WEEK 4:

ZOO 110: Basic Zoology I

Phylum Porifera

Content/
sub-topics
with ACTIVITY
activities
interspersed
i. Definition of poriferans
ii. Characteristics of poriferans
iii. Classification of Poriferans
iv. Feeding in Poriferans
v. Reproduction in Poriferans
Introduction

• An introduction to the course content (topic) for the week.

Phylum Porifera are the lowest multicellular animals belonging to the kingdom Animalia.
The word “Porifera” mainly refers to the pore bearers or pore bearing species. Based on the
embryological studies, sponges are proved as animals and are classified into a separate Phylum
in the animals. This phylum includes about 5000 species. Poriferans are pore-bearing first
multicellular animals. The pores are known as Ostia. The poriferans have a spongy
appearance and are therefore called sponges. They are attached to the substratum and do
not move. They have the ability to absorb and withhold fluids. They were initially
regarded as plants due to the green colour and their symbiotic relationship with algae. Later,
their life cycle and feeding system were discovered, and they were included in the animal
kingdom.

Learning outcome

• Course outcomes
By the end of this week you should be able to describe the Poriferans.

Characteristics of Phylum Porifera

Some of the important characteristics of phylum Porifera are mentioned below.

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 1. Porifera are all aquatic, mostly marine except one family Spongillidae which lives in
freshwater.
2. They are sessile and sedentary and grow like plants.
3. The body shape is vase or cylinder-like, asymmetrical or radially symmetrical.
4. The body surface is perforated by numerous pores, the Ostia through which water
enters the body and one or more large openings, the oscula by which the water exists.
5. The multicellular organism with the cellular level of body organization. No distinct
tissues or organs.
6. They consist of outer ectoderm and inner endoderm with an intermediate layer of
mesenchyme, therefore, diploblastic
7. The interior space of the body is either hollow or permeated by numerous canals lined
with choanocytes. The interior space of the sponge body is called spongocoel.
8. Characteristic skeleton consisting of either fine flexible spongin fibers, siliceous
spicules or calcareous spicules.
9. Mouth absent, digestion intracellular.
10. Excretory and respiratory organs are absent.
11. Contractile vacuoles are present in some freshwater forms.
12. The nervous and sensory cells are probably not differentiated.
13. The primitive nervous system of neuron arranged in a definite network of bipolar or
multipolar cells in some, but is of doubtful status.
14. The sponges are monoecious.
15. Reproduction occurs by both sexual and asexual methods.
Asexual reproduction occurs by buds and gemmules.
The sponge possesses a high power of regeneration.
Sexual reproduction occurs via ova and sperms.
16. All sponges are hermaphrodite.
17. Fertilization is internal but cross-fertilization can occur.
18. Cleavage holoblastic.
19. Development is indirect through a free-swimming ciliated larva called
amphiblastula or parenchymula.
20. The organization of sponges are grouped into three types which are ascon type, sycon
type, and leuconoid type, due to simple and complex forms.
21. Examples: Clathrina, Sycon, Grantia, Euplectella, Hyalonema, Oscarella, Plakina,
Thenea, Cliona, Halichondria, Cladorhiza, Spongilla, Euspondia, etc.

Structure of Sponges
The body of a sponge consists of jelly-like material (mesohyl) made mainly of collagen and
reinforced by a dense network of fibres also made of collagen. Sandwiched between two thin
layers of cells. Many also have a skeleton made up of spicules of calcium carbonate or silica.
Spicules vary in shape from simple rods to three-dimensional “stars” with up to six rays.
Some sponges also secrete exoskeletons that lie completely outside their organic
components whilst others, e.g., Spongia officinalis, the bath sponge, have no spicules at all.

Sponges do not have a nervous, digestive or circulatory system. They rely on keeping up a
constant water flow through their bodies to obtain food and oxygen and to remove wastes.
Sponges have a unique feeding system among animals. Instead of a mouth they have tiny pores
(ostia) in their outer walls through which water is drawn. Cells in the sponge walls filter food
from the water as the water is pumped through the body and the osculum (“little mouth”).
The flow of water through the sponge is in one direction only, driven by the beating of
flagella which line the surface of chambers connected by a series of canals.

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Sponge cells perform a wide range of bodily functions and appear to be more independent
of each other than are the cells of other animals.

