Computer Networks (20EC C27)

Chapter – 1

1. History and Development of Computer Networks

The history and development of computer networks can be traced back to the mid-20th
century when the concept of connecting computers to share resources and information began
to take shape. Here's an overview of the key milestones and developments in the history of
computer networks:

Early Computer Networks (1950s-1960s): The earliest computer networks were developed
for specific purposes, such as military and scientific research. One of the first significant
networks was the SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground Environment) system in the United States,
designed for air defence during the Cold War. Another notable early network was the
ARPANET, created by the U.S. Department of Defence’s Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA), which laid the foundation for the modern internet.

Packet Switching (Late 1960s): In the late 1960s, researchers like Paul Baran and Donald
Davies developed the concept of packet switching, which involved breaking data into small
packets for efficient transmission over a network. This laid the groundwork for the robust and
decentralized nature of the modern internet.

TCP/IP (1970s): The development of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet
Protocol (IP) by Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn in the 1970s was a pivotal moment in the
history of computer networks. TCP/IP became the standard communication protocol for
ARPANET and later the internet, allowing diverse networks to interconnect and
communicate.

Ethernet (1970s): Ethernet, developed by Bob Metcalfe at Xerox PARC in the 1970s,
revolutionized local area networks (LANs). Ethernet's standardized communication rules
made it possible for multiple devices to share a common communication medium, enabling
the rapid growth of LANs.

The Internet Emerges (1980s): Throughout the 1980s, ARPANET evolved into what we now
know as the internet. It became accessible to universities, research institutions, and eventually
the public. The development of domain names and the World Wide Web (WWW) by Tim
Berners-Lee in 1989 further accelerated the internet's expansion.

Commercialization (1990s): The 1990s saw the commercialization of the internet, with the
advent of Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and the proliferation of online services and e-
commerce. The introduction of high-speed connections like DSL and cable internet made the
internet more accessible to households.
Wireless Networks (2000s): The 2000s saw the widespread adoption of wireless
technologies, including Wi-Fi and cellular networks. This enabled mobile computing and the
proliferation of smartphones and other wireless devices.

Cloud computing (2000s-present): Cloud computing became a dominant paradigm, allowing

users to access and store data and applications remotely, often through data centers connected
via high-speed networks.

IoT and 5G (2010s-present): The Internet of Things (IoT) has connected billions of devices
and sensors to the internet, from smart thermostats to industrial machinery. The rollout of 5G
networks promises even faster and more reliable wireless communication.

Cyber security and Privacy Concerns: As computer networks have grown in importance and
complexity, cyber security has become a critical concern. Protecting data, privacy, and
network infrastructure from cyber threats remains a constant challenge.

Future Developments: The development of quantum computing, edge computing, and further
advancements in network technology continue to shape the future of computer networks.
Additionally, efforts are ongoing to expand internet access to underserved regions of the
world.

In summary, computer networks have evolved significantly since their inception, from the
early days of ARPANET to the vast and interconnected global network that we know today.
These developments have transformed the way we communicate, work, and live, and they
continue to drive technological innovation in various domains.

2. Network Topologies:

Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices and connections in
a computer network. It defines how devices are connected to each other and how data is
transmitted in the network. There are several common network topologies, each with its own
advantages and disadvantages. Here are some of the most commonly used network
topologies:

2.1.Star Topology:
➢ In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or switch.
➢ Data is transmitted through the hub/switch, which relays it to the appropriate device.
➢ Pros: Easy to install and manage, if one cable or device fails, it doesn't affect the
entire network.
➢ Cons: Requires more cabling than a bus topology, and the hub/switch can become a
single point of failure.
2.2.Ring Topology:
➢ In a ring topology, each device is connected to exactly two other devices, forming a
closed loop.
➢ Data circulates around the ring in one direction until it reaches its destination.
➢ Pros: Equal access to the network for all devices, no collisions.
➢ Cons: If one device or cable in the ring fails, the entire network can be disrupted.

