weight appears :
Wapp  W0  FBuoyancy
W0  F
but , FBuoyancy  Vg F 
B
  
 Wapp  W0 1  F 
 B 
 1 
If the body is immersed in water then Wapp  W0 1   .
 specific gravity 
Finding % age of Impuurity in Ornaments :
Using the ideas of force of buoyancy , % age of impurity in precious metallic ornaments can be
determined. It is described in the following example
An ornament of gold weighs 500 gm in air and 470 gm in pure water . Find the % age of
copper mixed in it. Given the specific gravity of gold and copper are 20 and 10 respectively.
Solution : Clearly 30 gm has been displaced by the ornament.
30 gm
 Volume of displaced water 
W
m
Let mass of copper mixed = m , and so volume to displaced by it 
 Cu
500 gm  m
 mass of gold  500 gm  m , and so volume to displaced by it 
 Au
30 gm m 500 gm  m
  
W  Cu  Au
30 gm m 500 gm  m
or  
1  Cu W  Au W

30 gm m 500 gm  m
or  
1 10 20
600 gm  500 gm  m
 m = 100 gm  % age of copper = 20 %
Problem :A boat loaded with a stone floats on the surface of still water of a lake. When the
stone is transferred from the boat to the lake water, what will happen to the water-level ?
Solution : Let H and H’ be the height of the water level from the datum plane before and after the
stone is transferred to the lake water. Let h and h’ be the length of the submerged portion of the boat
in the two cases.
In the first case (m boat + mstone ) g = V  water
g , whereV is the volume of displaced water and if
a is the base area of boat , then
mboat mstone
V   ah ..... (i)
 water  water
After the stone is dropped into the lake , then the total volume of the displaced water V ' is given by
V '  V1  V2 ..... (ii)
where V1 is volume of water displaced by empty boat and V2 is the volume of water displaced by
immersed stone .
mstone
Obviously , V2   volume of stone ..... (iii)
 stone
mboat
and V1   ah ' .... (iv)
 water
From eqns (ii) , (iii) and (iv)
mboat mstone
V'   .... (v)
 water  stone
 From eqns (i) and (v)
mstone mstone
V V '  
 water  stone
 V V '  0 or V' V
As lesser water is displaced  level will fall , H '  H
Further from eqns (i) and (iv) , h '  h .

Problem : A block or coin of mass m and density  is kept on a wooden block of mass
M floating in a liquid of density  . When the coin falls from the wooden block , it sinks What
happens to the height of liquid level and depth of penetration of the block ?
Solution : Try yourself , same as previous question.
Problem : A piece of ice containing a solid in it floats in a glass of water. After some times
ice melts . How will the level of water be affected if the solid is heavier than water and if it is
lighter than water ?
Solution : Case (i)  solid   water

In this case when ice has not melted (mice +msolid ) g = V  water g , whereV is the volume of
displaced water , then
mice msolid
V  ..... (i)
 water  water
After the ice melts solid is dropped into the glass, then the total volume of the displaced water V ' is
given by V '  V1  V2 ..... (ii)
where V1 is volume of water displaced by melted ice and V2 is the volume of water displaced by
immersed solid .
msolid
Obviously , V2   volume of solid ..... (iii)
 stone
As the melted ice converts into water of same mass , therefore
mice
V1  .... (iv)
 water
From eqns (ii) , (iii) and (iv)
mice msolid
V'   .... (v)
 water  solid
 From eqns (i) and (v)
msolid msolid
V V '  
 water  solid
  solid   water  V V '  0 or V' V

As lesser water is displaced  level will fall , H '  H
Case (ii)  solid   water

In this case also when ice has not melted , the volume of displaced water V is
mice msolid
V  ..... (vi)
 water  water
After the ice melts solid still floats , then the total volume of the displaced water V ' is given by
V '  V1  V2 ..... (vii)
where V1 is volume of water displaced by melted ice and V2 is the volume of water displaced by
floating solid .
m solid
Obviously , V2  . .... (viii)
 water
As the melted ice converts into water of same mass , therefore
mice
V1  .... (ix)
 water
From eqns (vii) , (viii) and (ix)
mice msolid
V'   .... (x)
 water  water
 From eqns (vi) and (x)
V V  0 , that is , V  V ' , water level does not change H '  H
'
Fluid pressure in accelerated fluids :

(A) Fluid Pressure in a horizontally accelerated liquid: Consider two points 1 and 2 lying
at the cross-section of a thin horizontal cylindrical-segment of length x.
Mass of fluid in it is  m  ( A). x 

Net force (horizontal) acting on it is Fx  P1 A  P2 A
Now applying Newton’s 2nd Law F = ma, we get
P1 A  P2 A   A  x  .a
P1  P2  x  a or P1  P2  x  a
Thus the fluid pressure increases linearly with the distance opposite to the acceleration, giving
different pressure at different points lying on same horizontal level in an accelerated fluid.

Horizontal acceleration will not affect the variation of Pressure in vertical direction , let us see it.
P2 A  P1 A   mg
P2 A  P1 A   a. y. g
P2  P1  y  g
which is same variation in vertical direction even when there was no horizontal acceleration.
Problem :
A rectangular container carries a liquid of density  and it is accelerated horizontally with
acceleration a. A small hole at the top right-most corner makes PA  P0 , the atmospheric
pressure. Find the pressure at point C.
Solution :
PB  PA  x  a
 PC  PB  y  g
 PC  PA  x  a  y  g
or PC  P0    xa  yg 
Altier : PD  PA  y  g

and PC  PD  x  a
 PC  PA  y  g  x  a
or PC  P0    xa  yg 
Problem : A liquid conatiner of width l having open top is acceleration horizontally with
acceleration a. Its free surface is lifted-up opposite to the acceleration and it makes an
angle  with the horizontal, find  .
Solution : PA  PB  P0 (atmospheric pressure)

Now, PC  PA  l  a
or PC  P0  l  a .................(1)
Also, PC  PB  h g  P0  h g .................(2)
Comparing (1) and (2)
P0  l  a  P0  h  g
h a
 h g  l  a or 
l g
h a a
But  tan   tan   g or   tan 1  
l g
Equi-pressure lines : Lines of equal pressure are called equipressure-lines. In a horizontally
a
accelerated liquid the equi-pressure lines shown as under make   tan 1   with the horizontal
g
as shown in the figure .

Pressure variation in a rotating liquid : Consider a liquid of density  kept

in a horizontal tube and the tube is rotated about a vertical axis as shown :
Consider a liquid segment of radial width dr, the acceleration of this segment (centripetal acce)
is  2 r , therefore, there must be a net force due to pressure difference acting on it towards
centre. Fnet  (dP) A
 Newton’s second law gives :
(dP)A = (  Adr ) 2 r or dP =  2 rdr
Considering the pressure at the position of axis of rotation to be P0 , the pressure from the
radial distance r from the axis is obtained by integrating the above from r = 0 to r = r
P r
 dP    rdr
2
P0 0
1 1
P  P0   2 r 2 or P  P0   2 r 2
2 2
Problem : A liquid is kept in an open container and it is then rotated about a vertical axis, find
the equation of the shape of its surface in steady state.
Solution : P0  PA = Atmospheric Pressure

1
PB  P0   2 x 2 (case of rotating liquid) ...................(1)
2
Also PB  PA  y  g  P0  y  g ...................(2)

Comparing eqns (1) and (2) we get

1 1
P0  y  g  P0   2 x 2 or y g   2 x 2
2 2
2
or y .x 2
2g
which is the equation of parabola. Thus the liquid surface is parabolloidal
Problem : A vertical U-tube containing a liquid of density  is rotating about a vertical axis
with constant angular velocity   g / b , as shown. Find the difference of height in liquid
columns:
Solution : PA  PB  Patm ..................(1)

1
Due to rotaion PD  P0   2b 2
2
1
and PC  P0   2 (16b 2 )
2
15b 2 2 
 PC  PD  . .................(2)
2
Due to effect of gravity PD  Patm  H  g

and PC  Patm  ( H  h)  g
 PC  PD  h g . ................(3)
15b 2 2 
Comparing (2) and (3) h  g 
2
15b 2  g 15b
h g  or h
2 b 2

(B) Pressure Variation within a vertically accelerated fluid :
( P2  P1 ) A  mg  ma or ( P2  P1 ) A  (g  a) A  y
P2  P1   y (g  a)
Special case : In a freely falling container a   g  P2  P1  0 , and therefore no upthrust
will be applied by the fluid .
General pressure gradient & pressure change in accelerated fluid :
Consider an elementry dm amount of fluid at (x,y,z) with volume dV and face area dA.
Equation of motion of this elementry segment are :

(a) In horizontal direction : Px  Px  dPx dA  dm a x
( dPx ) dA  (dA)(dx)  a x
  dPx   ax dx .....................(1)
 dP 
    a x
 dx  along x  direction