Image from Life on Australian Seashores

• Sponges can regenerate from fragments that are broken off by currents or predators,
although this only works if the fragments include the right types of cells. A few
species reproduce by budding and others by producing gemmules.
• Gemmules are "survival pods" which a few marine sponges and many freshwater
species produce in large numbers when dying. Gemmules, cyst-like spheres, are
made by wrapping shells of spongin, often reinforced with spicules, around clusters
of special amoeba-like cells called archeocytes that are full of nutrients.

How sponges feed

Image from Life on Australian Seashores

Reproduction in Poriferans

• Sponges are usually hermaphrodites; however, they are either male, female or
neuter at any time.
• Most sponges reproduce sexually by releasing sperm cells into the water.
• In viviparous species the cells that capture most of the adults' food capture the sperm
cells and transport them to ova in the parent's mesohyl. The fertilized eggs begin
development within the parent and the larvae are released to swim off in search of
places to settle.

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 • In oviparous species both sperm and egg cells are released into the water and
fertilisation and development take place outside the parent's bodies.

Viviparous - a method of reproduction in which the embryo develops inside the body of the
female from which it gains nourishment.
Oviparous - a method of reproduction in which eggs are laid, with little or no other embryonic
development within the mother.

Classification of Phylum Porifera

Phylum Porifera is classified into three classes:
1. Calcarea
• They are found in marine, shallow, and coastal water.
• Their skeleton is composed of calcareous spicules made of calcium carbonate.
• The body is cylindrical and exhibits radial symmetry.
• The body organization is asconoid, syconoid, or leuconoid.
• Eg., Clathrina, Scypha

Lattice sponge (Calcareous Sponge) Leucilla nutting (Calcareous Sponge)

Image © Ben Speers-Roesch Flickr Image © Institut für
Kommunikationswissenschaft

2. Hexactinellida
• They are found in marine and the deep sea.
• The skeleton is made up of six-rayed siliceous spicules.
• The body is cylindrical in shape and exhibit radial symmetry.
• The canal system is Sycon or Leucon.
• Eg., Euplectella, Hyalonema

Euplectella

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 Hyalonema

3. Desmospongiae
• They are found in marine or freshwater.
• The body is asymmetrical and cylindrical in shape.
• The canal system is a leuconoid type.
• The skeleton comprises spongin fibres, siliceous spicules, which are monoaxon and
triaxon.
• Eg: Spongia, Spongilla, etc.

Giant Basket Yellow fan sponge (Demosponge)

sponge (Demosponge) Image © Stefan Ottomanski Flickr
Image ©Image © Paul
Flandinette

Spicules: Meaning, Classification and Development and Taxonomic Importance.

Meaning of Spicules:
• The spicules or sclerites are definite bodies, having a crystalline appearance and
consisting in general of simple spines or of spines radiating from a point.

• They have an axis of organic material around which is deposited the inorganic
substance, either calcium carbonate or hydrated silica.
• They present a great variety of shape and as reference to the shape is essential in the
description of sponges, a large terminology exists.

Classification of Spicules:

• First, spicules are of two general kinds—megascleres and microscleres.

• The spicules are further classified according to the number of their axes and rays.
• Words designating the number of axes end in axons, those referring to the number of
rays end in actine or actinal.

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Spicules and spongin

1. Megascleres:

The megascleres are the larger skeletal spicules that constitute the chief supporting
framework of the sponge.
There are five general types of megasclere spicules, viz., monaxons, tetraxons, triaxons,
polyaxons and spheres.

(i) Monaxons:

• These are formed by growth in one or both directions along a single axis, which
may be straight or curved.
• When growth has occurred in one direction only, the spicule is called monactinal
monaxon or style.
• Styles are typically rounded (strongylote) at one end and pointed (oxeote) at the other.
• Styles in which the broad end is knobbed are called tylostyles;
• those curved with thorny processes are acanthostyles.

Usually the pointed end of styles projects to the exterior.

Monaxons that develop by growth in both directions from a central point are named
diactinal monaxons, diactines or briefly rhabds.
• Rhabds pointed at each end are oxeas,
• lance-headed at each end, tornotes;
• rounded at the ends, strongyles and
• knobbed at each end, like a pin head, tylotes.

(ii) Tetraxons:

• Tetraxon spicules are also called tetractines and quadriradiates.

