MEAT INDUSTRY IN INDIA

The contribution of livestock sector to the food basket in the form of milk, eggs and
meat has been immense in fulfilling the animal protein requirement of ever-growing human
population. The livestock sector is an important component of Indian agriculture. India has a
huge livestock population and efficient utilization of these resources including production and
utilization of livestock products is important to earn increased returns and sustain livestock
production activities.

During the last three to four decades, India has witnessed the green, white, yellow and
blue revolutions and now the time has come to realize one more revolution i.e. red/pink
revolution in the form of meat production. In fact, in spite of big potential because of large
livestock population, the meat industry in India has not taken its due share. There are many
reasons for the slow growth rate of the Indian meat industry, including the negative attitude of
public towards meat on account of misinformation campaign and socio-political considerations.

Livestock population, meat production, Slaughter rate and Export

The present production of meat is estimated at 6.27 million tons in 2010 (FAO, 2012),
which is 2.21% of the world's meat production. The contribution of meat from buffalo is about
23.33%, while cattle contributes about 17.34%, sheep 4.61%, goat 9.36%, pig 5.31%, poultry
36.68% and other species 3.37%. The meat production has increased from 764,000 tons in
1970-71 to 6.27 million tons in 2010. The compounded average growth rate (CAGR) during the
last two decades works out to be 4.5%. It is noticed that about 10.6% cattle, 10.6% buffaloes,
24.1% sheep, 58.7% goats, 95.0% pigs and 190.0% chicken are slaughtered each year. The value
of meat and by-products is Rs 79,889 crore including skin and hides, while the export value of
meat and meat products work outs to be more than Rs 6,000 crore in the year 2009-10. The
contribution of buffalo meat accounts for more than 75% of total exports/foreign earnings.

The poultry has gaining the widely acceptance by consumers and growing 10-15%
annually. The chicken meat contributes about 37% meat to total production and number one
contributors. The growth is expected more in near future. This might be due to popularity,
price, easy availability, no religious taboos and much more characteristics in poultry.

Meat production potential

In spite of big potential, the Indian meat industry has not taken its due share. The major
constraints for the meat industry are lack of scientific approach to rearing of meat animals,
unorganized nature of meat production and marketing, socio-economic taboos associated with
meat eating, inadequate infrastructure facilities and poor post-harvest management. The
situation is further compounded by insistence of domestic consumers to buy freshly cut meat

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from the wet market, rather than processed or frozen. A majority of these abattoirs have
outdated, primitive slaughtering facilities, use unhygienic practices and lack basic facilities for
the production of wholesome and safe meat for domestic consumers. Further, most of the
meat for domestic consumption comes from poultry, sheep and goat that are slaughtered in
unorganized/unregistered premises/meat shops. Livestock development is not in coherence
with the requirements of meat consumption and meat business. Productivity of meat breeds
has not tapped adequately. Livestock farmers are unaware of the potential of meat business.
Many middle men are involved in livestock marketing. Livestock marketing is not well
organised. There is no integration of animal farming, meat producers, processors and
marketing. Potentiality of male buffalo for meat production is not realized.

The factors favoring meat sector development are:

1. Low cost of production of meat type of animals to a desired age of 2 years.

2. Leanness of Indian meat: contains less fat and the present international trend is
favorable for low fat meat. Average fat content of Indian beef is around 4% compared to
15-20% in most of the developed countries.
3. Green fodder feeding, absence of Meat and Bone Meal (MBM) in the ration are
favorable factors for Indian meat industry.
4. Price structure of various meats in international market. Beef price is the highest
followed by pork, mutton, and chicken.
5. The absence of hormones, antibiotics and growth promoters’ in the feed, the Indian
meat is considered not only lean but also clean and organic.
6. Indian livestock are free from BSE.

Meat production practices

The meat animals are slaughtered in specially constructed

establishment/place/premises/building wherein food animals are slaughtered for production of
meat and slaughter by-products with licensing from the concerned authority is called as
slaughter-house. Modern abattoir is also a slaughter-house where animals are slaughtered
under humane and hygienic conditions for production of wholesome and safe meat for human
consumption. Recently, "meat plant" is the word which has been introduced in the place of
"slaughter houses" and "abattoirs" for two reasons: to obviate the bad feelings about animal
slaughter and to denote factory system of operations by which the animals are handled
humanely and the total operations are done hygienically and methodologically and, many a
times, in a forward integration manner which include operations like carcass cutting,
production of custom-designed retail and lean cuts, their packaging and dispatch.
Initially, slaughtering was a backyard proposition. Every meat trader used to slaughter his food
animals in the space adjacent to his selling premises. Slaughter operations produced lot of
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blood and animal wastes and, if these are not cleaned properly, they would stink because they
are all perishable materials of organic origin. As awareness about the implications of meat on
human health grew and the deleterious effects on the environment were realized more and
more, governments considered "meat inspection" as one of their obligations to the society.
Centralized premises were constructed for slaughter of food animals. Acts and ordinances were
promulgated on meat inspection to the effect that sale of carcasses and offal's meant for
human consumption should have been produced only from animals slaughtered in these special
premises and passed through meat inspection procedures. Backyard slaughtering was banned
and slaughter houses came into existence.

In India, there are about 4,000 registered slaughter houses with the local bodies and
more than 25,000 unregistered premises, where animals are slaughtered to fulfill the demands
of domestic consumers. There are about 20 integrated abattoirs-cum-meat processing plants
with state-of-the-art facilities for hygienic meat production to meet the export demands, where
animals are received from the suppliers who procure the animals from the weekly markets.

Existing conditions of slaughter-houses for domestic supply

The existing condition in the majority of the traditionally slaughter-houses is far from
satisfactory. Most of the slaughter-houses are lacking basic facilities like water, electricity,
ventilation, drainage, ceramic flooring, overhead rails and waste disposal. Animals are
slaughtered in traditional ways on the open ground with/without further processing or dressing
on the floor/rails are the common practices in a majority of the slaughter-houses. Carcasses are
exposed to heavy contamination from dung and soil. Situation is further aggravated by
inadequate ante-and post-mortem inspection practices. The quality of meat produced in these
existing slaughterhouses is unhygienic and carries high levels of microbial contamination.
Though cooking may kill many of the microorganisms in meat, cross-contamination of the
products eventually occurs under the prevailing conditions of meat-handling. Enormous
quantities of by-products are not utilized efficiently and economically. These existing slaughter
houses are mostly under the local governmental authority and no one is brother about their
'up-gradation' and consumer/public health point of view. The authority is concerned for the
collection of money in such type of slaughter houses. There is urgent need to upgrade these
slaughter-houses with minimum basic facilities.

Conclusion

Last few decades has brought in a sea change in the meat industry following stringent
SPS requirements imposed by the importing countries. This has forced the establishment of
State of Art abattoirs and modernization of local slaughterhouses by the Ministry of Food
Processing Industries, GOI for export. If India can be proud of the “Green Revolution”, the

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“White Revolution”, and the “Blue Revolution”, there is ample evidence for the “Pink
Revolution” in the years to come. Indian farming community has been very progressive by need
based adaptation. Animal agriculture has been favorable and so has become popular. The role
of buffalo towards the white revolution has been evident but the same animal can be exploited
to achieve Pink revolution in India. The modalities for pink revolution are:

 Measures towards reduction in mortality rate among male buffalo calves which are 80%
at present.
 Rearing of animals scientifically for quality meat production
 Recognition by the scientists, policy makers, entrepreneurs coupled with political will
can enhance meat production
 Financial support from the Government

The non-tariff barriers (NTB) such as SPS should be based strictly on real health and
environmental standards. The Government should take necessary steps in order to meet the
requirements of International trade and make the Indian meat industry competitive in the
global market.