2.3.Mesh Topology:
➢ In a full mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device.
➢ In a partial mesh, only some devices have multiple connections.
➢ Pros: Extremely robust and fault-tolerant; multiple paths for data to travel.
➢ Cons: Requires a lot of cabling and can be expensive to implement and manage.

2.4. Bus Topology:

➢ In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central cable (the bus).
➢ Data is transmitted from one end of the cable and received by the devices that need it.
➢ Pros: Simple and cost-effective for small networks, easy to install.
➢ Cons: If the central cable fails, the entire network can be disrupted.

2.5. Tree (Hierarchical) Topology:

➢ In a tree topology, devices are arranged hierarchically, like a tree.
➢ It combines characteristics of star and bus topologies.
➢ Pros: Scalable and can support large networks; can isolate network issues to specific
branches.
➢ Cons: If the root hub or switch fails, it can disrupt the entire branch of the network.

2.6. Hybrid Topology:

➢ Hybrid topologies are a combination of two or more different topologies.
➢ They are used to meet specific network requirements or address the limitations of a
single topology.
➢ Pros: Offers flexibility and can optimize network performance.
➢ Cons: Can be complex to design and manage.
 2.7. Point-to-Point Topology:
➢ This is the simplest topology, where two devices are directly connected to each other.
➢ Often used for temporary connections or dedicated communication links.
➢ Pros: Simple and efficient for direct communication.
➢ Cons: Limited to two devices per connection.

The choice of network topology depends on factors such as the network's size, scalability
requirements, fault tolerance, cost constraints, and the intended purpose of the network.
Different topologies are suitable for different situations, and network administrators must
carefully consider their network's needs when selecting a topology.

3. Types of Networks

Computer networks can be categorized into various types based on their size, purpose, and
geographical coverage. Here are some common types of networks:

3.1. Personal Area Networks:

➢ PANs are very small, typically within a range of a few meters.
➢ They are used for connecting devices like smart phones, tablets, and laptops to
peripherals like Bluetooth headsets, keyboards, and speakers.
3.2. Local Area Networks:
➢ LANs are typically small, geographically limited networks used within a single
building or campus.
➢ They are commonly used in homes, offices, and schools to connect computers and
devices.
➢ LANs often use Ethernet or Wi-Fi technologies.
3.3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
➢ MANs cover a city or a large campus area, bridging the gap between LANs and
WANs.
➢ They are often used by service providers to connect multiple LANs within a city.

3.4. Wide Area Network (WAN):

➢ WANs cover larger geographical areas, such as cities, states, or even countries.
➢ They connect LANs over long distances and often rely on public or private
telecommunications networks.
➢ The internet itself is a global WAN.
Additional Networks:

Client-Server Network:

➢ In a client-server network, clients (user devices) request resources or services from

central servers.
➢ Common in business environments, this architecture is used for file storage, email,
databases, and web services.

Peer-to-Peer Network (P2P):

➢ In a P2P network, devices (peers) communicate directly with each other without a
central server.
➢ P2P networks are often used for file sharing, voice over IP (VoIP), and distributed
computing.
 4. Network Software

Network software, also known as network applications or network protocols, plays a crucial
role in enabling communication and data transfer within computer networks. These software
components facilitate the management, security, and optimization of network resources.

Here are some key categories of network software:

Network Operating Systems (NOS):

➢ Network operating systems are specialized operating systems designed for managing
and administering network resources.
➢ Examples include Microsoft Windows Server, Linux distributions with networking
features, and Novell NetWare (historical).

Network Management Software:

➢ Network management software helps administrators monitor, configure, and maintain

network devices and services.
➢ Tools like Nagios, Zabbix, and SolarWinds are used for network monitoring and
performance analysis.

Network Configuration Management Software:

➢ These tools automate the process of configuring and updating network devices such as
routers, switches, and firewalls.
➢ Cisco Prime Infrastructure and Solar Winds Network Configuration Manager are
examples.