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 • They consist typically of four rays, not in the same plane, radiating from a common
point.
• The four rays of the tetraxon spicule may be more or less equal, in which case the
spicule is called a calthrops.

• Generally, one ray, rhabdome, is elongated bearing a crown of three smaller rays;
such spicules are termed triaenes.
• By loss of one smaller ray results into a diaene.
• If the elongated ray bears a disc at both ends, it is called amphidisc.
• Loss of elongated ray results into a triradiate or triactinal spicule, called a triod
characteristic of calcareous sponges.

(iii) Triaxons:

• The triaxon or hexactinal spicule consists fundamentally of three axes crossing at

right angles, producing six rays extending at right angles from a central point.
• From this basic type all possible modifications arise by reduction or loss of rays,
branching and curving of the rays, and the development of spines, knobs, etc., upon
them.
• The triaxon spicules are characteristic of class Hexactinellida.

(iv) Polyaxons:

These spicules in which several equal rays radiate from a central point.

(v) Spheres:

These are rounded bodies in which growth is concentric around a centre.

(vi) Desma:

• A special type of megasclere known as desma occur in a number of sponges.

• A desma consists of an ordinary minute monaxon, triadiate,or tetraxon spicule,
termed the crepis, on which layers of silica have been deposited irregularly.
• Desmas are named from the shape of the crepis, as monocrepid, tricrepid and
tetracrepid.
• They are usually united into a network and such a reticulated skeleton is called lithistid.

2. Microscleres:

• The microscleres are the smaller flesh spicules that occur strewn throughout the
mesenchyme.
• However, they do not form the supporting framework.
• The microspheres are of two types, viz., spires and asters.

(i) Spires:

• Spires are curved in one plane or spirally twisted and exhibits many shapes.
• The most common types are the C-shaped forms, called sigmas;

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 • the bow-shaped ones, or toxas and
• the chelas with recurved hooks, plates or flukes at each end.
• When two ends are alike, chelas are called isochelas,
• when unlike, anisochelas.
• Spirally twisted sigmas are termed sigmaspires.

(ii) Asters:

• Asters include types with small centres and long rays and large centres and small
rays.
Among the small centred forms are oxyasters with pointed rays,
strongylaster with rounded ends and
tylasters with knobbed rays.
• Large-centred forms include spherasters with definite rays and
• sterrasters with rays reduced to small projections from the spherical surface.

• Short spiny microscleric monaxons are known as streptasters, of which the principal
sorts are the spirally twisted spirasters, rod shapes or sanaidasters, plesioasters with
a few spines from a very short axis, and amphiasters with spines at each end.

• Microscleric forms of diactines are microrhabds, microxeas, and microstrongyles.

Development of Spicules:
Spicules are secreted by mesenchyme cells, called scleroblasts. Very little is known about the
formation of various kinds of spicules. The process is best known for calcareous spicules.
On the basis of development, the spicules may be primary which owe their first origin from
a single mother cell or scleroblast, or secondary which arise from more than one scleroblast.

(i) Development of monaxon spicules:

• In calcareous sponges, a monaxon spicule is secreted within a binucleate sclerobast,

probably arising by the incomplete division of an ordinary scleroblast.
• The calcium carbonate is deposited around an organic axial thread in the cytoplasm
between the two nuclei.
• As the spicule lengthens, the two nuclei draw apart until the scleroblast divides into
two.
• One cell, the founder is situated at the inner end, the other the thickner at the outer
end of the spicule, since monaxon spicules usually project from the body wall.

• The spicule is laid down chiefly by the founder which moves slowly inward,
establishing the shape and length.
• The thickner deposits additional layers of calcium carbonate, also moving inward
during this process.
• When the spicule is completed, both cells wander from its inner end into
mesogloea, the founder first and the thickner later.

Secretion of a monaxon spicule

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The development of siliceous spicules is poorly known and requires further exploration. It
appears that in most cases they are formed completely with one scleroblast called silicoblast.

(ii) Development of triaxon spicules:

• Triaxon or triradiate calcareous spicules are secreted by three scleroblasts which

come together in triangle and divide in two, each into an inner founder and an outer
thickner.
• Each pair secretes a minute spicule and these three rays are early united into a small
triradiate spicule.

• Each ray is then completed in the same manner as a monaxon spicule.