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 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF MUSCLE

Meat is composed primarily of muscle along with variable amounts of all types of connective
tissues viz., adipose tissue (fat), bone, cartilage and connective tissue proper, as well as some
epithelial tissues and nervous tissues. Though a small proportion of smooth muscle is present in
meat, skeletal muscles principally forms the meat. The muscle and the connective tissues, the
gross compositional components almost exclusively contribute to the qualitative and
quantitative characteristics of meat.
I. Muscle Tissue:
1. Skeletal Muscle: The skeletal muscles constitute 35-65% of the carcass weight of
meat animals. They are voluntary and striated muscles.
2. Smooth muscles, primarily a component of blood vessels are involuntary.
3. Cardiac muscles are confined solely to the heart and are involuntary in nature.
1. Skeletal Muscle: These are the organs of the muscular system directly or indirectly attached
to the bones. There are more than 600 muscles in the animal body, which vary widely in shape,
size and activity, their characteristics being directly related to their function.
The carcass as a whole is covered by connective tissue termed as fascia. The medial
layer of which gives out branches. Surrounding the muscle is a sheath of connective tissue
known as epimysium. From the inner surface of which septa of connective tissue penetrate into
the muscles, separating the muscle fibers (it’s essential structural elements) into bundles. These
separating septa constitute the perimysium, which encapsulates the larger blood vessels and
nerves. From the perimysium a fine connective tissue framework passes inwards to surround
each individual muscle fiber and is referred to as the endomysium. The size of the muscle
bundles determines the texture of the muscle, which is fine in case of muscles capable of fine
adjusted movements as those of the eye muscles and is coarse, in case of muscles performing
grosser movements, but the proportion of connective tissue is lower in case of the latter in
comparison to the fine textured muscles. These two properties to certain extent account for
the relative toughness of meat.

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MUSCLE FIBER:
The structural unit of muscles is the muscle fiber, which is a narrow thin (diameter of 10
µm to 100 µm) long multinucleated cell capable of stretching on its longitudinal axis. However,
the diameter of this varies with species, breed, sex and further with the age and plane of
nutrition. The muscle fibers do not directly attach to the bones but by the endomysium,
perimysium and epimysium, which blend with massive aggregates of connective tissue
(tendons) and these, attach the muscles to the skeleton. Surrounding each fiber, underneath
this connective tissue covering the endoymsium, is a sheath of plasma membrane called
sarcolemma.
Components of Muscle Fiber
i) Sarcolemma: (Sarcos derived from Greek word Sarx or Sarkos meaning Flesh, lemma meaning
Husk) composed of protein and lipid materials and is relatively elastic in nature that enables
endurance during contraction and relaxation. Along the length of the fiber and around its
circumference, the sarcolemma invaginates and forms network of transverse tubules called T-
system or T- tubules. The motor nerve fiber ending terminates on the sarcolemma at the
myoneuronal junction forming a mound on the surface of the muscle fiber, called as Motor End
Plate.
ii) Sarcoplasm: The cytoplasm of muscle fiber and is the intracellular colloidal substance
containing 75-80% water. The sarcoplasm contains certain formed structures such as the
mitochondria, sarcosomes, sarcoplasmic lipid bodies and the sarcotubular system apart from
the dissolved or suspended substances. It is rich in enzymes and hence is the site of glycolysis
Sarcoplasmic reticulum and T tubules: Sarcoplasmic reticulum is an intracellular membranous
structure of tubules and cisternae and their longitudinal tubule serves as Ca reservoir. T tubules
are associated with sarcolemma and run transversely across the sarcolemma and are located at
the AI band between two tubular elements of terminal cisternae

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iii) Nucleus: Skeletal muscle fibers are multinucleated which are polygonal in shape. They are
located at the periphery just beneath the sarcolemma in mammals and are central in location in
fishes. Nuclei are more concentrated near tendinous attachments and at the motor end plate.
iv) Mitochondria: These are the power house of the cell and seen in the sarcoplasm containing
enzymes of oxidative mechanism. In skeletal muscles they are seen at the periphery near the
sarcolemma and are abundant at the motor end plate.
vi) Lysosomes: They are small vesicular bodies in the sarcoplasm and contain proteolytic
enzyme especially Cathepsin and other enzyme complexes.
Myofibril: Each individual muscle fiber is composed of a number of small units called the
myofibrils, the organelle unique to the muscle tissue which are long, thin, cylindrical usually 1-
2m in diameter. In most mammalian species their long axes is parallel to the long axis of the
fiber and are bathed in the sarcoplasm and extend the entire length of the muscle fiber. A
muscle will have at least 1000 and could have as many as 2000(or more) myofibrils.
Myofilaments: These are the functional unit of the myofibril. They are of two types:
1. Thick Filament: In longitudinal section they are arranged parallel to each other and
arranged in exact alignment across the myofibril. They are about 14-16 nm in
diameter and 1.5m in length. The principle constituent of this filament is the
protein myosin and hence called Myosin filament and constitute the A band of the
sarcomere. Thick filaments are held in position by the proteins in the M line.
2. Thin Filament: These filaments are arranged parallel to the thick filaments and
across the myofibril. They are about 6-8 nm in diameter and 1.0m in length. The
protein of this filament is Actin and hence called actin filament and it constitutes the
I band and also extends into the A band of the sarcomere.
The arrangement of the myofilaments and the fact that they overlap in certain regions
along their longitudinal axes accounts for characteristic banding or striated appearance of the
myofibril. In turn the bands of each myofibril are aligned across the entire muscle fiber giving
the fiber a striated appearance due to the alternatively dark and light areas.

The difference in the density of the myofilaments is due to the difference in refraction.
The light band is singly refractive when viewed under polarized light and is described as being
isotropic or I-band, where as the broad dark band is doubly refractive in polarized light and
described as anisotropic or A-band. The A-band is much denser than the I-band. The I-band is
bisected by a thin dark band called the Z-line. The unit of the myofibril between two adjacent Z-
lines is called a sarcomere, which is the repeating structural unit of the myofibril which includes

7
 one A-band and two half I-bands located on either side of the A-band. This is the basic unit in
which the events of muscle contraction and relaxation cycles occur. In the central region of the
A-band there is an area, which has slightly less density than the remainder of the band, called
the H-zone. Additionally a narrow dense band known as the M line bisects the center of A band
at the H zone (Figure).

Muscle made up of
muscle fiber

Muscle fiber
made of
Z disk A band
myofibril I band

Myofibril made
of
myofilaments
Z disc
Myofilament
with
sarcomere
Actin
Myosin filament
filament
Thick Thin
Titin filament filament
filament

Sarcomere

Figure: Organization of Skeletal muscle from gross structure to the molecular level

In a cross section of the myofilaments, A band consists of only Myosin filaments and I
band contains only actin filaments. In the A-I band both actin and myosin filaments are present
and six thin filaments surround one thick filament. The H-zone is less dense than the rest of the
A-band because it is the center region between the ends of the opposing actin filaments. Z disc
has ultra thin filaments called Z- filaments, which connect the actin on the either side.

Muscle Proteins:
There are more than 20 proteins and the major six proteins include Myosin, Actin, Titin,
Troponin, Tropomyosin, and Nebulin. The muscle proteins may be broadly classified based on
their solubility and their function.

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  Classification based on Solubility:
1. Soluble in water or dilute salt solutions - Sarcoplasmic proteins
2. Soluble in concentrated salt solutions - Myofibrillar proteins
3. Insoluble in concentrated salt solution – proteins of connective tissue and
other formed structures
 Classification based on their function
1. Contractile proteins: Actin and Myosin. They take part actively in the
contraction and relaxation of muscle fiber
2. Regulatory proteins: They regulate the Actin-Myosin interaction during
muscle contraction and maintain myofibril integrity. Include Troponin,
Tropomyosin and Actinin.
3. Cytoskeletal proteins: They serve as template or scaffold for alignment of
myofilments during myofibril and sarcomere formation. In mature animals
they maintain the structural integrity. They are Titin, Nebulin, C- protein,
Desmin, M- protein, Filamin, Z- protein, and Vinculin.
4. Sarcoplasmic proteins: Play a role in tissue respiration and energy
metabolism since it contains sarcoplasmic and mitochondrial enzymes,
myoglobin, haemoglobin, cytochromes and flavoproteins.
5. Stromal proteins: Collagen, Elastin, Reticulin, and other insoluble proteins.