Routing and Switching Software:

➢ Routing and switching software controls the flow of data packets within a network.
➢ Cisco IOS, Juniper Junos, and Cumulus Linux are examples of software used in
routers and switches.

DNS (Domain Name System) Software:

➢ DNS software translates human-readable domain names into IP addresses and

manages the DNS infrastructure.
➢ Popular DNS software includes BIND, Microsoft DNS Server, and Power DNS.

Web Servers and Web Application Servers:

➢ These software types serve web content and execute web applications.
➢ Apache HTTP Server, Nginx, and Microsoft Internet Information Services (IIS) are
common web server software.
Email Servers:

➢ Email server software manages the sending, receiving, and storage of email messages.
➢ Examples include Microsoft Exchange Server, Postfix, and Send mail.

File Servers:

➢ File server software facilitates file sharing and storage management within a network.
➢ Windows Server with the File Server role, Samba, and NFS (Network File System)
are examples.

Collaboration and Communication Software:

➢ Collaboration tools enable real-time communication, file sharing, and video

conferencing.
➢ Examples include Microsoft Teams, Slack, Zoom, and Google Workspace.

Network software is essential for managing, securing, and optimizing the operation of
computer networks, regardless of their size or purpose. The choice of specific software
depends on the network's requirements and objectives.

5. Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework used to

understand and standardize how different networking protocols and technologies
communicate and interact with each other in a layered approach. Developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the OSI model consists of seven distinct
layers, each with its own specific functions and responsibilities. These layers work together
to ensure effective communication between devices and systems on a network. Here are the
seven layers of the OSI model from the top (Layer 1) to the bottom (Layer 7):

Application Layer (Layer 1):

➢ The Application Layer is the topmost layer and is closest to the end-user or
application.
➢ It provides network services directly to user applications and end-users.
➢ Common application layer protocols include HTTP, SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol), and FTP (File Transfer Protocol).

Presentation Layer (Layer 2):

➢ The Presentation Layer is responsible for data translation, encryption, and

compression.
➢ It ensures that data is presented in a readable format for the application layer to
process.
 ➢ Activities like data encryption and decryption and data format conversion take place
here.

Session Layer (Layer 3):

➢ The Session Layer establishes, maintains, and terminates communication sessions

between two devices.
➢ It handles session synchronization, dialog control, and check pointing.
➢ This layer is responsible for managing sessions for applications like remote desktop,
file transfer, and online gaming.

Transport Layer (Layer 4):

➢ The Transport Layer manages end-to-end communication; ensuring data is reliably

delivered between devices.
➢ It provides services like flow control, error checking, and segmentation and
reassembly of data.
➢ Common transport layer protocols include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and
UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

Network Layer (Layer 5):

➢ The Network Layer is responsible for routing packets from the source to the
destination across multiple network segments.
➢ It uses logical addressing (such as IP addresses) to identify devices and routers.
➢ Routers operate at this layer, making decisions on how to forward packets based on
their destination IP addresses.
Data Link Layer (Layer 6):

➢ The Data Link Layer is responsible for creating a reliable link between two directly
connected nodes.
➢ It frames raw bits into frames and provides error detection and correction
mechanisms.
➢ Ethernet switches and network interface cards operate at this layer.

Physical Layer (Layer 7):

➢ The Physical Layer deals with the physical medium and transmission of raw binary
data over a physical connection.
➢ It defines characteristics like voltage levels, cable types, connectors, and the physical
topology of the network.
➢ Examples of devices at this layer include network cables, hubs, and network interface
cards (NICs).

The OSI model is a conceptual framework that helps network professionals understand how
various networking protocols and technologies interact. While the OSI model is useful for
educational and conceptual purposes, in practice, the TCP/IP model, which combines the
functions of the OSI model into fewer layers, is more commonly used for designing and
troubleshooting modern computer networks.