P
or    ax ......................(2)
x
 P 
From eqns (1) and (2) dPx    dx . .....................(3)
 x 
(b) in vertical direction
P  P
y y  dPy dA  dm g  dm a y
 (  dPy ) dA  (dA)(dy)  (a y  g)
  dPy   (a y  g) dy .........................(4)
 dP 
     (a y  g)

 dy  along y direction
 P 
or      (a y  g) . .........................(5)
 y 
 P 
From eqns (4) and (5) dPy    dy . ..........................(6)
 y 
As, pressure difference between two points (x, y), x  dx ,  y  dy  can be written as:
dP  dPx  dPy  from eqns (3) and (6)
 P   P 
dP    dx    dy
 x   y 
or , from equations (1) & (4) dP    ax dx   (a y  g) dy
x2 y2
 P2  P1  P    a x dx     a y  g dy
x1 y1
The above equation can be used to find the equation of free surface of a liquid.
Example-(1)

x y
PB  PA    ax dx     a y  g dy
0 0
0   a  ( x  0)  g  (y  0)
0   a  x  g  (y)
gy  ax
a
y x (equation of straight line)
g
surface is a planner surface.
further y  x.Tan  Tan  a / g
Example : (2) Find the shape of liquid surface and determine the angle 
ax  g sin  .cos 
a y   g sin 2 
x y
PB  PA     ax dx    (a y  g) dy
0 0
 
0   g sin  cos   x  0    g  g sin 2   y  0 
0   gxsin  .cos    g(1  sin 2  )(y)
ycos 2   x sin  .cos 
y  x.Tan (straight line-plane surface)
Also, y  x.Tan   

(3) A liquid in a rotating tub :
x y
PB  PA     ax dx    (a y  g) dy
0 0
X y
0     ( 2 x) dx   g  dy
0 0
 2 x 2
 gy 
2
 2  2
y x
 2 g 
Equation of a parabolla, surface is parabolloidal.
Depth of immersion of a floating body in a vertically accelerated liquid :
(1) When the liquid is not accelerated :

Let m = mass of the floating body ,  be the density of the liquid , V  Ay be the volume of the
displaced liquid , then
FB  Ay g  mg ............(1)
Where y is the peneteration depth of the floating body

Also from it , Ay  m ....................(2)

(2) When the liquid is accelerated up and if V '  Ay ' is the volume of displaced liquid ,then
FB  Ay '   g  a 
'
. ...................(3)
Where y ' is the new peneteration depth
Now the equation of motion of the body is
'
FB  mg  ma ...................(4)
Putting the values of FB ' and m from eqns (3) and (2) in eqn (4)
Ay '   g  a   Ayg  Aya
Ay '   g  a   Ay  g  a 
 y'  y
Depth of immersion remains same.
Pascal’s Law for transmission of Pressure Change : It states that any change in fluid
pressure , (whenever an external pressure is applied ) in an incompressible enclosed fluid is
transmitted equally to every point within the fluid .
Proof : Consider two points A and B within an incompressible static and enclosed fluid. Point B
is h depth below the Point A .
Because PB  PA  hg , whatever pressure change is introduced at A the same change will
appear at B . It can be seen from the above figure.
Hydraulic Machines : These machines are based upon the above Law.
(1) Hydraulic Lift or Lever : A small force Fi ( input ) is applied to a small piston-area Ai and
Fi
a good amount of pressure change P  is transmitted to all points inside the
Ai
enclosed fluid(oil) .This pressure change when comes to another piston of large area Ao ,

F 
a large output force Fo   i  Ao becomes available where it can be used to lift a heavy
 Ai 
vehicle of weight Mg .
Ao
The applied input force has increased by a factor A , and so this factor is the mechanical
i
advantage of this type of machines.As the volume of the oil does not change , Ai d i  Ao d o ,
therefore the distance moved by the output piston d o is much smaller than the distance d i
Ai d i
moved by the input piston . It is given by d o  .
Ao
(2) Hydraulic Brakes : When the brake pedal is pressed ,the increased pressure at the piston
P of the master cylinder is equally transmitted to pistons P1 and P2 of the wheel cylinder .
The pistons move outwards making the brake shoes come in contact with the wheel drum and
therby the frictional force between the brake shoes and wheel drum retard the motion
of the wheel.

(C) FLOW OF FLUIDS

(i) Fluid flow can be steady (or streamline) or nonsteady (turbulent). When a fluid flows in such a
way that its velocity at any point does not change with time in magnitude and direction, its flow
is said to be steady (or streamline or laminar). That is, every particle passing through the point
momentarily acquires the velocity v of that point. When that particle passes on to the next
point, it forgets the velocity of the previous point and acquires momentarily the velocity of the
second point and so on. In other words, if each particle follows exactly the same path and the
same changes of direction and magnitude of velocity as its predecessor, the flow is said to be
steady or streamline. These conditions can be achieved only at low speeds, e.g., the flow of
water through a capillary tube is streamline only at a small hydrostatic pressure difference be-
tween its ends. In non-steady or turbulent flow the velocities are not fixed in time. In such
a flow the velocities vary erratically from point to point as well as from time to time. A tidal
bore, the stream of water fall, water currents in mountainous rivers are all examples of turbulent
motion.
(ii) Fluid flow can be rotational or irrotational. If the element of fluid at each point has no net
angular velocity about that point, the fluid flow is said to be irrotational. If in the irrotational
flow of a fluid we imagine a small paddle wheel, it will move on without rotating. In rotational
flow the wheel will move as well as rotate. Rotational flow is characterised by the formation of
whirl pools or eddies.
(iii)Fluid flow can be compressible or incompressible. When there is no change in density of the
fluid as it flows, it is said to be an incompressible flow; otherwise it is compressible.
(iv)Finally fluid flow can be viscous or nonviscous. Viscosity in fluid motion is the analog of
friction in the motion of solids over solids. Viscosity introduces trangential forces between
layers of fluid and causes dissipation of mechanical energy.
Streamlines : Tubes of Flow : The Equation of Continuty
In a steady flow every fluid particle follows the same path as its predecessor. If we consider the path
along which a particle moves and draw/assume a line along that path along the velocity of the fluid
at that point, such line is called streamline. Thus we may define streamline as a curve, the tangent to
which at any point gives the direction of flow of the fluid at that point.
Streamlines are just like magnetic or electric field lines. No two streamlines can ever cross one
another, for if they did, an oncoming fluid particle could go either one way or the other, and the flow
could not be steady.
In principle we can draw a streamline through every point in the fluid. If we consider a number of
streamlines through points distributed over a closed curve drawn in the field of flow of the fluid, the

streamlines will define the surface of a three dimensional figure tubular in form. This is called a
tube of flow. The boundary of such a tube consists of streamlines, everywhere parallel to the veloc-
ity of the fluid particles. No fluid particle can cross the boundaries of a tube of flow. The fluid
(incompressible) that enters at one end of a tube of flow must leave it at the other end.
Rate of flow ( or Flux ) of a fluid through a surface :
Consider a streamline region of flow of a fluid. We have to find the amount of fluid crossing a
surface area S placed in this flow region .
Let us first find the amount of fluid crossing an infinitely small area element dS in unit time. Let us
call it d . If the velocity of the fluid particles at dS is v then the component of velocity  ar to dS
is written as V = V cos  = v . n̂ .
It means, in unit time the particles will cover a distance V in a direction  ar to dS. This implies,
if a tube of length V and area of cross-section dS is constructed behind dS then whole of the fluid
contained in it will cross dS in unit time. But the volume of the fluid in this tube will be equal to the
volume of this tube = V dS , therefore, the amount of fluid crossing dS in unit time; i.e., flux
through dS is given by
d = V dS = V (dS cos  ) ..... (1)
or d = v . n̂ dS ..... (2)
 Total Flux through the surface S is obtained by integration of above over the surface S.
=  d =  v . n̂ dS ..... (3)
S S
Special Case : When area S is a planer surface of area A and v is same and  ar to S at all points of

S then V . n̂ = V same at all points of S, from equation (3)
 =  V dS = V A
S
Thus for a such a flow  ar to area S,  = VA ..... (4)

The  given above is sometimes called volume flux and written as v , when we multiply it by the
density of the fluid we get the rate of flow of mass of the fluid , called mass flux m  .Thus for a
planner area A placed  ar to a flow
Volume flux v  AV and Mass flux m  AV
Equation of Continuity : Consider the streamline flow of a fluid through a tube of different cross-
section areas as shown :
The rate or mass flow , the mass flux at the first section = a1v1 ρ1 and the mass flux through the
second section = a2 v2 ρ2 .Since no fluid particles can cross the walls of the tube and there are no
“sources” or “sinks” of fluid inside the tube, the mass crossing each section of the tube in each
second must be the same.  a1v1 ρ1 = a2 v2 ρ2 or avρ = a constant
This is known as the equation of continuity in the simplest form. If the fluid is incompressible,
then ρ1 = ρ2 and the equation of continuity is further simplified to , av = a , constant
Problem : An ideal liquid in a tube of uniform cross-sectional area A1 = 0.01 m 2 flows with a
speed v1  2m / s . At the junction 1, the streamlines of the liquid devide into two parts as shown.
Area A2 = 0.02 m 2 and velocity v2  3m / s . Find the velocity v3 through area A3 = 0.03 m 2 .

