PM SHRI JAWAHAR NAVODAYA VIDYALAYA

NARAYANPUR, BIDAR

INVESTIGATORY PROJECT ON
“ The preparation of soap ”

Guided by : Miss. Mamatha

Submitted by : Shubham Telang
Roll number :
 This is to certify that Shubham Telang
student of XII science
worked on project titled- “The preparation
of soap” held in PM SHRI Jawahar
Navodaya Vidyalaya Bidar for the year
2024-25
He worked sincerely under the guidance of
faculties and prepared this dissertation.

External Teacher Subject Teacher

Principal
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I am immensely indebted to almighty god forhis blessings
and grace without which I could not have undertaken this task and my
efforts would never have been a success.
I humbly consider a privilege and honor to express my
heartiest and profound gratitude to Mr. Bhavanarushi sir ,
Principal, JNV Bidar . For his appropriate direction, valuable
suggestion, under judging assistance so generously extended to
me.
I wish to express my deepest feelings of gratitude to Miss
Mamatha, chemistry department, JNV Bidar. For her erudite
involvement and sustained guidance which has been pivotal in my
project work. Her minute observation, precious insights, critical
comments have indeed greatly helped to shape my ideas.
This guidance and support received from my entire classmates
who contributed and who are contributing to this project, is vital
for the success of this project. I am grateful for their constant
support and help.
I also owe sense of gratitude to my parents for encouragement
and support throughout the project.

- SHUBHAM TELANG
CONTENTS.
SR. NO TITLE PAGE NO.
1. Introduction 1
2. Micelle 2
3. History 3
4. The making of 4.
soap.
5. Properties 7
6. The universe of 9
soaps.
7. Biodegradable 12
& non-
biodegradable
soaps.
8. Difference 14
between soap
and
detergents.
9. Conclusion. 18
10. Bibliography. 19
Introduction.
In chemistry, soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Soap
are mainly used as surfactants for washing,
bathing, cleaning.
Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides; three
molecules of fatty acids are attached to a single
molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which
is often called lye, brings about a chemical
reaction as saponification.
They have a polar end which is hydrophilic (water
loving) and a long non-polar chain which is
hydrophobic (water hating). As a consequence,
they can form emulsion by suspending oil in
water.
Fatty end of water soluble end

CH3-(CH2)n-COONa
Soaps are useful for cleaning because soap
molecules have both a hydrophilic end, which
dissolve in water, as well as a hydrophobic end,
which is able to dissolve non-polar grease
molecules.

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MICELLE.
Micelle is an aggregate of surfactant molecule dispersed
in a liquid colloid.
In an aqueous solution, molecules having polar or
charged group and non-polar regions (amphiphilic
molecules) form aggregate called micelle. In a micelle,
polar or ionic heads form an outer shell in contact with
water, while non-polar tails are sequestered in the
interior.

Hence, the core of micelle, being formed of long non-polar

tails, resembles an oil or gasoline drop. The number of
amphiphilic molecules forming the aggregate is called
aggregation number; it is a way to describe the size of the
micelle.

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The making of soap.
There are three main ingredients in plain soap, they are
oil/fat, lye/alkali and water. Other ingredients may be
added to give the soap a pleasant odor or color, or to
improve its skin-softening qualities. Some soap is better
made using soft water, and for these it is a necessary to
either use rainwater or to add borax to tap water.

Lyes are extremely caustic. They cause burns if splashed on the skin
and can cause blindness if splashed in the eyes. If drunk, they can be
fatal. Care is needed while handling lyes and ‘green’ (uncured) soap.
There are two types of soap: - Soft & Hard soap.
Soft soap can be made using either a cold process or a
hot process, but hard soap can only be made using hot
process.
To make any soap it is necessary to dilute the lye, mix it
with the fat or oil, and stir the mixture until
saponification takes place.
The cold process may require several days or even
months, depending upon the strength and purity of the
ingredients, whereas hot process takes place within few
minutes to few hours.
Dispose of soap-making wastes carefully outdoors, do not
put them in the drain.

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several things may cause problem with the normal action
of soap molecules.
One of these is the presence of left-over starting
materials. Extra fat will make the soap feel greasy.
Positively-charged ions tend to bond with negative end of
the soap molecules, either precipiting the molecules
completely, or interfering with the ion-dipole interactions
between the soap molecules and the water.

 1.4 million deaths can be prevented each year by handwashing with soap 
 Children under 5 who wash with soap can reduce their risk of pneumonia
by 46% 
 1/3 of the worlds soap is used by the U.S 
 10 Billion pounds of soap are produced each year 
 The average person encounters 100 chemicals before breakfast 
 The largest soap bubble was created on October 9th, 2005 and measured
105.4 cubic feet. If you could fill it with baseballs it would hold 13.627 of
them.