6. TCP/IP model

The TCP/IP model is commonly described as having four layers: Application, Transport,
Internet, and Link. However, some references and discussions might include a fifth layer
called the Physical layer, which encompasses the physical transmission medium and the
electrical and mechanical characteristics of network devices. It's worth noting that this five-
layer model is not as widely recognized or standardized as the four-layer TCP/IP model, but
it can provide a more comprehensive view of network communication. Here's a breakdown of
the five-layer TCP/IP model:

Application Layer:

➢ The Application Layer is the topmost layer and is closest to the end-users and
applications.
➢ It deals with high-level protocols and user interfaces, enabling communication
between software applications on different devices.
➢ Examples of protocols at this layer include HTTP (for web browsing), FTP (for file
transfer), SMTP (for email), and DNS (for domain name resolution).

Transport Layer:

➢ The Transport Layer is responsible for end-to-end communication and data ensures
transfer reliability.
➢ It handles data segmentation, flow control, error detection, and error correction.
 ➢ Key protocols at this layer are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), which ensures
reliable data delivery, and UDP (User Datagram Protocol), which provides a
connectionless and less reliable communication method.

Internet Layer:

➢ The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets between devices across different
networks.
➢ It uses logical addressing (typically IP addresses) to identify devices and determine
the best path for data transmission.
➢ The Internet Protocol (IP) is the core protocol of this layer, with IPv4 and IPv6 being
the most commonly used versions.

Link Layer (or Network Interface Layer):

➢ The Link Layer, also known as the Network Interface Layer or Data Link Layer, is
responsible for framing data into frames, addressing within a local network, and
providing error detection and correction at the link level.
➢ It defines how data is physically transmitted over the network medium, including the
use of MAC (Media Access Control) addresses.
➢ IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) and IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) are examples of technologies used at
this layer.

Physical Layer:

➢ This layer deals with the physical medium used for data transmission, including
cables, connectors, switches, and the electrical and mechanical aspects of network
devices.
 ➢ It specifies the physical characteristics of the transmission medium, such as voltage
levels, signal encoding, and data transmission rates.
➢ While the physical layer is crucial for defining how data is transmitted, it is often not
explicitly mentioned when discussing the TCP/IP model because it focuses more on
the higher-level protocols.

It's important to note that the TCP/IP model is often compared and contrasted with the OSI
(Open Systems Interconnection) model. While the OSI model has seven layers and provides a
more detailed breakdown of network functions, the TCP/IP model, with its four layers, is
more closely aligned with the actual protocol stack used on the internet and is widely adopted
for networking. While the five-layer model is often used for educational purposes to provide
a more comprehensive view of networking concepts.

7. Example Networks

ARPANET: Short for the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network, was one of the
earliest and most influential computer networks in history. Developed by the U.S.
Department of Defence’s Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA, now known as
DARPA) in the late 1960s, ARPANET laid the foundation for what would eventually become
the modern internet. Here are some key points about ARPANET:

1. Origin and Purpose:

➢ ARPANET was created in response to the need for a reliable and robust
communication system among researchers, scientists, and universities who were
working on various defence-related projects.
➢ The primary goal was to develop a decentralized and fault-tolerant network that could
withstand disruptions, including nuclear attacks.
2. Development and Implementation:
➢ The development of ARPANET began in the late 1960s, with the first successful
message sent over the network in 1969.
➢ It used a packet-switching communication model, where data was divided into
packets for efficient transmission across the network.
➢ The Network Control Program (NCP) was the initial protocol used for communication
on ARPANET.
3. Key Technologies and Protocols:
➢ ARPANET introduced several pioneering technologies and protocols, including the
use of Interface Message Processors (IMPs) as specialized routers and the adoption of
the Request for Comment (RFC) series for documenting standards and protocols.
➢ The transition to the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), developed by Vint Cerf
and Bob Kahn, marked a significant advancement in ARPANET's functionality and
reliability.
4. Expansion and Growth:
➢ ARPANET grew rapidly and expanded its reach beyond its original four nodes
(UCLA, SRI, UC Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah) to include numerous
research institutions and universities across the United States.