I. Contractile proteins:
Actin: It contributes around 10 % of myofibrillar protein. Globular in shape with a diameter of
5.5 nm and are called G- actin (monomeric form of actin). These G actin monomers are linked
together in strands much like a string of bead to form F actin (polymeric fibrous actin). Two
such strands of F actin spirally coil to form a helix called the actin filament.
Myosin: Predominant fraction of the contractile protein, fibrous in nature and constitute about
45 % of myofibrillar protein. It is elongated rod shaped, with thickened portion on one end
called the ‘Head’ and a thin portion called the ‘Tail’. Digestion of myosin by trypsin yields two
fractions, the Light Mero Myosin (LMM) and Heavy Mero Myosin (HMM). The myosin heads
contains amino acids 3- methyl histidine and N3 methyl lysine, which is a characteristic seen
only in mammalian tissue. In the center of the A band, the myosin filament contains rod portion
without the head and this region on either side of the M line is the H zone is called the Pseudo
H zone. The head region of the myosin are oriented at an oblique angle away from the M line

9
and are the functionally active site which forms cross-bridges with actin during muscle
contraction.
II. Regulatory proteins: these proteins are located in the grooves found in the actin filament.
Tropomyosin: Constitutes approximately 5 % of myofibrillar protein and lies in close contact
with the actin filament. One molecule of tropomyosin extends length of 7-G actin molecules in
the actin filament.
Troponin: Seen along the length of actin filament and one molecule in every 7/8 G actin
molecule and constitute around 5 % of myofibrillar protein. Three types of troponins are
present:
 Troponin-C: Calcium binding region – aids in contraction.
 Troponin- I: Inhibits interaction of actin with head of myosin.
 Troponin-T: attached to the tropomyosin.
The other regulatory proteins include the -actinin (integral part of Z disc) and - actinin (end
of thin filament within A band).

Figure: Actin, tropomyosin, and Troponin association

III. Cytoskeletal proteins:

Titin: Most abundant and constitutes about 10 % of myofibrillar protein. It extends
longitudinally from M line to Z disc as a third filament of the myofibril. Portion of titin in the A
band is non-elastic whereas in the I band its elastic. In mature muscles it maintains the
structural integrity of myofibrils with sarcomere.
Nebulin: Comprises to approximately 4 % of myofibrillar protein and located close and parallel
to the actin filament and extends from A band to Z disc. During myofibril formation it helps in
organizing the thin filament and anchors it to the Z disc. In mature myofibril it maintains the
stability of thin filaments.

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Other proteins: C-proteins, M-line proteins (M-protein, Myomesin and Creatine kinase-
stabilize rod portion of myosin molecule), Z disc protein (Z protein, desmin, filamen, synemin
and Vinculin –alignment of Z disc laterally across the muscle fiber).

2. Smooth muscle: They are present in the walls of arteries, lymph vessels, gastrointestinal and
reproductive tract. Their diameter varies from 2 to 10 µm and occurs in the shape of Spindle/
ellipsoidal/ polyhedrons. They have a single nucleus, which is central in location and contain
two types of filaments: thick, myosin containing filaments and thin, actin containing filaments.
Actin filaments are anchored to either the plasma membrane or to structures in the cytoplasm
known as dense bodies. The dense bodies function similarly to Z-lines of the skeletal muscle.
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum is less developed and the myofilaments are less orderly and are not
organized into myofibrils or sarcomeres and striations are absent. They occur as single or as
bundles and are surrounded by a fine network of CT. The Space between the fibers and CT has
blood vessels and nerves, which are less compared to the skeletal muscle.

3. Cardiac muscle: They have the unique property of rhythmic activity and the myocardium is
the contractile layer of the heart, which has extensive capillary network. These cells have single
central nucleus and the fibers are branched with high mitochondrial and glycogen content,
which is striated and involuntary in nature. The T tubules are present at the Z disc and the
intercalated disk transects the cardiac muscle along the longitudinal axis.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE: The CT connects and holds various parts of body together, characterized
by few cells and extra cellular substance. There are two types: 1. CT proper- found surrounding
the muscles, muscle bundle and the muscle fibers. 2. Supportive CT- Bones, cartilage
CT proper
Ground substance: Viscous solution containing glycoproteins, precursors
(tropocollagen, tropoealstin), Hayaluronic acid and Chondroitin sulphate.
Extra cellular fibers: Collagen, Elastin and Reticulin

1. Collagen

It comprises of short stout elongated fibrils. Many collagen fibrils come together and
form a collagen and form a collagen fiber. Collagen fibrils are formed of long tropocollagen
molecules. Collagen contributes to meat toughness. Diameter of collagen fibers is 1- 12 um.
Rarely seen as branched.

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 Collagen is a glycoprotein containing galactose and glucose. Glycine is one - third of
total amino acid content of collagen. Hydroxyproline and proline account for another one-third
of amino acid content of collagen. Hydroxyproline is exclusive to collagen and due to this
reason to estimate collagen normally hydroxyproline is estimation is done. Collagen has
intermolecular cross linkages and hence has high tensile strength. Younger the animal lesser are
the cross-links. As the animal progresses in age the collagen cross-link concentration increases.

There are about 14 types of collagen. The types I, II, III comprise the bulk. Collagen type I
- Found in bone, skin, tendon, muscles, and walls of blood vessels. Collagen type II - Found in
inters vertebral discs and hyaline cartilage. Collagen type III - Found in spleen, muscle, and
aorta. Collagen type IV - Found around different types of in the basement membranes and
muscles. Collagen types V - Found in embryonic cell cultures and the basement membranes.
Collagen type VI- found in muscle and skin.

2. Elastin: It is less abundant as compared to collagen. It is a rubbery protein, found in

ligaments (e.g. ligamentum nuchae), walls of arteries, organs, and muscles. It has a high content
of glycine. It contains 8 amino acids. The two amino acids specific to elastin are desmosine and
isodesmosine.

Reticulin: Branched and non-elastic CT, which resembles collagen and has large amount of
myristic acid association

Muscle fiber types: There are three types of fibers namely Red, white and intermediate type.
Generally meat animal muscle has higher proportion of white fibers compared to red fibers
even though they appear red. In mammalian muscles the red and white fibers are intermingled,
whereas in pork muscle the red fibers are seen at the centre of the muscle surrounded by white
fibers at the periphery.

Characteristics Red White Intermediate

Colour Red White Red
Myoglobin content High Low High
Fiber diameter Small Larger Intermediate
Contraction speed Slow Fast Fast
Contractile action Tonic( slow and Phasic ( rapid contraction Tonic
continual contraction) at short burst)
Mitochondria and Size High & large Low & small Intermediate

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Oxidative metabolism High Low Intermediate
Glycolytic metabolism Low High Intermediate
Lipid content High Low Intermediate
Z disc width Wide Narrow Intermediate

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION:
In a wider sense, the composition of meat can be approximated to 75% of water (65-80),
19% proteins (16-22), 2.5% fat, 1.5 % of non-protein nitrogenous substances (Creatine and
Creatine phosphate, nucleotides, free amino acids, peptides- anserine and carnosine and other
NPN- IMP, NAD), 1.0 % Carbohydrates (0.5-1.5 %) and 1.0 % Inorganic constituents. This is in
turn dependent on the muscle of whose post mortem result is the meat, the amount of
contraction required in-vivo and type of action the muscle was associated with the muscle as a
whole is formed protein covered by a connective tissue. The principle free amino acids in the
fresh muscles are alpha-alanine, glysine, glutamic acid and histidine.