Solution : If we look at the junction 1, there is no source, no sink. Then, the net incoming flux
= the net outgoing flux.
1  2  3
where 1  A1v1 , 2  A2v2 and 3  A3v3
 A1v1  A2 v2  A3v3
A1v1  A2 v2 0.01 2  0.02  3
v3   m/s   4 m/s
A3 0.03 3
Here -ve sign means the direction of v3 is opposite what we have assumed .
Problem : A garden hose having an internal diameter of 2 cm is connected to a lawn
sprinkler that consists of an enclosure with 24 holes, each 125 cm in diameter. If the
water in the hose has a speed of 0.9 ms–1, at what speed does it leave the sprinkler holes?
Solution : From the principle of continuity we have
2
 .125  10 – 2 
 .012  0.9 = 24      v
 2 
36 105
v = = 9.6 ms–1.
24  1252
VISCOSITY
Viscosity : Coefficient of Viscosity
If water in a tub is whirled and then left to itself, the motion of the water subsides. This is a very
common observation. What stops the motion ? There is no external force to stop it. A natural
conclusion is, therefore, that whenever there is relative motion between parts of a fluid, internal
forces are set up in the fluid which oppose the relative motion between the parts in the same way as
forces of friction operate when a block of wood is dragged along the ground. This is why to main-
tain relative motion between layers of a fluid an external force is needed. The moment the external
force is withdrawn, on account of the internal force, frictional in nature, the motion is destroyed.
This property of a fluid by virtue of which it opposes the relative motion between its different
layers is known as Viscosity and the force that is called into play is called the viscous force.
Consider the slow and steady flow of a fluid over a fixed horizontal surface. Let v be the velocity of
a thin layer of the fluid at a distance x from the fixed solid surface. Then according to Newton, the

viscous force acting tangentially to a layer is proportional to the area of that layer and the velocity
gradient at the position of the layer. If F is the viscous force on the layer then
FA , where A is the area of the layer
dv dv
and F , where is the velocity gradient
dx dx
dv
or F=  A ................ Newton’s law of Viscocity
dx
Here  is a constant depending upon the nature of the liquid and is called the coefficient of viscos-
ity. Its dimensions are M1 L–1 T–1 or FL–2T. Its S. I. unit is Newton second per square metre (Nsm –
2
) or kilogramme per metre per second (Kgm–1s–1).The cgs unit of coefficient of viscosity is called a
poise (1 poise  dyne.s.m 2  0.1N .s.m 2 )
dv
If A = 1 m2 and = 1 ms–1/m, we have F =  .
dx
Thus the coefficient of viscosity of a liquid may be defined as the viscous force per unit area of the
layer where there is unit velocity gradient.
Poiseuille’s Equation for Flow of a Liquid Through a Capillary Tube
When a liquid flows slowly and steadily through a capillary tube, the flow is streamline. The rate of
this streamline flow through the tube is given by equation deduced by Poiseulle and is known as
Poiseulle’s equation. We deduce it here by the method of dimensions. Consider the flow through a
capillary tube of radius r and length l when the pressure difference is P. From the physical consider-
ations we think that the rate of volume flow, i.e., flux (v ) will depend on the coefficient of viscos-
 P1  P2 P 
ity (  ) of the liquid, radius (r) of the tube and the pressure gradient    and not on the
 l l 
actual value of the pressure difference because if the tube is halved and simultaneously the pressure
difference is also halved, the rate of volume flow remains unchanged. So we can write
x
P y z
v = k   r
l 
where k is a dimensionless constant.

By taking dimensions of both sides, we have
L3T –1 
= ML– 2T – 2  ML T  L
x –1 –1 y z

= M x  y L– 2 x – y  zT – 2 x – y
 x  y = 0, – 2 x – y  z = 3 and – 2 x – y = –1
Solving we have, x= 1, y = –1, z = 4.
 P  –1 4 k Pr 4
v = k   r = .
l  l

Experimentally, k= .
8
 P r4
or v =
8 l
The rate of mass flow (  m ) = v 
 Pr 4 
or m =
8 l
We owe this deduction to Poiseulle and hence this type of flow of fluid through a capillary tube is
called Poiseulle’s flow.
P
Flow Resistance : The above result can be written as , v  where P  P is the pressure
RF
8 l
difference across the tube causing the liquid to flow and RF  is the resistance offered by the
 r4
tube against the flow of v .This is analogous to the flow of electric current through a conductor
V
given by I  where  V  V is the potential difference across the conductor causing the current
R
l
I to flow and R   r 2 is the electric resistance .
Problem : 81cm 3 of water flows per second through a capillary tube of radius r and length l when
connected to a pressure head of height h of water . Find the flux of water through a tube of same
r
length and radius connected to the same pressure head .
3
P V 2 RF 1
Solution : As v  , therefore   R .
RF V1 F2
4
8 l RF 1  r 3  1
Further RF     
 r4 RF 2  r  81

V 2 81
Therefore ,   V 2  1cm
3
V 1 81
Problem : A liquid is flowing through horizontal pipes as shown in figure.Lenghts and radii of
lrs ltu rtu
different pipes has the following ratio l pq  lvw   and rpq  rvw  rrs  .
3 3 3
Lengths of joinning tubes qr ,qt , sv and vu are negligibly small . Pressure at p is 2P0 and pressure
at w is P0 .The volume flux through pipe pq is  , find volume flux through rs and tu .
8 l
Solution : As is given by RF  , therefore the ratio flow resistances of different tubes is given
 r4
13 13 1 1
by : R pq : R pq : R pq : R pq :: : : : 4
1 3 1 3 1 3 1
4 4 4
 27 : 27 : 81 : 1
The equivalent flow circuit is shown as under :
Since the flux of fluid through a pipe is like current through a conductor , in parallel branches it
divides in inverse proportion to their flow resistance , therefore ,
2  811
  1  2  821


1 
82
81
and 2 
82
Motion of a Solid Body Through a Viscous Medium : Stokes’ Law : Terminal Velocity
When a solid body moves through a viscous medium, its motion is opposed by a viscous force
depending on the velocity and shape and size of the body. The energy of the body is contiually
wasted in overcoming the viscous resistance of the medium. This is why cars, aeroplanes etc. are
shaped streamlined to minimize the viscous resistance on them.
Let the body be driven by a constant force. In the beginning the viscous drag on the body is small
as its velocity is small and so the body is accelerated through the medium by the driving force, With
the increase in the velocity of the body the viscous drag on it will also increase and eventually when
it becomes equal to the driving force. When the viscous drag becomes equal to the driving force the
body will acquire a constant velocity. This velocity is called the terminal velocity of the body.
Stokes’ LawThe viscous drag on a spherical body of radius r, moving with velocity v, in a viscous
medium of viscosity  is given by Fviscous = 6rv .
This relation is called Stokes’ law.
Deduction of the law by the method of dimensions. By experience we guess that the viscous force
on a moving spherical body may depend on its velocity, radius and coefficient of viscosity of the
medium. We may then write
F = k v a r b c where k is a constant (demensionless) and a, b
and c are the constants to be determined.Now by taking dimensions of both sides, we have
  
MLT–2 = LT –1 a Lb ML–1T –1 
e
or MLT–2 = M c La  b – cT – a – c .
Equating powers of M, L and T we have
c=1 : a+b–c =1 and –a – c = –2.
Solving we have a = 1, b = 1 and c = 1
F = krv
Experimentally k is found to be 6
Therefore , F= 6 r v.

Terminal Velocity of Spherical Body Falling Under Gravity Through a Viscous Medium
Consider the downward motion of a spherical body through a viscous medium such as rain drops
falling through air. If r is the radius of the body and  the density of the material of the body then
4 3
the weight of the body = r g downward ,
3
4 3
and the buoyancy of the body FB = r g upward , where  is the density of the medium.
3
4 3
The net downward driving force = r  –  g .
3
If vT is the terminal velocity of the body, then the viscous force on the body is
F = 6   vT ...Stokes’ law
For no acceleration of the body we have
4 3
6   vT = r  –  g
3
2 r 2 g  –  
or vT =  .
9 
Importance of Viscosity
Like friction, viscosity affects our daily lives in many ways. The viscosity of water takes away
much of the power developed by the engine of a ship. In the same way viscosity of air diminishes
the power of car or aeroplane. The quality of a fountain-pen ink depends largely on its viscosity.
The normal circulation of blood through our veins and arteries depends on the viscosity of blood. It
is the viscosity of air that slows down rain-drops and hail balls and saves us from being hit too hard
by raindrops & hail balls.

Critical Velocity and Reynolds Number

The flow of liquid through a narrow tube is steady when the velocity of flow of the liquid is small.
In all experiments designed to measure the co-efficient of viscosity, streamlines are assumed to be
present, and therefore it is important to consider the condition favorable to its production. As the
velocity of flow of a liquid through a tube is gradually increased by increasing the pressure differ-
ence between the ends of the tube, the motion continues to remain steady up to a certain velocity
which marks the transition from streamline motion into turbulence. This velocity is called the criti-
cal velocity. It will obviously depend on the diameter of the tube through which the liquid flows, the
viscosity of the liquid, and the density of the liquid. Hence we may write.
vc = kD x y z
where k is a number (dimensionless) and x, y and z are powers of D,  and  respectively, to be
determined.Taking dimensions of both sides we have,

LT –1 = L ML T
x –1 –1
 ML 
y –3 2
or LT –1 = Lx – y – 3 z M y  zT – y
Equating powers of M, L and T we have
y + z =0
x – y – 3z = 1 and y = 1
Solving we have x = –1, y = 1and z = –1
 vc = kD – 1 1 –1
k
or, vc =
D
Osborne Reynolds showed, by experiment, that the number k is nearly 2000. This is called Reyonlds
Number. If the value of this number is blow 2000 for a given flow, the flow is found to be stream-
lined. If its value is more than 3000, the flow is turbulent. For a flow whose Reynold’s number
comes in between 2000 to 3000 the type of flow is uncertain.
2000 
vc =
D
Problem :A flat plate of area 10 sq. cm. is separated from a larger plate by a thin layer
of glycerine 1 mm thick. If the viscous coefficient of glycerine is 2 kgm–1s–1, what force is
required to keep the plate moving with a velocity of 0.01 ms –1?
Solution :To keep it moving with constant velocity only the viscous force is to be overcome.
Hence the force required is equal to the viscous force.
0 .01 m / s
Velocity gradient = 0 .001 m = 10s–1
dv
Force needed= A = 2 × 10 × 10–4 × 10 N = 0.02 newton
dx

Problem :Water at 25ºC ( η = 0.001 kg m–1s–1) is escaping from a tank by a horizontal

capillary tube 20 cm long and 1.2 mm diameter. The water stands 1 m above the tube. At
what rate is the water escaping?
 Pr 4
Solution : V = .
8l
Here P = h  g = 1 × 1000 × 9.8 Pa = 9800 Pa
  9800  .6 10 –3 

4
V = m3s–1
8  .001 .2
  98  6 4
= × 10–10 m3s–1 = 2.5 × 10–6 m3s–1
8 2
Problem : A gas bubble of diameter 2 cm rises steadily through a solution of
density 1750 kgm–3 at the rate of 0.35 cm per second. Calculate the coefficient of viscoityof
the solution.
2 r 2 g  –  
Solution : We have, v = 
9 
Here,  = density of air is negligible.
2 r 2 g
v = –  .
9 
This negative sign shows that the velocity is upward.
2 r 2 g 2 ( 0 . 01 2  9 . 8  1750 )
 =  =  Kg m–1 s–1
9 v 9 ( 0 . 0035 )
= 109 kg m–1 s–1 or Nsm–2.