• Later on, three rays or spicules unite together forming a triaxon or triradiate spicule.
Secretion of a triaxon spicule

(iii) Development of other spicules:

• In the formation of quadriradiate or tetraxon spicules, the fourth ray is added to

forming triradiate spicule by an additional scleroblast.
• The hexactinal spicules of Hexactinellida arise in the centre of a multinucleate syncytial
mass which is probably formed by repeated nuclear division of an original silicoblast.

Taxonomic Importance of Spicules:

The main basis of the classification of Phylum Porifera is the skeletal structures found in them.

We have seen that Phylum Porifera has been divided into three classes:

1. Class Calcarea:

Having calcareous spicules.

2. Class Hexactinellida:

Having six-rayed (hexasters) siliceous spicules.

3. Class Demospongiae:

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Having siliceous spicules and spongin fibres.

Some of the common Porifera examples are:

Sycon
• These are solitary or colonial marine sponges found in shallow waters attached to the
rocks.
• The body is cylindrical in shape with numerous spores.
• The radial canal is made up of flagellated cells.
• Water enters the body through Ostia and reaches the radial canals by prosopyles.
• These species undergo both sexual and asexual mode of reproduction.
Hylonema
• These are also known as glass rope sponges found in marine water.
• The body is round or oval with twisted root tufts.
• Small amphidiscs are present in the skeleton.
Cliona
• They are also known as boring Sponges found in coral skeletons, mollusc shells,
other calcareous objects.
• They are green, purple, or light yellow in colour.
• The canal system is the characteristic of the leuconoid type of sponges, and they
reproduce asexually and sexually
Euplectella
• These are also known as venus flower basket and are found in deep waters.
• The body is cylindrical, long and curved fastened in the mud at the bottom of the sea.
• The canal system is simple synconoid type.
• The skeleton consists of siliceous spicules fused at the tips forming a three-
dimensional network with parietal gaps.
Spongilla
• They are largely found in ponds, streams, lakes growing on submerged plants and
sticks.
• The body wall consists of a thin dermis provided with pores called Ostia.
• They possess a rhagon type canal system.
• They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.

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 SELF TEST QUESTIONS

What are the characteristics of phylum Porifera?

The phylum has the following distinguishing characteristics:
• These are pore-bearing multicellular animals.
• The body has no organs.
• They exhibit holozoic nutrition.
• The body is radially symmetrical.
• They can regenerate their lost parts.
Give a few examples of Poriferans.
Poriferans include:
• Sycon
• Spongilla
• Hylonema
• Cliona
Where are the sponges found?
Sponges are found in shallow water and deep seas, but are always found attached to the floor of the sea. They can
be found at a depth of more than 8000 metres.
What is the mode of nutrition of Poriferans?
Poriferans exhibit holozoic nutrition. They filter the tiny, floating organic particles and planktons that they feed
on, hence called filter-feeders. They collect the food in specialized cells called choanocytes which are transported
throughout the body by amoebocytes.
Why are Poriferans confused to be plants instead of, animals?
Poriferans are attached to the seafloor and cannot move from one place to the other. Since they share this
characteristic with plants, they are often confused to be plants instead of animals.
How are sponges important?
Since sponges are attached to the sea bed, they act as a habitat for several commercially important species, thereby
maintaining the biodiversity of the sea and supporting the food web.
Why are sponges considered to be animals?
Sponges do not have chlorophyll and cannot prepare their own food. They capture different organisms for
nutrition. Most of the sponges that reproduce sexually produce sperms and eggs. That is why they are considered
to be animals and not plants.
Name the different types of sponges.
Sponges are of three types:
• Asconoid
• Synconoid
• Leuconoid

Summary

FURTHER READING (specific to the topic)

References
1. Kotpal RL. 2017. Modern Text Book of Zoology- Invertebrates. 11th Edition. Rastogi Publications.
2. Jordan EL and Verma PS. 2018. Invertebrate Zoology. 14th Edition. S Chand Publishing.
3. Dennis Holley. (2015). General Zoology: Investigating the Animal World.
4. Ernest R. Schockaert. (1996). Turbellarians.
5. Ernest R. Schockaert, Matthew Hooge, Ronald Sluys, Steve Schilling, Seth Tyler, and Tom Artois.
(2008). Global diversity of free-living flatworms (Platyhelminthes, “Turbellaria") in freshwater.

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