 October 15th is Global Handwashing Day 

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To prepare a sample of soap and to
examine its properties.
EQUIPMENT’S:
 250ml beaker.
 Sodium hydroxide (20% solution)
 100ml beaker
 Ethanol
 Wire gauge
 Saturated solution of sodium chloride
 Laboratory burner
 Calcium chloride (5% solution)
 Glass stirring rod
 Magnesium chloride (5% solution)
 Test tube and ferric chloride (5% solution)
 Filter flask and Buchner funnel
 Kerosene and filter paper
 Phenolphthalein indicator solution
 Cooking oil and graduated cylinder
 Watch glass to extinguish possible ethanol flames

PROCEDURE:
I. Measure 20g of cooking oil into a 250ml beaker. Add
20ml of ethanol and 25ml of 20% sodium hydroxide
solution. Stir the mixture in the beaker. Place the
beaker on wire gauze on a ring stand and heat
gently.

Heat this solution gently, keep the flame away from the top of
the beaker to prevent the alcohol from catching on fire.
II. Heat until the odor disappears.

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 III. Turn off the burner and allow the beaker to cool
down.
IV. Move it safely to bench top.
V. Add 100ml of saturated sodium chloride to your
soap preparation and stir the mixture thoroughly.
VI. It is used to remove the soap from water, glycerol,
and any excess sodium hydroxide present.
VII. Filter off the soap with a vacuum filtration
apparatus and wash once with ice water.
VIII. Weigh your dried soap and record the weight.

Properties:
WASHING PROPERTIES.
Take a small amount of soap and try to wash your hands
with it. It should lather rather easily if soft water or use
deionized water.
Record your observations.
EMULSIFICATION.
Put 5-10 drops of kerosene in a test tube containing
10ml water and shake to mix. Emulsion or suspension of
tiny oil droplets in water will be formed. Let this stand for
a few minutes
Prepare another test tube with the same ingredients and
also add a small portion (1/2g or so) of your soap. Shake
to mix. Compare the relative stability of the two
emulsions.
HARD WATER REACTION.
Take 1g of your soap and warm it with 150ml of water in
a 100ml beaker.

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When you have obtained a reasonably clear solution,
pour about 15ml into each of three test tubes.
Test one of the three tubes with 10 drops of 5% CaCl2
solution, one with 10 drops of 5% MgCl2 solution and one
with 10 drops of 5% FeCl3 solution.
Let these solutions stand, then make your observations.
Basicity: - Soap with free alkali can be very damaging to
skin, silk, or wool.
IT’S TEST
Dissolve a small piece of your soap in 15ml of ethanol
and then add two drops of phenolphthalein. It the
indicators turn red; the presence of free alkali is
indicated.
 Fats and oils are hydrolyzed(split) with a high
pressure to yield crude fatty acids and glycerol.
 The fatty acids are then purified by distillation and
neutralized with an alkali to produce soap and water
(neat soap in a liquid form).
 Fatty acid + NaOH > glycerol + sodium soap.
 Sodium soaps are “hard” soap.
 The more saturated the oil (tropical vegetable oils
such as coconut oil), the harder the soap.

Fatty acid + KOH > glycerol + potassium soap

Potassium soap are softer and are found in some
liquid hand soap and shaving cream.

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The universe of different types of
soap.
KITCHEN SOAPS
They are further categorized into two: cleansers and detergents.
Cleansers

Cleansers are often made with mild abrasives and they are
formulated to eliminate heavy oil or solid particles and hard-to-
remove stains. The cleansers come in many different types
depending on the type of abrasives they contain.
Detergents

Dish detergents are made to remove tough grease and release the
solid dirt particles in the foam that is produced by the detergent.
There are two types of dish detergents: machine dishwasher
detergents and hand dishwashing detergents.

LAUNDRY SOAPS
Laundry soaps are formulated to eliminate grease, solid particles
and organic compounds from clothes. They can be found
in liquid, powder and gel forms.

CLEANING SOAPS
Cleaning soaps have different formulations to clean grease and
soil. The difference between cleansers and cleaning soaps is that
cleaning soaps don't contain harsh abrasives.

PERSONAL SOAPS
This kind of soap is made in many forms and special
formulations for specific personal hygiene needs. One type of the
personal soap is the antibacterial soap that is made to prevent
bacteria and viruses from spreading. There are also body and

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hair soaps that have a mix of ingredients that cleans both the
skin and hair.

NOVELTY SOAPS
Novelty soaps are especially manufactured for the kids and
include the soaps in the shapes of various items, such as a
rubber ducky or the soap-on-the-rope. There are made not only
to clean dirt and grime, but for amusement and enjoyment as
well.

PERFUMED SOAPS
Perfumed soaps are produced by adding a few additional
ingredients and perfume.