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS IN A FLOWING FLUID :

Pressure Energy
The energy of any system is its capacity of doing work. The kinetic energy of a body is the capacity
for doing work by virtue of its motion. The gravitational potential energy is its capacity for doing
work by virtue of its position in the earth’s gravitational field. An elementary mass of a liquid in
motion possesses the capacity for doing work not only by virtue of its motion and position in the
gravitational field but also by virtue of the pressure of the liquid.
Consider a tank A containing a liquid of density ρ , provided with a side tube T, of cross-sectional
area a. Suppose this tube is provided with a frictionless piston. The thrust on the piston due to
pressure of the liquid is ‘ap’. To keep the piston in position an external agent must apply the same
force on the piston in the opposite direction. If the piston is moved a little by x to the left, work
will be done by the external agent against the hydrostatic thrust without imparting any velocity to
the liquid. In this case energy will flow from the external agent to the mass of the liquid forced into
the vessel and this is stored as energy of the liquid. If the piston is allowed to move back to its
previous position, work will be done by the liquid against the external force. This time energy will
flow back to the external agent. Thus it is clear due to pressure a liquid can do work. This energy of
liquid possessed by virtue of its pressure is called pressure energy.
The work done on the liquid by the external agent = ap x = apx
The mass of the liquid forced into the vessel = axp
The work done is stored as energy of the mass forced into the vessel.
a .xp
 The pressure energy per unit mass = ax .
p
or, u = where u stands for pressure energy per unit mass.

Kinetic Energy and Gravitational Potential Energy of flowing fluid :
Consider an element of fluid of mass m flowing with speed v at a height h above a reference
1
horizontal level . Its kinetic energy and grav. potential energy are m v 2 and mgh .
2

1 2
Therfore K.E per unit mass  v , and , G.P.E per unit mass  gh
2
Bernoulli’s Theorem
The most fundamental equation in fluid dynamics is given by Bernoulli’s theorem. It was first
presented by Daniel Bernoulli in his Hydrodynamics in 1738. In the basic form, Bernoulli’s theo-
rem states that in the nonviscous steady flow of an incompressible fluid in a gravitational field
1 2 p
v  gh  = a constant, where v is the velocity of flow, h is the height, p is the pressure and
2 
 is the density of the fluid. If we take recognition of pressure energy it may be stated as :
In the nonviscous, steady and incompressible flow of a fluid the total energy of an elementary mass
of the fluid remains constant throughout the displacement.
Consider an elementary mass m of a fluid flowing through a tube. At any point in the path of flow
let v, p and h be its velocity, pressure and height respectively. According to Bernoulli’s theorem, the
kinetic energy of m  its potential energy + its pressure energy = a constant.
1 p
or, mv 2  mgh  m = a constant.
2 
1 2 p
or, v  gh  = a constant ( mass is a constant.)
2 
1 2 p
or, v  gh  =C
2 
p 1 v2
or, h  = C´
g 2 g
p 1 v2
As all, h, & have the dimensions of height, therefore, h is called the gravitational head,
g 2 g

p 1 v2
the pressure head and the velocity head. It is because, these terms determine upto
g 2 g
how much height a flowing liquid can rise or head-up because of gravitational effects, pressure
effect and velocity effect. Thus Bernoulli’s theorem may also be stated in this way : In the nonviscous,
steady and incompressible flow of a fluid, the sum of the gravitational head, the pressure head and
the velocity head remains constant throughout.
Proof or Deduction of Bernoulli’s theorem : Consider a tube of flow inside a streamline flow of
a fluid particle . Suppose that, in this tube of flow of cross-section at 1 and 2 are A 1 and A2; and
corresponding velocities v1 and v2 and pressures P1 and P2.
Consider an element ABCD of an incompressible fluid. In a time  t, the liquid moves in and the
liquid element becomes A’B’C’D’. In other words, we can also say that fluid element ABB’A’ has
effectively changed into DCC’D’.
 m =  A1v1  t =  A2v2  t
m
Work done by fluid pressure at 1 = (P1A1)v1  t = P1

m
Work done by fluid pressure at 2 = (P2A2)v2  t = –P2

Work done by gravity = – (  m).g. (h2 – h1)
1
Change in kinetic energy =  m [v22 – v12]
2
Using work energy theorem, (W =  K)
m m 1
 P1 –P2 –  mg (h2 – h1) =  m [v22 – v12]
  2

P1 v1
2
P2 v
2
+ gh1 + = + gh2 + 2
 2  2
 v1
2
P2 v22
 P1 +  gh1 + = +  gh2 +
2  2
v 2
 P +  gh + = Constant
2
where, P = pressure energy per unit volume = Pressure at a cross-section
1
 gh = potential energy per unit volume and ( )  v2 = kinetic energy per unit volume
2
Hence the proof of Bernoulli’s theorem.
Problem : Water flows through a tunnel from the reservoir of a dam towards the turbine
installed in its power plant. The power plant is situated h m below the reservoir. If the ratio of
the cross-sectional area of the tunnel at the reservoir and power station end is  , find the
speed of the water entering into the turbine.
Solution : Applying Bernoulli’s theorem at reservoir and power plant for the flowing water,
1
we obtain, P0 +  gh1 +  v12 = P0 +  gh2 +  v22
2
 v22 = v12 + 2g (h1 – h2)
Putting (h1 – h2) = h, we obtain
2
v2 = v1  2 gh ..... (1)
Equation of continuity yields

A1v1 = A2v2 ..... (2)
Eliminating v1 from equations (1) and (2), we obtain
2 gh
2
 A2  A 
2
v2 =  v2   2 gh  v2 = 1   2 
 A1   A1 
A1 2 gh
Putting A =  , we obtain v2 = 
2  2 1

Applications of Bernoulli’s Theorem

1. The Pitot tube. This is a device to measure the flow speed of a gas. It consists of a mano
meter surrounded by a wider tube as shown below.
Let the speed of the flowing gas is v . It is clear from the figure that the gas moves above the point
M with the speed v but it is stagnant at point N. Therefore, applying Bernoulli’s theorem at points
M and N
1
PM +  v 2 = PN
2
1
 PN – P M =  v2 ...... (1)
2
But P C = P M + H  g + h  0g ..... (2)
and PB = PN + (H + h)  g ..... (3)
as PB = P C
 PN + (H + h)  g = PM + H  g + h  0g
 PN – PM = hg (  0 –  ) ..... (4)
1
Comparing equations (1) and (4)  v 2 = hg (  0 –  )
2
( 0   )   
v 2 = 2hg or v = 2hg  0  ..... (5)
   
0
normally  0 >>   v ~_ 2hg ..... (6)

Thus the speed of flowing fluid is determined by measuring level difference in the manometer tube.

Problem : A pilot tube is mounted on an airplane wing to determine the speed of the plane
relative to the air. The tube contains alcohol (specific gravity = 0.8) and indicates a level
difference 10 cm. What is the plane’s speed in kph ? (density of air 1.293 kgm –3)
2' hg
Solution : We have by Equation 6 v=

2  0.8  1000  0.1  9.8

 v = = 34.8 ms–1
1.293
34.8  3600
= Kmh–1
1000
= 125 kph
2.The Venturimeter. This is a gauge to measure the flow speed of a liquid. It is simply a pipe
of known cross-sectional area. In the middle its area is reduced and a manometer tube is attached
between this constriction and any other point of the tube.
The tube is held horizontally and the liquid is passed through it. The manometer indicates the
pressure difference between the two points. Applying Bernoulli’s theorem to the two points M
and N (see figure).
1 1
PM +  V2 = PN +  v2
2 2
1
 PM – P N =  (v2 – V2) ..... (1)
2
By the equation of contintuityAV = av