The intra-muscular fat is comprised of 99% true fat, esters of glycerols with fatty acids. It
also has considerable content of phospholipids and unsaponifiable constituents such as
cholesterol. Only three or four fatty acids are present in substantial amounts in the fat of meat
animals. Meat contains both saturated (palmitic and stearic acid) and unsaturated fatty acids
(oleic). Also present in muscular tissue complex are the sugar containing lipids namely,
glycolipids. Of the total phospolipids in the beef, the major share is of lecithin (62%), followed
by cephalin (30%) and the least contribution is of sphingomyelin (< 10%). Accompanying the
triglycerides are small quantities of substances which are soluble in fat solvents, such as
Vitamins A, D, E, K and cholesterol derivatives.

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 Muscle Contraction
I. Bio Chemical Aspects:
There are three intracellular conditions that must exist in order for myofibrils to stay relaxed
1. Ca++ must be sequestered in the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum.
2. ATP molecule must be bound to each myosin- head (magnesium complex of adenine tri
phosphate ATP).
3. Troponin-Tropomyosin Complex covering the myosin binding sites.
Most other aspects of muscle contraction concern the mechanism of ensuring an adequate
supply of ATP. Towards this, both the soluble and insoluble proteins of the sacroplasm play an
essential role. To maintain the tone of the resting muscle and the body temperature an
enzyme, non-contractile myosin ATPase is responsible which also causes depletion of ATP, and
hence there is rigor mortis (contraction after death).

Functions of ATP and its source: ATP performs three functions related to muscle contraction
and relaxation ie. Maintain the intracellular conditions for myofibers to be relaxed (Ca release
and myosin binding) and energy for muscle contraction. For contraction to be maintained, ATP
must be supplied at a rate equal to that at which it is broken down. ATP is generated through
phosphorylation of ADP by three mechanisms within muscle cells:
 Through Creatine phosphate by enzymatic reaction (Creatine kinase)- immediate source.
 Through oxidation in the mitochondria
 Through glycolysis in the cytosol

More ATPs can be synthesized by respiration (38) than by anaerobic glycolysis (2). In-
vivo the major source of ATP is its resynthesis from ADP by respiration, where by the muscle
glycogen or in some cases fatty acids are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. When the
energy requirement is high to generate ATP, the process of anaerobic glycolysis is encountered
by which glycogen gets converted to lactic acid, less efficiently. The enzymes required for
oxidative phosphorylation (by respiration) like cytochrome system including succinic
dehydrogenase and cytochrome oxidase are located in the insoluble particles, the
mitochondria, where as the glycolytic enzymes are in solution in the sacroplasm, inclusive of
myoglobin, the muscle pigment. Most of the glycolytic and respiratory enzymes require co
factors which are either vitamins or trace metals and the composition of muscle reflects this
requirement.

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II. PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION:
There are three main events that occur in skeletal muscle contraction––electrical excitation of a
muscle fiber, excitation-contraction coupling, and muscle fiber contraction due to the sliding
filament mechanism.

• Excitation of a muscle fiber. Skeletal muscle fibers (cells) are stimulated by a nerve stimulus
that starts from the brain and the spinal cord (motor neuron in the body). This Stimulation
results in a depolarization of the sarcolemma (polarity at resting state or the resting
membrane potential– positive on outer surface and negative at the inner surface, high
concentration of Na+ and Cl- ion in extracellular fluid and K+ and non-diffusable negative ion
A- in the intracellular fluid). If the depolarization reaches threshold, an action potential
(electrical signal) is initiated.

• Excitation-contraction coupling. The action potential is transmitted along the sarcolemma

and down the T-tubules. This action causes calcium ions to be released from the terminal
cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The calcium ions dissociate from the acidic proteins by
which they are normally bound in the sarcotubular system. Ca++ release has three fold effect:
activation of Troponin, activation of myosin ATPase and activation of SR membrane ATPase for
Ca pumping into Sarcoplasmic Reticulum. Calcium ions binds and saturates the Troponin-C, the
calcium binding member of the Troponin complex, causing a configuration change, where by
the inhibitory protein Troponin-I (attached to the actin filament and tropomyosin) no longer
prevents actin from interacting with Mg ATP on the myosin molecules.

• Muscle fiber contraction. When the myosin binding site on the actin filament is exposed, a
contraction cycle consisting of 4 steps begins. Muscle fiber contracts due to thin filaments
(actin) sliding past the thick filaments (myosin). Each contraction cycle shortens each muscle
fiber to about 1% of its resting length. The four steps of the contraction cycle are:

1. ATP hydrolysis. Myosin heads contain an ATP binding pocket and an ATPase. The ATPase
hydrolyzes ATP forming ADP and inorganic phosphate. Hydrolysis of ATP energizes the myosin
head.
2. Attachment of myosin to actin to form crossbridges. Energized myosin heads bind to the
unblocked myosin-binding site on actin and the inorganic phosphate is released from the
myosin head.

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3. Power stroke. The release of the inorganic phosphate starts the power stroke, which is the
rotation of the myosin head that pulls the thin filament toward the center of the sarcomere.
During the power stroke, ADP is released from the myosin head, but the myosin head remains
attached.
4. Detachment of myosin from actin. Another ATP molecule binds to the myosin ATP-binding
pocket, either by direct exchange with cytoplasmic ATP or by the action of ATP-creatine
phosphotransferase or by the action of ATP-AMP phosphotransferase releasing the myosin
head from actin and the relaxation cycle begins again.

The contraction cycle continues as long as intracellular calcium levels remain high. As the
intracellular calcium levels drop, tropomyosin blocking of the myosin-binding sites on actin
return, energized myosin is prevented from binding, and the muscle fiber relaxes. The amount
of shortening that occurs when a muscle is stimulated to contract depends on how long the
contraction cycle continues. With each contraction cycle, sarcomeres shorten a little more until
maximal contraction of a sarcomere is reached. Muscle fibers can shorten up to 40% of their
resting length.

Pictorial representation of Muscle contraction

16
 MUSCLE CONTRACTION FLOW CHART

Contraction Phase

Resting state
Motor nerve action potential arrives at motor end plate
Acetylcholine released, sarcolemma and membranes depolarized (Na+ flux into fiber)
Action potential transmitted via T-tubules to SR
++
Ca released from SR terminal cisternae into sarcoplasm
Ca++ bound by troponin
Myosin ATPase activated and ATP hydrolyzed
Tropomyosin shift from actin binding site
Actin-myosin cross bridge formation
Repeated formation & breaking of crossbridges resulting in sliding of filaments and sarcomere
shortening

Relaxation Phase

Cholinesterase released and acetylcholine breakdown

Sarcolemma & T-tubules repolarized
SR Ca pump activated & Ca++ returned to SR terminal cisternae
++

Actin-myosin crossbridge formation terminated

Return of tropomyosin to actin binding site
Mg++ complex formed with ATP
Passive sliding of filaments
Sarcomere return to resting state

During contraction the length of actin and myosin does not change where as there is a
reduction in size of the sarcomere. A band width is constant during all phases of contraction
whereas the I band width varies.

17
 POST MORTEM GLYCOLYSIS

The irreversible anaerobic glycolysis occurs when oxygen is permanently removed from the
muscle at death. The sequence of chemical steps by which glycogen is converted to lactic acid is
the same post mortem, as in vivo. The conversion of glycogen to lactic acid will continue until
pH is reached when the enzymes affecting the break down become inactivated. In typical
mammalian muscle this pH is about 5.4 to 5.5. Glycogen is generally considered to be absent at
pH value below this level.