5. Evolution into the Internet:

➢ ARPANET's success and the development of TCP paved the way for the modern
internet. In 1983, ARPANET adopted TCP/IP as its standard protocol suite.
 ➢ The National Science Foundation's NSFNET, established in the mid-1980s, played a
crucial role in connecting ARPANET with other networks, leading to the formation of
the global internet.
6. Decommissioning:
➢ ARPANET was officially decommissioned in 1990. By that time, the internet had
already surpassed its capabilities and had become a worldwide phenomenon.
7. Legacy:
➢ ARPANET's legacy is profound. It not only demonstrated the feasibility of a global
computer network but also laid the groundwork for many of the networking
technologies and principles still in use today.

ARPANET was a visionary project that transformed the way people communicate and share
information. Its development and success played a pivotal role in shaping the digital age and
the interconnected world we live in today.

Internet: The internet, short for "interconnected networks," is a global network of computer
networks that allows information and data to be shared and transmitted across the globe. It is
one of the most significant inventions of the 20th century and has revolutionized the way
people communicate, access information, conduct business, and more. Here are some key
aspects of the internet:

1. Origin and History:

➢ The precursor to the modern internet was ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network), developed by the U.S. Department of Defence's ARPA (now
DARPA) in the late 1960s. ARPANET was created for military and scientific
purposes and was the first network to use packet-switching technology.
➢ The adoption of TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) in the
early 1980s marked the transition from ARPANET to the internet as we know it
today.
2. Structure and Architecture:
➢ The internet is a decentralized network that connects millions of devices worldwide,
including computers, servers, smart phones, IoT devices, and more.
➢ It is based on a client-server model, where users (clients) request information or
services from servers, which host and provide those services.
3. Protocols and Standards:
➢ The internet relies on a set of standardized protocols and communication rules,
such as TCP/IP, HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer
Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and DNS (Domain Name
System), among others.
➢ The World Wide Web (WWW) is an application layer service that uses the HTTP
protocol for transferring web pages and content.
4. World Wide Web (WWW):
➢ The World Wide Web, commonly known as the web, is a vast collection of
interconnected documents and resources accessible via web browsers.
➢ It was invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 and became publicly available in the
early 1990s.
➢ The web is a significant part of the internet, allowing users to access websites,
search for information, and interact with various online services.
5. Email:
➢ Email (electronic mail) is one of the earliest and most widely used internet
services.
➢ It allows users to send and receive text-based messages, documents, and
multimedia content over the internet.
6. E-commerce and Online Services:
➢ The internet has transformed commerce and business through e-commerce
platforms like Amazon and eBay.
➢ Various online services, including social media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter),
streaming (e.g., Netflix, YouTube), and cloud computing (e.g., AWS, Google
Cloud), are integral parts of the internet.
7. Search Engines:
➢ Search engines like Google, Bing, and Yahoo enable users to find information on
the internet by entering keywords or phrases.
➢ They use complex algorithms to index and rank web pages based on relevance to
user queries.
8. Security and Privacy:
➢ Internet security is a critical concern, and technologies such as encryption
(SSL/TLS), firewalls, and antivirus software help protect users' data and privacy.
➢ Cyber security threats, including malware, phishing, and hacking, are ongoing
challenges.
9. Internet of Things (IoT):
➢ The IoT refers to the network of interconnected physical devices (e.g., smart
appliances, sensors) that can collect and exchange data via the internet.
➢ It has applications in areas like home automation, healthcare, agriculture, and
industrial control.
10. Challenges and Regulation:
➢ The internet faces various challenges, including issues related to online privacy,
cyber security, net neutrality, and digital divide (unequal access to the internet).
➢ Governments and international organizations play a role in regulating aspects of
the internet.

The internet has become an integral part of modern society, transforming how people
work, communicate, access information, and conduct business on a global scale. Its
continued evolution and impact on society are subjects of ongoing study and
development.