A
 v= V
a
1  A2  a 2 
 from eq (1) P M – PN =   2
 V2 ..... (2)
2  a 
Also PB = PM + (H + h)  g ..... (3)
P C = P N + H  g + h  0g ..... (4)
But PB = P C
PM + (H + h)  g = PN + H  g + h  0g
 PM – PN = (  0 –  )hg ..... (5)
1  A2  a 2 
Comparing (2) and (5)   2
 V2 = (  –  )hg
2  a  0
    )   a2 
 V= 2 0   2  hg
2 
    A a 
As the volume flux (= rate of volume flow) = AV
2 gh  0   ) 
 Volume flux  = AV = Aa  
( A2  a 2 )   
2 gh 
mostly P <<  0   = Aa . 0
(A  a ) 
2 2
Problem : The ratio of the radius of the tube of a venturimeter is  ( > 1). The ratio of the
densities of the liquid in the manometer and the moving fluid is  1. If the difference in heights
of the liquid column in the manometer is h, find the minimum speed of flow of the fluid.
Solution : The speed of flow is minimum when the cross-sectional area of the tube is maximum.
The equation for minimum speed of flow of the fluid in a venturimeter is given as
2 gh 0
.
2 gh   A2  
2
V= a . 0 =  2  1
(A  a ) 
2 2
a 
2
0 A  r1  21 gh
Putting = 1 , =   =  12 , we obtain V =
 a  r2   4 1

3. Velocity of efflux and Torricelli’s theorem

Suppose that a liquid is taken in a container of large cross sectional area A 1.
There is also a small hole of cross-sectional area A 2 on the wall of the container. Suppose that the
velocity of efflux of the liquid out of the container v2. The velocity of a liquid particle at the surface
at that instant is v1. The height of the liquid column at any instant from the position of the hole to the
upper end of the tank is h, and the atmospheric pressure is P 0
Now from the principle of continuity, we get
v1A1 = v2A2 ..... (1)
Applying Bernoulli’s principle at the free end outside the hole and at the surface, we get
1 1
P0 +  v 12 +  gh = P0 +  v 22 ..... (2)
2 2
Therefore, from equation (1) and (2), we get,
2hg
v 22 = .....(3)
  A 2 
1   2  
  A1  
If A2 << A1 then, v2 = 2hg ..... (4)

which is the velocity of free fall through a height h (Torrecelli’s Theorem).
Equations (3) and (4) give the velocity of efflux of a liquid coming out in a small hole in a tank.
If the surface area of tank is large compared to the hole
A2
i.e., A1 >> A2, we can approximate A = 0 and the following conclusions result.
1
(a) v  h
(b) v is independent of nature of liquid.
(c) If the liquid is ejected through the hole horizontally and the hole is at a height h from the upper
level of liquid and the total height of liquid column is H, then the time taken by the liquid to reach

2( H  h )
the ground is t= ..... (5)
g
Suppose, the horizontal distance travelled by the liquid stream is x i.e., the liquid will strikes the
ground at a distance x from the base of the container below the hole.
2( H  h )
Then, x = v.t = 2 gh . = 4 h( H  h) ..... (6)
g
dx
This range x will be maximum if =0
dh
dx
Now, x2 = 4h (H – h). Therefore, 2x =4H–8h=0
dh
H
Therefore, H = 2h i.e. h= ..... (7)
2
H  H
and xmax = 2 H  
2  2
i.e. Xmax = H .....(8)
(ii) For two holes equidistant from ‘centre of tank’ the horizontal ranges will be same i.e. liquid will
fall at the same point. In that case :
H H
 h1  h2   H  h1  h2  x1  x2  4h1h2
2 2
Time taken by the water to fall from height h1 to h2 : If A be the area of cross section of
dh
the container, then the water level will fall at the rate  . Hence
dt
 dh 
A     av  a 2 gh
 dt 
h2
A 1
 dt   a . 2 g h
1/ 2
or, dh
h1

A  2h1 2h2 
or, t   

a g g 

A 2H
If the hole is at bottom, the time taken to empty the container is t  .
a g
Problem : A cylindrical tank of height 0.4 m is open at the top and has a diameter of 0.16 m.
It is filled with water upto a height of 0.16 m. Find the time taken to empty the tank through
a hole of radius 5 × 10–3 m in its bottom.
R2 2H
Solution : As t= 2
r g
(0.08) 2 2 0.16
= sec. = 46. 26 sec
(5 103 ) 2 9.80
4. Dynamic Lift , Deviation and Magnus effect : Dynamic lift or deviation is due to the
force that acts on a body such as an airplane wing, a hydrofoil,a spinning ball, the spinning shot
of a rifle by virtue of its motion through air.
(a) Swing bowling : Consider a ball (sphere) thrown to move through a fluid (air).
As the sphere moves through air it drags some air along with it. Hence the air particles in touch
with it will be dragged almost with the same velocity as that of the sphere. The velocity of the
distant particles will gradually be less and the air at large distance from the moving sphere will
be at rest. Now, let us consider the motion of a spinning sphere through air. Figure below shows
the resulting streamlines. The velocities at points above or on right side add , while those at
points below or on left side subtract.
Hence the velocity of the air particles above (or right-side ) is greater than the velocity at the

corresponding point below (or left-side). According to Bernoulli’s theorem, then, the pressure
at a point above (or right-side ) is less than the pressure at the corresponding point below (or
left-side) so that there is an upward (or right-ward) thrust on the spinning sphere. This is the
dynamic lift or deviation of the ball and results into a swing bowling or flighted bowl.This effect
of deviation in the path of a spinning object moving through a fluid due to pressure difference
on its opposite sides is called Magnus Effect . Magnus effect will not be observed when the spin
axis is parallel to the direction of motion of the object.
(b) Dynamic lift of an Airplane : We have seen above that the dynamic lift is always associ-
ated with an unsymmetrical set of streamlines. Where streamlines are close together, there the
pressure is low and where streamlines are far apart there pressure is high. In the case of spinning
ball the unsymmetrical distribution of streamlines is due to the spin of the ball. But in the case
of an airplane wing , an unsymmetrical pattern of streamlines is obtained by properly shaping
the wing and properly orienting it in the airstream. The orientation and the shape of the cross-
section of the wings as shown in the following figure makes the streamlines closer together
above the wing than they are below so there is an upward dynamic lift on the wing.
There is another way to explain the lift : the wing is designed so that the air flowing past it is
deflected downwards and so the wing exerts a downward force on the air , and , by Newtons third
law air exerts an upward force on the wing.
5. Blowing the roof of a Hut : Stormy air blowing fastly above the roof of a hut can lower down
the pressure above the hut so much so that the still air inside the hut having high pressure can
provide
sufficiently large upward force to lift and then blow off the roof-sheets.
Problem : Air flows horizontally with a speed v = 108 km/hr. A house has a plane roof of area
A = 20 m2. Find the magnitude of aerodynamic lift on the roof.
Solution : Air flows just above the roof and there is no air flow just below the roof within the room.
Therefore v1 = 0 and v2 = v. Applying Bernoulli’s theorem at the points inside and outside the roof
, we obtain

1 1
   v12 +  gh1 + P1 =    v22 +  gh2 + P2
 2  2
Since h1 = h 2 ,
v1 = 0 and v2 = v
1
P1 = P 2 +  v2
2
1
P1 – P 2 =  v2 =  P
2
Since the area of the roof is A, the aerodynamic force exerted on it
= F = (  P) A
1
i.e., F=  A v2
2
where  = density of air = 1.3 kg/m3
A = 20 m2, v = 30 m/sec
1
we get, F={ × 1.3 × 20 × (30)2} N = 1.17 × 104 N
2
6. The Spray pump or Atomizer : The common paint sprayer is yet another example of fall in
pressure due to an increase in velocity as predicted by Bernoulli’s theorem. Here, air is blown
by a pump across a small opening which results in a reduction of pressure above the opening.
The atmospheric pressure pushes the liquid up the tube. On reaching the opening it is blown
into a fine spray by the air-stream.
7. Siphon : A siphon is a very conenient device for removing liquid from container. .There is a
necessary condition for its working and that is the liquid removing tube must be filled completely
with the liquid so that there is a continuity of flow throughout the tube . Once the tube is com
pletely filled with liquid and liquid starts to flow then we can apply equation of continuity in the
tube. That is, AV is constant. Thus if the area of cross section of tube remians same through out
then speed of liquid will be same through out the tube.Considering the liquid is flowing in
streamlines we can apply Bernoulli’s equation at points M and N , we get :

1 2
PM  hg  PN  v
2
Now both the points M and N are exposed to air, thus PM  PN  Patm
1 2
Thus, v  hg
2
v  2 gh
In this way the liquid will go on coming out of the end N of the tube .
8. Clepsedra- A Water clock : In ancient times water clock as shown under measured time in
accordance with the level of water in the upper bowl . Surface of the clock has such a shape that the
water comes out of a narrow orifice at the bottom of the bowl at a constant rate . As a consequence
the level of water in the bowl also comes down in direct proportion to the time ellapsed and so time
is measured .
Let us determine the shape of the surface . Consider a point (x,y) on the surface of the bowl when
dy
height of the water level is y . Then   u = constant , where u is the velocity of falling water
dt
level
Let a is the area of cross-section of the orifice, also the area of cross-section of the bowl at the

water surface = A   x 2 , therefore using eqn. of continuity at the orifice and the water surface
 x2
 x u  av
2
 v ...........(1)
a
Where v is the efflux-velocity at the orifice. Further , because , a   x 2 , therefore :
v  2 gy ...........(2)
 x2
from eqns (1) and (2) 2 gy 
a
 2 x4
Squaring 2 gy 
a2
Thus , the surface of the bowl is shaped so that y  x 4 .