The final pH attained, whether through lack of glycogen, inactivation of glycolytic

enzymes or because of the glycogen is insensitive/inaccessible to attack, is referred to as the
ultimate pH. It is generally 5.5. The rate and extent of post mortem pH fall are influenced by
the intrinsic factors such as species, the type of muscle and variability between animals and by
extrinsic factors such as the administration of drugs pre slaughter and the environmental
temperature (MgSo4 slow down the pH fall where as adrenaline, noradrenaline, insulin shock,
tremorin, tuberculin-accelerate this and produce good ultimate pH through depleting glycogen
reserve).

RIGOR MORTIS:

As post mortem glycolysis proceeds the muscle becomes inextensible, this stiffening is referred
to as rigor mortis. On set of rigor mortis is correlated with the disappearance of ATP from the
muscle and in the absence of ATP, actin and myosin combine to form rigid chains of
actomyocin.

Rigor has three phases:

(a) Delay phase -- Loss of extensibility which reflects actomyosin formation proceeds slowly
at first, called the delay period where there are plenty of ATPs in the muscle (complexed
with Mg++ - the Mg++ complex of ATP is required to maintain the muscle in the relaxed
state) the muscle will remain in the relaxed state and no crossbridges between the thick
and thin myofilaments will occur.
(b) Onset phase -- As stores of ATP and Creatine Phosphate (CP is used to rephosphoryate
ADP to ATP) are used up, rigor bonds between the thick and thin myofilaments are
formed. As more bonds are formed, the muscle loses extensibility.
(c) Completion -- When the entire CP is gone, the muscle has no way of regenerating ATP.
Thus, full rigor mortis will set in.

18
The time taken towards the onset of fast phase (onset + completion) of rigor mortis at given
temperature depends most directly on the level of ATP. In the immediate post mortem period
the ATP level is being slowly lowered by the surviving non-contractile ATPase activity (attempts
to maintain body temperature and the structural integrity of the muscle cell) of myosin. Initially
ATP is re-synthesized from Creatine phosphate, when Creatine phosphate is used up, the post
mortem glycolysis ineffectively tries to maintain ATP level and integrates the cell. Struggling at
death will lower the initial pH due to lactic acid accumulation and this limits the efficiency of
glycolysis too. On the other hand, if oxygen is made available by stimulating respiration it will
delay the onset of rigor mortis. Once rigor mortis is completed the muscle remains rigid and
inextensible provided it is kept free from microbial contamination, there is no resolution for
rigor mortis.

The pattern of rigor mortis can be classified as:

1) Acid rigor: characterized in immobilized animals by a long delay period and a short fast
phase and in struggling animals by drastic curtailment of the delay period. At body
temperature stiffening is accompanied by shortening.

2) Alkaline rigor: characterized by a rapid onset of stiffening and by marked shortening

even at a low temperature.

3) Intermediate type: characterized in starved animals by a shortened delay period and

normal rapid phase. There is some shortening in this type of rigor mortis.

Shortening in rigor mortis involves only a fraction of the muscle fibers that is irreversible and is
thus distinguished from physiological contraction.

Thaw rigor: Muscles frozen whilst ATP level is at the pre rigor value, extremely fast rate of
break down of ATP’s occurs during thawing and ends up with rigor mortis referred to as thaw
rigor.

19
 CONVERSION OF MUSCLE TO MEAT

The bio-physical and bio-chemical changes that occur at the point of death following slaughter
of the food animal account for the differentiation of meat from the muscle. There are a series
of reactions, which take place for the transformation of muscle to meat. Factors such as pre
slaughter care, mode and duration transport, shrinkage, injury, stress of any other form on the
animal awaiting slaughter etc. contribute significantly towards this transformation. Incidentally
the living functions in the muscle tissue do not stop instantly after bleeding or death of the
animal. Instead a large number of bio-physical and bio-chemical changes take place over a
period of several hours and sometimes extend even to days. This process is referred to as the
conversion of muscle to meat. This is otherwise a gradual degradation process in which the
complex molecules of the tissues to simpler ones, and if it were allowed to continue indefinitely
would lead to a complete breakdown of the tissues to their constitutional elements in due
course time.

Homeostasis: To maintain physiologically balanced internal environment, this help the body to
cope with the stress. This is because of combined and continued efforts of nervous and
endocrine systems by coordinating the organ functions with appropriate adjustments in the
event of the influence of environmental stressors of different forms and kinds. (The pre-
slaughter stress conditions include transportation of animals, off loading, feeding, watering and
handling in the lairage and slaughter operations including immobilization, hanging and sticking
of animal). All the organs and systems within the body co-operate to maintain an internal
environment under which each of them can perform their function efficiently. Homeostatic
mechanism gives an organism the ability to survive the adverse effects of the stress, such as
different and sometimes adverse environmental conditions including extreme variation in
temperature, oxygen deficiency and trauma.

The concept of homeostasis becomes very important as a tool to understand and estimate its
relevance during the process of conversion of muscle to meat for two reasons:

1. Many of the reasons and changes that occur during the conversion of muscle to meat
are a direct result of homeostatic attempts to maintain life.

2. Conditions in the immediate pre-slaughter period and slaughter operations eventually

dictate post mortem changes, which affect the quality of meat.

Stunning: It refers to rendering the animals unconscious prior to killing them so that they do
not feel the pain. Stunning methods are mechanical, electrical or gaseous in nature. Especially
in case of the mechanical methods, the structural damage to the medulla oblongata should be
avoided for it controls the functions of the heart and lungs. Continuous functioning of heart and

20
lungs for sometime would thus ensure complete and efficient bleeding of the animal and there
by contribute towards better meat quality.

Any of the stunning methods followed will principally have to cause these major reactions,

a) Stimulation of neural anoxia

b) Release of catecholamines
c) Reduce the activity of muscle ATPase

Exsanguination: Death of the food animal is generally caused by severing of the major blood
vessels of the neck region of the food animals. In order to avoid unpleasant appearance of the
carcass, development of unappetizing colour of meat and to minimize the probability of
subsequent microbial activity thereby for better keeping quality of meat, removal of as much
blood as possible becomes essential.

The process of bleeding is the first step in conventional slaughter, which is an extreme stress on
the part of the dying food animal and marks the beginning of a series of post mortem changes
in the muscle. The first logical stage is drop in the blood pressure and the circulatory system will
adjust its functions towards maintaining a normal blood supply to the vital organs: The
peripheral vessels constrict in an attempt to maintain pressure and continuous blood supply to
the vital organs. This process eventually results in some amount of blood being retained in vital
organs following slaughter. Infact about 50% of the total blood volume only gets drained from
the body following sticking. This is an important consideration with respect to the growth of
spoilage organisms, which eventually determine shelf life of meat in addition to the consumers
appeal. Hence, bleeding is an essential beginning to the slaughter process.

Consequences of Circulatory Failure to Muscles: The circulatory system does the job of the
transportation of essential nutrients to the muscles and carry waste products away from it
either for excretion or further metabolism. Bleeding eliminates this line of communication
between the muscle and its external environment. In the living system, the oxygen is picked up
from the lungs and carried to the cells by the hemoglobin pigment of the erythrocytes. The
myoglobin of the muscle cells also stores oxygen but in a limited amount just sufficient to
support oxidative reactions for a short period of time, though myoglobin has greater attraction
for oxygen than that of hemoglobin.

Consequent to the total depletion of oxygen supply after bleeding from the muscle stores, the
aerobic metabolic pathway through the tricarboxylic acid cycle and the cytochrome system
comes to a halt. Energy metabolism is then shifted to the anaerobic pathway in much the same
fashion as when there is insufficient O2 supply for the muscle during periods of heavy exercise
and O2 debt in-vivo. Thus, another homeostatic mechanism is encountered in which an

21
alternative source of energy is made available to the muscles so that the muscle cells can
maintain their structural integrity and the body temperature for a while longer.