GUEST SOAPS
Guest soaps are miniature soaps that are made and shaped into
attractive shapes and they are basically designed for the use by
guests either in the main bathroom or separate guest bathroom.
Popular and commonly used shapes are flowers, sea shells and
rounds

BEAUTY SOAPS
Beauty soaps are produced to feature attractive fragrances, and
ingredients for a variety of skin types. They can feature glycerin,
or special oil blends.

MEDICATED SOAPS
Medicated soaps and original soap are very similar. Unlike
original soap, medicated soap has the addition of antiseptics and
disinfectants.

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GLYCERIN SOAPS
Glycerin is a normally produced during the process of soap
production. Soaps which include glycerin in them tend to make
your skin feel moister.

TRANSPARENT SOAP
Transparent soap uses slightly different ingredients and usually
some form of alcohol to alter the process which is also conducted
at higher temperatures. Not all transparent soaps are glycerin
soaps.

LIQUID SOAPS
Liquid soaps are actually very difficult to produce and many of
the commercial liquid soaps are just in fact detergents.

 2.6 million bars of soap are discarded daily by the hotel industry in the
U.S. alone
 Lack of access to WASH contributes to two of the three leading killers
of children under the age of five in the world – pneumonia, which can be
prevented by good handwashing and better hygiene; and diarrhea, which
comes from drinking unsafe water and lack of sanitation. With good
quality water, sanitation, and hygiene, children’s lives can be saved.
 Handwashing by birth attendants before delivery reduces mortality rates
by 19%.
 Liquid soap was patented by the American William Sheppard in 1865.

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Difference between soap
and detergent.
SOAP: -
There are a variety of soaps. A soap is the metal salt of a fatty
acid.
The metal may be an alkali metal such sodium (Na) or potassium
(K). These metals are found in the first column of the periodic
table of the elements. Or, the metal can be an alkaline earth
metal, such as calcium (Ca) or magnesium (Mg). These metals are
found in the second column of the periodic table of the elements.
A fatty acid is an organic compound most often of animal or plant
origin. A fatty acid contains a long-chain aliphatic carbon
skeleton (with or without branches) with a carboxylic acid group
(-COOH) at its end.

An example of a soap is potassium palmitate:

CH₃(CH₂)₁₄-COO⁻ K⁺

DETERGENT: -
Detergents have some similarities. But are often of
synthetic origin. They are not made insoluble by
mineralized (or hard) water. Also, instead of a carboxylic
acid group, a detergent contains a more highly ionic
group. It may have a sulfate or a sulfonate group (-
OS(O)₂-OH).

In addition, detergents can include one or more aromatic

rings. Detergents offer added properties. They can be
used as surfactants and foaming agents.

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There are even detergents that dissolve in solvents other
than water, such as gasoline. These often include
nitrogen in their formulation. The nitrogen compound
often includes a ring as part of its structure. Such
compounds are not only detergents, but dispersants.

An example of a detergent is sodium lauryl sulfate:

CH₃(CH₂)₁₂-OS(O)₂-O⁻ Na⁺

SOAP AND DETERGENT PROPERTIES IN HARD WATER.

The most important difference between a soap and
detergent is their behavior in water. A big drawback of
washing with soap is that it forms a scum in hard water,
which is not easy to clean and is known to turn laundry
into a hue.

Soaps form a scum in hard water, which is not easy to

rinse away and is known to turn laundry, a grayish hue.
The insoluble film that soap leaves can leave a residue on
the laundry same like as would see in a shower stall
where hard water is present. On the other hand,
detergents react less to minerals in water hence does not
leave this residue. In case you are living in an area,
where the water is soft, a soap will work satisfactorily,
but even then a gradual build-up of calcium and
magnesium ions (also called 'curd') will be left on the
fabric.

Another important difference between soaps and

detergents is the sensitivity of soaps to acidic conditions.
On putting a soap into an acidic (pH<4.5), it protonates
the carboxylate group.

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CONCLUSION.
In conclusion, soap is a substance, water soluble
sodium salts of fatty acid, that is used to remove
dirt and grimes from a surface. Its molecules have
a long hydrocarbon chain that has a negative
charged head. Its non-polar hydrocarbon chain
doesn’t interact with water molecules that form
micelles. The soap micelles repeal each other and
stay dispersed in water. New micelles form that
having soiling molecules in the center. The dirt
gets attached to them and can be rinsed away.

From this project we concluded that, since soap is

started to consumed it has changed our lives
drastically.

We should say thanks’ to soap’s…because

without soaps this world would literally would
not be exist.

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Bibliography.
This project would be nearly incomplete if I have
not used the information given in the following
websites.
My special thanks for the uploader of information
on these websites. If considered, I have used
everything that google shows me……

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