9. Narrowing of a water jet : When a jet of liquid comes out of a tap then as it goes down the
gravitational head converts into velocity head and as a result of continuity of flow the cross-section
of the jet
becomes more and more narrow. Consider the jet at points 1 and 2 . A1   R12 and A2   R2 2 are
the radii of the cross-section of the jet at points 1 and 2 , then according to equation of continuity
2
v1 R1
v1 R1  v2 R2
2 2
 v2  R 2 ...........(1)
2
Applying Bernauli’s theorem at points 1 and 2

1 1
Patm  hg  v12  Patm  v2 2  v2  2hg  v12 ..........(2)
2 2

2
2 v1 R1
From eqn (1) and (2) 2hg  v1  2
R2
2
2 v1 R1
 R2  ..........(3)
2
2hg  v1
This explains narrowing of a water jet coming out of a tap.

Important Note : When a liquid falls in a vertical pipe , the necessary condition for stream-line
flow is given by the above equation (3). That is , pipe must go down with decreasing radius in
accordance with the above equation .
10. Impact force of escaping liquid jet : The out-going liquid kicks back the vessel with the
Thrust force ( also called impact force ) given by :
Fthrust or Fimpact   vrel

dm
, where vrel is the velocity of the outgoing liquid relative to the vessel
dt
dm
which is the velocity of efflux through the orifice = v . Further    A2 v , where A2 is the area
dt
of cross-section of the orifice , therefore ,
Fthrust or Fimpact   A2 v 2 ..........(1)

Also , if the jet is due to a vertical fall of liquid v is found as
2 gy
v
2
A 
1   2 
 A1 
11. Thrust on a Rocket : Consider a rocket maintaining very high pressure P of hot gases inside it.
Let A2 is the area of cross-section of the orifice through which the hot gases have to escape, and
A1 is the base area of the cylindrical chamber containing gases . Let us determine the efflux ve-
locity of the gases and the thrust on the rocket . Applying Bernaulli’s eqn to the points 1 and 2
1 1
P  yg  v12  Patm  v2 2 ..........(1)
2 2

2 2P  Patm  2
v2   2 yg  v1 ..........(2)

A2
But , v1  v2 ,
A1
As A2  A1 , therefore , v1  v2 . Also P  Patm is very large as compared to gy , therefore in

eqn (2) neglecting v12 and 2 yg we get :
2P  Patm 
v2  ..........(3)

The thrust on the rocket is
dm
 A2 v2
2
Fthrust  vrel ..........(4)
dt
From eqns (3) and (4)
2P  Patm 
Fthrust  A2  2P  Patm A2


(D) SURFACE TENSION

Evidences and Experiments that Show Membrane like Behavior of
Liquid Surfaces
The surface of a liquid behaves somewhat like a stretched elastic membrane. Just as a stretched
elastic membrane has a natural tendency to contract and occupy a minimum area, so also the sur-
face of a liquid has got the natural tendency to contract and occupy a minimum possible area as
permitted by the circumstances of the liquid mass. We have many evidences in support of this fact
and a direct experimental demonstration of this fact :
(a) We very often find that a small quantity of a liquid spontaneously takes a spherical shape, e.g.,
rain drops, small quantities of mercury placed on a clean glass plate etc. Now, for a given
volume, a sphere has the least surface area. Thus, this fact shows that a liquid always tends to
have the least surface area.
(b) If we immerse a camel-hair brush in water, its hairs spread out, but the moment it is taken out of
water, they all cling together as though bound by some sort of elastic thread.
Experimental demonstration. Make a circular loop of wire and dip it in a soap solution.
Take it out of the solution and find a thin film of soap solution across the loop. Place a moistened
cotton loop gently on the film. The thread will lie across the film in an irregular manner (Figure a).
Now prick the film inside the cotton thread loop by a pin. At once the thread will spontaneously
take the shape of a circle (Figure b). The thread has a fixed perimeter. For a given perimeter a circle
has got the maximum area. hence the remaining portion of the film occupies the minimum area.
Surface Tension and Surface Energy

Surface tension. The above evidences and experiment prove beyond doubt that the surface of a
liquid behaves to some extent like a stretched elastic membrane having a natural tendency to con-
tract and occupy a minimum possible area as permitted by the circumstances of the liquid mass.
This property of the surface of a liquid by virtue of which it tends to contract and occupy the
minimum possible area is called surface tension and is measured by the force per unit length of a
line drawn in the liquid surface, acting perpendicularly to it and tangentially to the surface of the
liquid and tending to pull the surface apart along the line.
Surface tension has the dimensions MT–2 or FL–1. Its unit is newton per metre (Nm–1). It depends on
temperature. The surface tension of all liquids decreases linearly with temperature, over small ranges,
so that the surface tension at tºC is given T = T0(1 – t ), where T0 is the value at 0ºC and  is a
constant called the ‘temperature coefficient’ of surface tension.

Surface Energy. When the surface area of a liquid is increased, the molecules from the interior
rise to the surface. This requires work against force of attraction of the molecules just below the
surface. This work is stored in the form of potential energy. Thus, the molecules in the surface have
some additional energy due to their position. This additional energy per unit area of the surface is
called ‘surface energy’per unit area. The surface energy is related to the surface tension as dis-
cussed below :
Let a liquid film be formed on a wire frame and a straight wire of length l can slide on this wire
frame as shown in figure. The film has two surfaces and both the surfaces are in contact with the
sliding wire and hence, exert forces of surface tension on it. If T be the surface tension of the
solution, each surface will pull the wire parallel to itself with a force Tl. Thus, net force on the wire
due to both the surfaces is 2Tl. One has to apply an external force F equal to opposite to it to keep
the wire in equilibrium. Thus,
F = 2Tl
Now, suppose the wire is moved through a small distance dx, the work done by the force is,
dW = F dx = (2Tl) dx
But (2l)(dx) is the total increase in area of both the surfaces of the film. Let it be dA. Then,
dW = T dA
dW
or T =
dA
Thus, the surface tension T can also be defined as the work done in increasing the surface area by
unity.
Further, since there is no change in kinetic energy, the work done by the external force is stored as
the potential energy of the new surface.
dU
 T = (as dW = dU)
dA
Thus, the surface tension of a liquid is equal to the surface energy per unit surface area.
Problem : How much work will be done in increasing the diameter of a soap bubble from 2
cm to 5 cm? Surface tension of soap solution is 3.0 × 10 –2 N/m.
Solution : Soap bubble has two surfaces. Hence,
W = TA
Here,  
A = 2 4 2.5 10 – 2  – 1.0 10  
2 –2 2
= 1.32 × 10–2 m2
 W = (3.0 × 10–2)(1.32 × 10–2) J = 3.96 × 10–4

Problem : Calculate the energy released when 1000 small water drops each of same ra-
dius 10–7 in coalesce to form one large drop. The surface tension of water is 7.0
× 10–2 N/m.
Solution : Let r be the radius of smaller drops and R of bigger one. Equating the initial and
final volumes, we have
4 3 4 3
R = 1000  r 
3 3 
or R = 10r = (10)(10–7) m
or R = 10–6 m
Further, the water drops have only one free surface. Therefore,
A = 4R 2 – (1000)( 4 r 2 )
= 4 [(10–6)2 – (103)(10–7)2]
= –36  (10–12) m2
Here, negative sign implies that surface area is decreasing. Hence, energy released in the process.
U = A = (7 × 10–2)(36  × 10–12) J = 7.9 × 10–12 J
Theory of Surface Tension

The surface tension of a liquid arises out of the inter attraction of its molecules. Molecules of a fluid
(liquid and gas) attract one another with a force varying inversely as some high power of the dis-
tance and thus this force decreases rapidly with distance. The distance up to which the force of
attraction between two molecules is appreciable is called the molecular range, and is generally of
the order of 10–9 metre. A sphere of radius equal to the molecular range drawn around a molecule is
called sphere of influence of the molecules lying within that sphere.
Consider three molecules A, B and C having their spheres of influence as shown in figure. The
sphere of influence of A is well inside the liquid, that of B partly outside and that of C fifty-fifty.
Molecules like A do not experience any resultant force as they are attracted equally in all directions.
Molecules like B or C will experience a resultant force directed inward. Thus the molecule well
inside the liquid will have only kinetic energy but the molecules near the surface will have kinetic
energy as well as potential energy which is equal to the work done in placing them near the surface
against the force of attraction directed inward.
Imagine a plane cd inside the liquid parallel to the free surface ab at a distance equal to the molecu-

lar range. The layer of liquid between two planes is called the surface film. clearly, all the molecules
in the film will have their sphere of influence partly outside and hence will have potential energy.
let u be the average potential energy per molecule, n number of molecules per unit volume and A is
the area of the film.Then the potential energy of the surface film is U = Arnu
where r = molecular range = thickness of the surface film. Let us now recall the universal principle
of stable equilibrium of a system, that is, a system is in stable equilibrium when its potential energy
is a minimum. According to this principle a system tends to occupy a position in which its potential
energy is minimum. Hence the surface film must also tend to occupy that position in which its
potential energy is a minimum. Since r, n and u are constant, U  A . Therefore the surface film
must have a natural tendency to occupy a minimum area. This is exactly what is the surface tension
of liquid surface.
Angle of Contact : Shape of Liquid Surface near a Solid Surface
When a solid body in the form of a tube or plate is immersed in a liquid, the surface of the liquid
near the solid is, in general, curved. The angle between the tangents to the liquid surface and the
solid surface at the point of contact, inside the liquid, is called the angle of contact for that pair of
solid and
liquid.
Theory of angle of contact. The angle of contact arises due to adhesive and cohesive forces on the
molecules of the liquid which lie near the solid surface. Forces of attraction between moleules of
different substances are called adhesive forces and the forces of attraction between molecules of the
same substance are called cohesive forces.
Consider a liquid molecule near the solid surface. This molecule is attracted by the moleucules of
the solid wall.