In the living body the lactic acid produced as a result of anaerobic metabolism is transported
from muscle to liver where it is used in the synthesis of glucose and glycogen. These products
can then be recycled for energy when sufficient O2 supply is reestablished. Since the circulatory
system no longer exists in the bled animal carcass, the lactic acid produced remains in the
muscle and increases in concentration as the anaerobic metabolism proceeds. This
accumulation of lactic acid continues until nearly all the glycogen stored in the muscle is
depleted or such conditions are reached which slow or stop the anaerobic glycolysis. The
ATPase deplete ATP levels resulting in the production of inorganic phosphate molecule as
metabolite which stimulate the breakdown of glycogen in the muscle to lactic acid. Lactic acid
accumulation causes a lowering of pH in the muscle.

Postmortem pH decline:

In living muscle, energy is stored as glycogen and this glycogen gets converted to glucose and
then to pyruvate, which on aerobic respiration yields energy in the form of ATP. Whereas, in
the bled animals under anaerobic condition the metabolic end product is lactic acid, which
accumulates lowering the pH. This decrease in the pH continues as long as the anaerobic
glycolysis lasts. The lowest pH achieved is termed as Ultimate pH.

The ultimate pH of meat will directly depend, to a considerable extent on the amount of
glycogen store in the muscle at the time of bleeding. This lowering of pH is one of the most
significant post mortem changes that occur during its conversion to meat. The rate of pH
decline and the extent of total drop in pH - both are highly variable.

The accumulation of lactic acid early in the post mortem period can have an adverse effect on
meat quality. This acidity developed before the dissipation of natural body heat and the heat of
continuing metabolism causes denaturation of muscle proteins. This denaturation depends on
the extent of rise in temperature and depression of pH. Incidentally, the temperature appears
to play a key role (fish muscle proteins are more liable for denaturation than most mammalian
muscles). The denaturation of protein results in loss of protein solubility, a loss of water holding
capacity and a loss in the intensity of the muscle pigment coloration. These changes are

22
unacceptable, as they contribute towards exudation from myofibrillar proteins as the pH
approaches their isoelectric point. Denaturation of sarcoplasmic proteins also make them liable
for attack by proteases of muscles namely Cathepsins, which are present in the Lysosomes and
kept dormant in-vivo, but are liberated and activated when the particle members are weakened
by the falling pH. The pH also is important in determining the water-holding capacity of meat.

Variation in postmortem pH decline:

Cessation of circulation leads to a rise in the muscle temperature which occurs as heat from
deeper parts of the body can no longer be carried rapidly to the lungs and other surface areas
for dissipation. This rise depends on the rate of metabolic heat production, on its duration apart
from the size and location of muscles with in the body and the amount of fat cover insulating it.
The metabolic factors that cause the temperature to rise in postmortem muscle are the same
ones that contribute towards pH decline. Hence, denaturation of proteins becomes inevitable.

Pale Soft and Exudative meat (PSE):

 PSE can be caused in normal pigs by improper handling in the form of short-term stress
leading towards glycogen depletion and eventual low ultimate pH.
 Very rapid glycolysis due to excitement (antemortem) or due to holding on kill floor for
a long time before sticking results in the form of low pH at high temperature. This
decrease in pH shall be twice as fast as normal causing PSE.
 Pale colour is because denatured sarcoplasmic proteins reflect light and its expression
turns pale.
 Softness and exudation is from structural damage (areas of super contraction and Z- line
loss) and increased denaturation of protein.
 Rapid post-mortem cooling can decrease PSE.

Etiology: Hereditary: swine are susceptible to Porcine Stress Syndrome, and swine susceptible
to PSE (reaction to excitement). Two genes have been recognized to be the etiology of PSE
condition:

 Halothane gene (Hal gene)

 RN- gene

Dark Firm and Dry meat (DFD):

 The DFD condition can be found both in beef and pork.

 Chronic stress or long-term glycogen depletion (environmental)
 In the post rigor muscle the pH remains high > 6.0

23
  Muscle appears dark and may be so dry as to be "sticky" just like pre- rigor muscle. The
dark expression is due to the absorbance of light and the dry appearance is attributed to
the high ultimate pH, which results in better water holding capacity.
 It is caused due to glycogen depletion pre -slaughter resulting in little or no lactic acid
production post slaughter.

 Etiology: Extended transport hauling, without feeding, which depletes muscle glycogen.
Limited lactic acid production occurs postmortem.

Change in muscle glycogen level and pH in normal, DFD and PSE conditions:

Glycogen at Glycogen at Lactate Ultimate

Muscle colour
death 24 hr production muscle pH
Normal 1.0% 0.1% High 5.6

Dark 0.3% 0.1% Low 6.0 to 6.5

Pale 0.6% 0.1% very high 5.1

24
 EXSANGUINATION

Nutrient and Neural and Oxygen Osmotic Blood borne

antioxidant hormonal supply lost equilibrium defence and
supply lost regulation lost lost scavenging
lost

Oxidation- reduction
potential decreases

Anaerobiasis

Glycogen Oxidative phosporylation

ensues ceases

Slight
Lactic acid Decrease in high-
temperature
accumulation energy phosphates
increase
and pH fall Microbial
Low chill contamination
temperature Protein Ca++ dependent during slaughter
denaturation proteases activated
Temperature
decreases
Onset of Rigor
Protein releases
mortis
divalent ion and take
up monovalent ion

Accumulation of
metabolites and
flavor components

WHC and Proteolysis and Completion Microbial

Lipid Fat solidifies
color protein of rigor growth
oxidation
determined breakdown

Postmortem Changes and consequences

25 of circulatory failure
RIGOR-MORTIS:
One of the most dynamic postmortem changes that occur during conversion of muscle to meat
is the stiffening of the muscles after death. This is due to the formation of permanent cross
bridges in the muscle between the actin and myosin filaments. The reaction is the same as the
contraction in life but for its irreversible nature owing to the absence of energy to break the
actomyosin bond.

During the period immediately following exsanguination the muscle is quite extensible. At this
time a few if any, actomyosin bridges are present to prevent extension by force. After the
muscle glycogen stores are depleted, the store of creatinine phosphate (CP) is used for re-
phosphorylation of ADP to ATP. As the stores of CP are depleted the re-phosphorylation of ADP
becomes inefficient to maintain the muscle in relaxed state. Then actomyosin bridges begin to
form and muscle gradually becomes less extensible under an externally applied force.

The pattern of development of these physical changes varies from animal to animal and even
from muscle to muscle within the same animal depending on the properties of the post
mortem muscle.

CONDITIONING OR AGEING

Hygienic practices during slaughter ensure satisfactory storage of meat carcasses for a few
hours to few days at room temperature and for about 6 weeks at temperature just above
freezing point (-1.5oC). In the absence of microbial spoilage the holding of unprocessed meat
above the freezing point is called ageing or conditioning and it has been associated with an
increase in tenderness and flavour. The dominant change during the immediate postmortem
changes is glycolysis but even before the ultimate pH has been reached, the other degradation
changes commence due to bacterial spoilage or gross denaturation of proteins.

Denaturation of proteins:

The structure of proteins characterizing contractile tissue can only be preserved by provision of
energy in the form of ATP from getting disoriented. Since such energy is not available after
death, the protein will tend to denature. This may be defined as a physical rearrangement of
the constituent amino acids of proteins’ polypeptide chains without the hydrolysis of chemical
bonds.

Immediately after death and before the onset of rigor mortis, the muscles are pliable and
tender when cooked. With the onset of rigor mortis the muscles become in-extensible and
become tough when cooked. As conditioning proceeds the muscles become pliable once more
and become increasingly tender on cooking. This does not happen due to the dissociation of
actomyosin but to the detachment of actin filament at their union with myosin from the Z Line.