These forces are adhesive and are distributed over 180º and hence their resultant acts at right angles
to the solid wall. The forces of cohesion, i.e., attraction by liquid molecule, are distributed over 90º
and hence their resultant will be inclined at 45º to the solid wall. Let fa be the resultant adhesive
force and fc be the resultant cohesive force. Then the angle between fa and fc is 135º. Let f be their
resultant making angle  will fa. Then
f c sin 135º fc
tan  = f  f cos 135º = 2 fa – fc
a c
Case I. If 2 f a = f c , then tan  =  or  = 90º, i.e., resultant will lie along the solid surface.
Figure (b).
Case II. If 2 f a > f c , tan  is +ve and hence  < 90º, i.e., the resultant lies inside the solid as in
figure (c).
Case III. If 2 f a < f c , tan  is –ve and hence  > 90º, i.e., the resultant lies inside the liquid
Figure (d).
A liquid connot permanently withstand a shearing force as it has no rigidity. Hence the free surface
of a liquid will be at right angles to the resultant force.
Thus, in the first case, when the resultant force f acts along the solid surfce, the liquid surface is at
right angles to the solid surface.
In the second case when the cohesive force is smaller than adhesive force such that fc < 2 f a , the
resultant is inside the solid and so the liquid surface is inclined to the solid surface at a small angle.
As the distance of the particle from the wall increases. the adhesive force becomes amaller in
magnitude and the cohesive force spreads over a larger angle. At a point remote from the wall the
adhesive force becomes vanishingly small and the cohesive forces spread over 180º and the result-
ant cohesive force fc acts vertically downward. The free surface of the liquid is, in consequence,
concave upwards near the wall. The concavity of the surface decreases gradually and the free sur-
face becomes horizontal at a large distance from the wall. In this case it is said that the liquid wets
the solid, e.g., water wets glass.
In the third case when the cohesive force (fc) is larger than the adhesive force such that fc >2 f a the
resultant lies inside the liquid and so the liquid surface is inclined to the solid surface at a larger
angle. At a large distance from the wall the surface is horizontal on account of the disappearance of
the adhesice force. Thus in this case the liquid surface is convex upwards near the wall. In this case
it is said that the liquid surface does not wet the solid, e.g., mercury and glass.
Pressure Difference across a curved liquid surface :
Consider a curved liquid surface. Two cases arise,

(1) surface is concave towards liquid (2) surface is convex towards liquid. Both are illustrated as
under :
(1) Concave towards liquid :

The resultant of force of surface tension acts inward the liquid. Also the force due to outside pres-
sure push liquid molecules inwards. Therefore,
inward
F Total
= Force due to outside pressure (P0) + Force due to surface tension
The only outward force on liquid surface is due to inside pressure P i.
outward
 F Total
= Force due to inside pressure (Pi)
As the liquid surface is in equilibrium
outward inward
 F Total
= F Total
 Force due to Pi = Force due to P0 + Force due to surface tension (T)

 Force due to Pi > Force due to P0  Pi > P 0
i.e., inside pressure, that is, on concave side, is more than outside pressure.
(2) When the curved surface is convex towards liquid.

In this case the resultant of force of surface tension T and force of adhesion with the solid wall has
made the liquid surface convex towards liquid and the resultant of these forces act outward. Also
the force due to inside pressure (Pi) act outward. The force due to outside pressure (P0) act inward.
In equilibrium
inward outward
F Total
= F Total
Force due to outside pressure (P0)

= Force due to inside pressure Pi + Force due to adhesion and surface tension
 P0 > P i
Thus outside pressure, i.e., pressure on CONCAVE SIDE is more than the inside pressure.
From above two cases,
We conclude :
If a liquid surface is curved, the pressure is more on CONCAVE SIDE.
EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE A LIQUID DROP :
Consider a liquid drop (spherical) of radius R and surface tension T.
Suppose the excess pressure inside the drop is  P. The radially outward force  ar to an infinitely
small area element dA due to this will be  P . dA. If this radially outward force extends the drop’ss
radius by an infinitely small amount dR, then the work done by this radial force  P dA upon the
area d is dW = (  P dA)dR.
In the above figure, here dA is an infinitely small part of area S where dS is the infinetely small
increase in area S when radius increases by an amount dR.
Therefore, the total work done upon the complete surface S = 4  R2 of the sphere in increasing its
radius from R to R + dR by all these (  PdA) forces acting on the complete sphere radially outward

will be :
W=  (  PdR ) dA
Sphere
where A = S = 4R 2
or W = (  PdR)  dA = (PdR) A
Sphere
= (  PdR ) 4R 2
W = ( 4R 2 ) (dR)  P ..... (1)

When radius increases from R to R + dR then the increase in surface area S to S + dS is obtained as
:
S = 4R 2
differentiating w.r.t. R
dS = 8  R dR ..... (2)
But increase in surface area by an amount dS makes rise in surface energy by an amount TdS. This
much increase in surface energy comes from the work done W. Therefore
W = T dS
i.e., ( 4R 2 ) (dR)  P = T 8  R dR
2T
 P=
R
EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE A BUBBLE :

The only difference for the case of bubble is that it has two surfaces of area S = 4  R2 each. The
radially outward force acts only on inside surface, so work done in increasing radius is
W = (  P) ( 4R 2 ) dR
which is similar in expression as in case of a drop.
But the increase in radius by amount dR cause both outer & inner surface to extend
 dS = 2 (8 R 2 dR)
 W = T dS gives
(  P) ( 4R 2 ) dR = T 18  R dR
4T
or (  P) =
R
DOUBLE BUBBLE :
Two bubbles of same material having radius r and R come togather and form a double bubble. Let
the pressure inside small bubble is P r and inside big bubble is PR.

4T 4T
Pr – Pout = ; PR – Pout =
r r
since r < R so (Pr – Pout) > PR – Pout)
1 1 
or Pexcess = Pr – PR = 4T    ..... (1)
r R
Let the radius of the common surface is Rcommon then

4T
Pr – P R = R ..... (2)
common
1 1 1
= 
Rcommon r R
1 rR
or Rcommon =
Rr
Note : When two soap bubble or radii r1 & r2, combine to form a new bubble in vaccum under
isothermal condition, its radius is given by r = r12  r22 .
At isothermal condition :   PV = constant

P1V1 + P2V2 = PV
4T 4 4T 4 4T 4
r1 .  r 3
+ r  r23 = .  r3
3 1
2 3 r 3
r= r12  r22
Problem : What would be the pressure inside a small air bubble of radius 1.0 mm situated
j ust below the sur f ace of water. T = 72 × 10–3 N/m, Atm. pr. = 1.013 × 105 N/m2

2T
Solution : Excess pr. Pex =
r
2  72  10 3
Pex =
1 10 3
= 1440 N/m2 For air bubble in water As on free surface
Since the bubble is just below the water surface, the external pressure on it is equal to the atm
pressure P, hence the pressure inside the bubble is
P + Pex = 1.013 × 105 + 1440
= 1.0274 × 105 N/m2
Problem : Two separate air bubbles (r1 = 0.002 cm, r2 = 0.004 cm) formed of same liquid T =
0.07 N/m come together to form a double bubble. Find the radius and sense of curvature of
the internal film surface common to both the bubbles.
r1r2
Solution : r = r r
2 1
0 . 002  0 . 004
r=
0 . 004  0 . 002
= 0.004 m
As the excess pressure is always towards concave surface & pressure in smaller bubble is greater
than larger bubble, the common surface is concave towards the centre of the smaller bubble.
CAPILLARITY
Surface tension causes elevation or depression of the liquid in a narrow tube. This effect is called
capillarity.
When a glass capillary tube (A tube of very small diameter is called a capillary tube) open at both
ends is dipped vertically in water, the water in the tube will rise above the level of water in the
vessel as shown in figure (a). in case of mercury, the liquid is depressed in the tube below the level

of mercury in the vessel as shown in figure (b).
When the contact angle is less than 90º the liquid rises in the tube. For a nonwetting liquid angle of
contact is greater than 90º and the surface is depressed, puled down by the surface tension forces.
Explanation
When a capillary tube is dipped in water, the water menscus inside the tube is concave. The pres-
2T
sure just below the meniscus is less than the pressure just above it by , where T is the surface
R
tension of water and R is the radius of curvature of the meniscus. The pressure on the surface of
water is P0, the atmospheric pressure. The pressure just below the plane surface of water outside the
2T
tube is also P0, but that just below the meniscus inside the tube is P0 – . We know that pressure
R
at all points in the same level of water must be the same. Therefore, to make up the deficiency of
2T
pressure below the meniscus water begins to flow from outside into the tube. The rising of
R
water on the capillary stops at a certain height h. In this position the pressure of water column of
2T
height h becomes equal to , i.e.,
R
2T
h g =
R
2T
h = Rg
If r is the radius of the capillary tube and  the angle of contact, then

r
R =
cos 
2T cos 
h = r g
Alternative proof for the formula of Capillary rise
The water meniscus in the tube is along a circle of circumference 2 r which is in contact with the
glass. Due to the surfce tension of water, a force equal to T per unit length acts at all points of the
circle. if the angle of contact is  , then this force is directed inward at an angle from  from the
wall of the tube. In accordance with Newton’s third law, the tube exerts an equal and opposite force
T per unit length on the circumference of the water meniscus. This force which is directed outward,
can be resolved into two components. T cos per unit length acting vertically upward and T sin 
per unit length acting horizontally outward. Considering the entire circumrerence 2 r , for each
horizontal component T sin  there is an equal and opposite component and the two neutralise each
other. The vertical components being the same direction are added upto give a total upward force
2 r T cos  . It is this force which supports the weight of the water column so raised. Thus,
(T cos  )(2 r ) = Weight of the liquid column.
= ( r 2 gh) ...(1)
2T cos 
h = ..... (2)
rg
Cos  1
But r = R cos   =
r R
Putting in equation (2), we get
2T
h = R g .... (3)
The result has following notable features,

(i) If the contact angle  is greater than 90º, the term cos is negative and hence, h is negative.

The expression then gives the depression of the liquid in the tube.
(ii) The correction due to weight of the liquid contained in the meniscus can be made for contact
angle  = 0º. The meniscus is then hemispherical. The volume of the shaded part is
14 3 1 3
V = (r )(r ) –  r  = r
2
23  3
1 3
The weight of the liquid contained in the meniscus is r g .
3
Therefore, we can write Equation (i) as,
1 3
(T cos 0º )( 2r ) = r gh  r g
2
2T r
or h = –
rg 3
(iii)Tube of insufficient height :
2T
From equation (3), we can write hR = ...(4)
g
When the length of the tube is greater than h, the liquid rises in the tube, so as to satisfy the
above relation. But if the length of the tube is insufficient (i.e., less than h) say h´, the liquid
doesnot emerge in the form of a fountain from the upper end (because it will violate the law of
conservation of energy) but the angle made by the liquid surface and hence, the R changes in
such a way that the force 2 rT cos  equals the weight of the liquid raised. Thus,
2 rT cos  ' =  r 2 gh '
2T cos  ' 2T
h´ = or
r g R ' g
2T
or h´ R´ = ...(5)
g
2T
From Equation (4) and (5) h’R’ = hR = = constant (As R can increase upto any value )
g

Problem :A glass tube of radius 0.4 mm is dipped vertically in water. Find upto what height
the water will rise in the capillary? If the tube in inclined at an angle of 60º with the vertical,
how much length of the capillary is occupied by water. Surface tension of water 7.0 × 10 –2 N
per metre , density of water = 103 kg/m3.
Solution : For glas-water, angle of contact  = 0º
2T cos   
2 7.0 10 – 2 cos 0º
Now, h =
rg
=
  
0.4 10 – 3 103 9.8
= 3.57 × 10–2 m = 3.57 cm
h 3.57
l = = = 7.14 cm
cos 60º ½
Some Phenomena Due to Surface Tension
(a) Kerosene oil spreads over water spontaneously. let us consider the equilibrium of a liquid I
floating over liquid II. At the point of contact there are three forces : (a) surface tension T 1 of the
liquid I along the tangent to its surface, (b) surface tention T2 of the liquid II along the tangent to
its surfce, (c) the surface tension between I and II along the tangent to the surface in contact. For
equilibrium of the liquid I over liquid II, T1, T2 and T3 must be represent by the three sides of a
triangle. This triangle of forces is called Newmann’s triangle. For a kerosene oil drop over
water Newmann’s traingle is not possible because resultant of T 1 and T3 remains lesser than T2
(i.e., sum of two sides representing T1 & T3 remains lesser than the side that would represent T2,
and hence  is not formed). Therefore, kerosene spreads spontaneously over a water surface.
(b) Water spreads over a clean glass plate but not mercury. Now consider the equilibrium of a liquid
drop over a solid surface. Here also there are three forces : T1 for air-liquid, T2 for air-solid and
T3 for liquid-solid surface.
Here T3 and T2 are always opposite to each other. The resolved component of T 1 along the
surface will, therefore, decide the equilibrium of the drop over the solid. If  be the angle of
contact then condition for equilibrium is
T3  T1 cos  = T2

T2 – T3
or cos = T1
So long T2 – T3 < T1 i.e. cos < 1 equilibrium is possible. The moment T2 – T3 > T1 i.e. cos
> 1, which is absurd, equilibrium is impossible. For water and clean glass T 2 – T3 > T1, equilib-
rium is not possible and hence water spreads over glass. For mercury T 1 cos  + T3 = T2, The
equilibrium condition is satisfied and hence mercury does not spread over glass.
(c) A needle can float over water. If an ordinary sewing needle is carefully placed on the surface of
water, it is found to float. The experiment can be performed by placing a needle on a piece of
blotting paper and floating the paper on water. The paper soon gets wet and sinks, while the
needle floats on water. The vertical component of the surface tension balances the weight of the
needle and consequently it floats.
(d) Small floating bodies attract. Small floating bodies such as straw or match sticks are found to
attract each other when they are close to each other when they are close to each other. When two
straw particles or match sticks come sufficient near to each other, the liquid between them rises
as in a sufficient near to eah other, the liquid between them rises as in a capillary tube. The
pressure between them falls short of the atmosphere pressure and so the atmospheric prssure
pushes them towards each other from the sides.
(e) A toy camphor scorpion scampers on water. Just for fun pieces of camphor are arranged to-
gether in the shape of a scorpion and floated in water when it is found to scamper haphazardly.
The reason is that as cmphor dissolves is water, the solution has a smaller surface tension than
pure water. Probably due to irregularity in the shape of the pieces and the local condition of
water, the camphor dissolves a little faster on one side than at the other. Thus the surface tension
of water is not the same on all sides and so the scorpion experieces an unbalanced force most
uncertain in magnitude and direction. Consequently, it moves rapidly hither and thither on the
water surface.
(f) Taming of wind by oil. By pouring oil on a vast sheel of water the adverse situation due to wind
can be avoided to some extent. The wind carries away the surface film containing oil and leaves
behind a clean sheet of water. The surface tension of the oil contaminated water is less than that
of pure water. Thus the pull back on a floating body is greater than the pull forward and so
carrying away of floating bodies by the wind is reduced to some extent.

Problem : Calculate the work done in blowing a bubble of radius 5 cm. The surface ten-
sion of soap solution is 0.024 Nm–1.
Solution : Two work done in blowing a bubble is stored as the potential energy of the bubble.
The surface energy is numerically equal to the surface tension.
 The work done= 4 0 . 05   0 . 024  2

2
(multiplied by 2 because there are two surfaces)
= 4  25  24  10 –7  2
= 15.1 × 10–4 Joule
Problem : The pressure inside a soap bubble of radius 1 cm balances 1.4 mm of a column
of oil of relative density 0.8. Calculate the surface tension of the soap solution.
Solution : Here p = gh = 0.8 × 1000 × 9.8 × 1.4 × 10–3 Nm–2
= 0.8 × 9.8 × 1.4 Nm–2
4T
p =
r
pr 1
or T = =  0 . 8  9 .8  1 .4  0 . 01 Nm–1 = 0.02744 Nm–1
4 4
Problem : A capillary tube is dipped in water. Water rises to a height 12 cm. If the angle of
contact is zero and the radius of the tube is 0.1 mm, what is the surface tension
of water ?
1
Solution : T = gr h  r / 3
2
1 –3  0 .1  10 –3 
=  1000  9 . 8  0 . 1  10 
 0 . 12   Nm–1
2  3 
(  = 1000kg m–3)
= 0.5 × 1.2 × 9.8 = 0.0588 Nm–1
Problem : What is the pressure inside a smal air bubble of 0.1 mm radius? The surface
tension of water = 0.072 Nm–1 and the atmosphere pressure = 1.013 × 105 Nm–2.
2T
Solution :  Pinside = poutside  as it is a bubble in water..
r
2  0.072
 Pressure inside the bubble= 1.013 × 105 + Nm–2
0.1 10 – 3
= 1.013 × 105 + 1440 Nm–2
= 1.013 × 105 + 0.0144 105 Nm–2
= 1.0274 × 105 Nm–2.

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My Notes on Physics /dkjindal 1

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

ext ext ext

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

(1) Normal stress or Longitudinal stress :

(Fn1 = Fn2 = Fn, The normal restoring force)

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

(2) Tangential or Shearing Stress :

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

a displacement  x and it is situated at a distance y from the fixed layer PQ.

Hooke’s Law : Stress  Strain (Valid for small deformation.)

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

Elastic Potential Energy of a Strained Body :

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

(iii) Total elongation in wire L   dL

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

(ii) Total elongation in the bar =  dL

For the small element of length dx

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

(B) FLUID STATICS

Pressure at a Point in a Fluid

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

P1 = P2 = atmospheric pressure (P0)

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

The U-shaped tube often contains mercury ,  is the density of murcury

Consider a horizontal line AB through the point of contact : Pressure at A = Pressure at B

Solution : Considering equilibrium of water column we have

Substituting in Eq. (i), we get

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

F1 = (1.01 × 105 + 103 × 10 × 0.1) × 10–3 N = 102 N (downwards)

Our Exponential Atmospheric Pressure :

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

or - dP =  gdh ....................... (1)

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

Solution : y1  R  OM  R  RCos or y1  R (1  Cos  )

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

F  P0 A  gAYc  P0  gYc A

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

Comparing eqns (2) and (3)

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

An Interesting example of ‘Buoyancy’ and Downward Thrust

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

Solution :(i) Pressure on the flat surface  P0  2 Rg

Solution : (i) Pressure on the flat surface  P0  3 Rg

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

 Fcurved ( downward )  F flat (upward )  FB

Mechanical Properties of Matter - by Dinesh K.Jindal

 m = 100 gm  % age of copper = 20 %