26
There is collapse of actin filaments on to those of myosin leading to lengthening of A bands
coupled with an increased gap between A and I bands of the sarcomere on ageing. Apparently
this process is initiated by calcium ions released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum consequent to
the decrease in their capacity to accumulate the calcium ions during ageing. The tenderness of
meat on cooking is related to the conditions of the muscle in which it gets into rigor mortis. If
the muscle is in the extended state, the actin, and myosin filaments overlap and cross bond at
fewer points and the amount of actomyosin formed is small, hence meat will be tender on
cooking. But if the muscle goes into rigor mortis in the contracted state, there is considerable
shortening leading to much cross bonding and meat becomes relatively tough on cooking.
Normally meat goes into rigor mortis in an intermediate condition.

The most liable proteins of muscles are those of sarcoplasm. The soluble proteins get
precipitated and this process is accelerated by the increase in the atmospheric temperature and
by addition of salt or acid. Even the attainment of normal ultimate pH must be associated with
the precipitation of some of the sarcoplasmic proteins. High temperature during post mortem
glycolysis causes additional precipitation thus the glycolytic enzymes are made unavailable
leading to high ultimate pH of the meat if held at high temperatures. After the ultimate pH has
been reached there is a general alteration in the nature of components of the sarcoplasmic
proteins. At any given temperature and rate of glycolysis normal meat looses some fluid called
as ‘Weep’. The quantity of weep will be less if the ultimate pH is high.

There is denaturation of the muscle pigment myoglobin, another sarcoplasmic protein, which
accelerates the oxidation of its iron to the ferric form resulting in the pigment turning brown.
Though it is not an extensive process, it is important as it occurs in the exposed surfaces where
there is increased oxygen tension.

Proteolysis and tenderness:

Denatured proteins are particularly liable to be attacked by proteolytic enzymes. Though

extensive proteolysis of the collagen and elastin fibers of connective tissues might appear to be
most likely changes causing increased tenderness, the proteins of connective tissue do not
normally change this way during ageing in skeletal muscle but undergo changes due to
enzymatic activity. The proteolytic enzymes called Cathepsins from the Lysosomes and Calpains
from the sarcoplasm break down some of the collagen of the muscle. Since, neither the
proteins of connective tissue nor the myofibrils are subjected to extensive proteolysis during
ageing, the fall in total soluble protein nitrogen and increase in soluble nitrogen of the total
proteins indicate the proteolysis of the sarcoplasmic proteins.

The extent of proteolysis is temperature dependent and is greater at 37 o C than at a

temperature around 5oC probably because denaturation of myofibrillar proteins is greater at

27
higher temperature. It becomes evident that there is definite enzymatic activity during post
mortem ageing to hydrolyse sarcoplasmic proteins to peptides and aminoacids.

Aroma and flavour development:

In view of the development of flavour which accompanies ageing ‘inosinic acid’ gathers
importance. By the time ultimate pH is reached ATP, ADP and AMPs would have been largely
broken down into inosinic acid, inorganic phosphate and ammonia. The inosinic acid reacts on
heating with a glycoprotein containing alanine and glucose producing a basic meat flavour and
odour. The breakdown of proteins and fats during aging also contribute to flavour by producing
H2S, ammonia, acetaldehyde, acetone and diacetyl, but at the same time prolonged ageing is
associated with loss of flavour.

Changes in the physical appearance of muscle color:

In the living animal, muscles with sufficient O2 supply have a bright red appearance. In the
postmortem muscles, as the O2 is used up, the muscles become dark purplish red in color.
When fresh meat is first cut the exposed surface will have this dark purplish appearance. Upon
exposure to atmosphere for a few minutes the myoglobin will become oxygenated and change
to a brighter pink/ red color. If the muscle had been subjected to severe denaturation the color
intensity will be considerably reduced and appear pale even when freshly cut.

Firmness:

Living muscles maintain certain amount of tone. Since they are attached at both ends directly
or indirectly to some part of the skeleton, they are relatively firm. As the muscles go in to full
rigor they become very firm and stiff and later during the conversion process, as enzymatic
degradation and protein denaturation proceed the muscles become less firm. If the protein
denaturation is extremely severe the muscles become very soft.

Water holding capacity:

Water accounts for 65 to 80% of total muscle mass. Much of water in the muscle cell is bound
rather tenaciously to the various proteins. If the proteins are not denatured they will continue
to bind water during the conversion of muscle to meat and to a great extent even through the
cooking process. This retained water contributes to the juiciness and palatability of meat as
food. The changes that occur in water binding, during the conversion from muscle to meat
depend on the rate and extent of drop in pH and on the amount of protein denaturation. In
those instances when the pH of postmortem muscle remains very high, the water binding
properties of meat are similar to that of living muscle. When the pH drops rapidly during the
conversion of muscle to meat a low water binding capacity will result.

28
Conclusion:

Certain aspect of tenderness, juiciness, color and flavour may all be influenced by the changes
that occur during the conversion of muscle to meat. Important processing characteristics such
as emulsifying capacity, binding property, cooking losses, cooked meat color etc. may also be
affected by these changes. It is obvious that post mortem changes are highly variable and
influence the way in which the muscles can best be utilized as meat. These changes can be
controlled to certain extent to improve product quality.

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MEAT

Meat is very nutritious food. It is almost fully digestible. It is appealing to the eyes and pleasing
to the sense of olfaction. The nutritive value of meat is attributed to its abundant high quality
proteins, essential fatty acids, some important minerals and B-complex group of vitamins.

Composition of lean muscle tissue of meat animals (%):

Species Water Protein Lipid Ash

Beef 70-73 20-22 4-8 1.0
Chicken 73-74 20-23 4-7 1.0
Lamb 73 20 5-6 1.4
Pork 68-70 19-20 9-11 1.4

Meat proteins: Meat is a concentrated source of proteins, which are far superior to the plant
proteins due to very high biological value. Most lean meat cuts contain 16 to 22% proteins.
These proteins are rich in essential amino acids since there is no provision in the body for the
synthesis of these amino acids and a deficient diet will lead to protein malnutrition. In fact,
among meat proteins, myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic proteins are of very high quality because
they contain enough of essential amino acids. Connective tissue proteins have lower levels of
tryptophan and sulphur containing amino acids. Collagen is essentially poor in lysine content.
Assuming a normal serving of cooked lean meat to be 100g and its protein content is 25 to 30%,
it will fetch 25 to 30g of proteins or about 45 to 50% of RDA.

In addition to high quantity, skeletal meat provides high quality proteins. A high quality protein
is one that contains all essential aminoacids in amounts equivalent to human requirements, is
highly digestible and is easily absorbable. Because of their ability to support rapid growth when
consumed by animals high quality proteins have high biological value. The biological value and
net protein utilization are parameters of protein quality. The biological value of a protein is the

29
fraction of the nitrogen retained in the body for growth and maintenance which is determined
by nitrogen balance experiments.

Net protein utilization is the ratio of nitrogen returned and total protein nitrogen intake and is
thus influenced by biological value and digestibility of the proteins. The biological value of meat
is 0.75, (human milk =1.0, wheat protein =0.50) and the net protein utilization is 80 (egg =100,
wheat flour 52). The digestibility of meat protein like that of milk and egg is 94-99, compared
with 65-75 for plant protein. Essential amino acids are those that cannot be biosynthesized in
sufficient amounts to meet their requirements, these are Phenylalanine, Valine, Tryptophan,
Thrionine, Methionine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Lysine and Histidine. By their presence meat, milk
and egg proteins have high biological value.

Meat fats: Meat fats contain ample amount of essential fatty acids (EFA) and the nutritional
demand of EFA human beings is easily met by intramuscular fat itself. The calorific value of fat
in meat is attributed to fatty acids in triglycerides. The number of calories from lean meat is
frequently less than those derived from equal weights of many other foods. In fact, the calorific
value of particular meat depends on the amount of fat in the meat cuts. The most important
fatty acid in meat fat is oleic acid (mono unsaturated FA) followed by palmitic and stearic acids
(saturated FA). The EFA in human diets are linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acids. Pork and
organ meats are relatively good sources of linoleic and linolenic acids. It may be noted that
excess dietary linoleic acid is converted to arachidonic acid in human body to meet its demand.
The phospholipids are essential components of the cell wall as well as mitochondria and play a
vital role in cellular metabolism. Meat fat always contains some quantity of cholesterol and
blood cholesterol level increases after ingestion of cholesterol in food. However, dietary and
serum cholesterol are not directly related. Organ meats have remarkable high cholesterol
content as compared to skeletal meat.

Major fatty acid analysis of some fats of animal origin:

Palmitic Stearic Oleic Linoleic
Lard 27 13.5 43.5 10.5
Chicken 25 6.0 36.0 14.0
Egg 25 10.0 50.0 10.0
Beef 29 21.0 41.0 2.0
Butter 28 13.0 36.0 7.0

Proximate composition of calorie content of raw and cooked retail cuts of popular meats:

30
 Meat source and Percent
physical state Protein Moisture Fat Ash Calories/100g

BEEF - Raw 20.94 71.6 6.33 1.03 147

- Cooked 30.42 57.75 10.24 1.21 222
CHICKEN LIGHT- 23.2 74.86 1.65 0.98 114
Raw 30.91 64.76 4.51 1.02 173
Cooked
CHICKEN DARK- 20.08 75.99 4.31 0.94 125
Raw 27.37 63.06 9.73 1.02 205
Cooked
LAMB – Raw 19.5 71.5 7.0 1.5 145
- Cooked 27.0 61.5 8.5 2.0 200
PORK - Raw 20.22 71.95 6.75 1.04 147
- Cooked 27.04 58.97 13.04 1.10 233
VEAL - Raw 20.0 75.0 3.5 1.0 130
- Cooked 29.0 63.0 5.5 1.6 175

Biosynthesis of cholesterol is at the rate of 600 to 1500 mg/day in the body. Following dietary
cholesterol consumption the biosynthesis in the body gets reduced. However, nutritionists
recommend a maximum of 300 mg of cholesterol/day, through average meat consumption 1/3
of this amount is obtained (the cholesterol content in the lean muscle is 65 to 75 mg/100g,
kidney and liver is 400 mg and 430 mg/100g, respectively). Researchers on dietary lipids and
heart diseases have shown inconclusive results and hence individuals are at high risk and are
vulnerable. However, high caloric intake leads to obesity (which is also a genetic factor).
Obesity in combination with stress and sedentary lifestyle are considered to be the factors
related to cardiovascular diseases. Thus, discretion should be exercised in amounts of fat,
irrespective of animal or plant source, to cut down caloric intake. Nevertheless, a 100g serving
of cooked lean meat with separable fat removed contributes to only about 165 to 230 calories,
which represent 8 to 12% of 2000 calorie diet.

Obesity and high caloric intake have been associated with increased risk of cancer too. Each 1%
excess of body weight increases the risk of death from cancer by 1% approximately. Besides this
dietary fat may by itself increase the risk of cancer, especially the animal fat.

Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates constitute less than 1% of the weight of meat, most of which is
present as glycogen and lactic acid. Since liver is the principle organ for storage most
carbohydrates are present in the liver, thus skeletal tissues are poor source of carbohydrates.

31
Minerals: In general, meat is a good source of all minerals except calcium. The minerals are in
close association with lean tissues in meat. Of these, quantitatively potassium is most abundant
followed by phosphorus. Meat is a good source of iron, which is required for the synthesis of
haemoglobin, myoglobin and certain enzymes and thus plays a vital role in maintaining good
health. Since human body has a very limited capacity to store iron, mainly in liver, it has to be a
part of regular dietary intake. Meat provides this important mineral in a form that is easily
absorbed in the system.

Vitamins: Lean meat is an excellent source of B-complex group of vitamins. Fat-soluble

vitamin found in meat is associated with body fat. Vitamin C is almost absent in lean meat,
although certain organs contain it in minor quantities. Among the B-complex group of vitamins
thiamine, riboflavin and niacin are present in high concentrations. It may be noted that pork
surpasses several meats with regard to B-complex vitamins are concerned. In fact, lean pork has
5-10 times more thiamine than other meats. It has been noted that in monogastric animals like
pigs, intake of vitamins in feed is directly reflected in their tissues. Several organ meats have
slightly less protein and fat than skeletal meats. However, these are quite often more
economical sources of protein and vitamins than retail cuts of skeletal meats. Liver is a rich
source of iron, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin.

FRAUDULENT SUBSTITUTION OF MEAT

Adulteration, substitution and misrepresentation of meats and meat products are objectionable
on the grounds of health, religion and economics. The prohibitive costs of mutton coupled with
the short supplies force the consumer to face the recurring problem of
adulteration/substitution of mutton with veal or buffalo meat. The cow slaughter ban act may
at times work towards beef being misrepresented as buffalo meat (carabeef). The incidences of
dog or cat meat being substituted for goat meat have also been reported, in UK substitution of
beef with horse flesh is not very uncommon where as, in Australia the beef being substituted by
kangaroo meat cannot be ruled out. Accidental contamination may also be possible. Whether
done in fraud or negligence, it is an act of debasing meat to the determinant of the consumers.
And these vices appear to be as old as the meat trade and are punishable under Prevention of
Food Adulteration Act, 1955.

32
Methods for species identification of meats:

Different methods are available for the determination of the species of origin of meats. They
are,

1. Physical methods:
a) General features of the flesh – color, consistency, odour
b) General characteristics of body fat
c) Anatomical variation: Dentition, vertebral column, paired ribs
d) Bone percent of carcasses

2. Chemical methods
3. Biological Methods
a) Electrophoretic methods
b) Immunological methods
c) DNA based methods

1. Physical Methods

A. Characteristics of the meats:

Sr No. Meat Colour Consistency Odour

1. Chevon Light red Very firm Goaty

2. Mutton Light to dark red Firm and dense Ammonical
3. Buffalo meat Dark red F ir m -
4. Beef Red Fairely firm -
5. Bullock Light to dark red F ir m -
6. Pork Light red Very soft Urine like
7. Veal Pale to white F ir m -
8. Horse flesh Dark red bluish tinge So f t -

9. Dog meat Dark red - -

10. Poultry meat White F ir m -

33
B. Characteristics of body fat:

S. Meat Consistency Quality

1. Chevon Pure white - Practically no intermuscular fat

2. Mutton White Hard and firm Abundant intermuscular fat

3. Buffalo meat Pure white - -

4. Beef Yellowish white Firm Intramuscular fat

6. Pork White Soft and greasy Subcutaneous fat deposition

with intramuscular fat

7. Veal White Firm No intramuscular fat

8. Horse flesh Yellow Soft No intramuscular fat

9. Dog meat White - Slight intramuscular fat

10. Poultry meat Yellow Loose Mostly subcutaneous fat

C. Anatomical variation:

(1) Dentition

Species Temporary Permanent

Cattle, Sheep, Goat 2 (0 0 3 0) = 20 2 (0 0 3 3) = 32

and Buffalo (4 0 3 0) (4 0 3 3)

Pigs 2 (3 1 3 0) = 28 2 (3 1 4 3) = 44
(3 1 3 2) (3 1 4 3)

Horse 2 (3 0 3 0) = 24 2 (3 1 3 3) = 40
(3 0 3 0) (3 1 3 3)

Dog 2 (3 1 3 0) = 26 2 (3 1 1 2) = 32
(3 1 2 0) (3 1 2 3)

Cat 2 (2 1 3 0) = 24 2 (3 1 3 1) = 30
(3 1 2 0) (3 1 2 1)

34
(2) Vertebral column

Species Vertebral column

Cattle, Buffalo C7 T13 L6 S5 Cy 18 to 20
Sheep, Goat C7 T13 L6 S4 Cy 15 to 18
Horse C7 T18 L6 S5 Cy 15 to 21
Pigs C7 T14-15 L6-7 S4 Cy 20 to 23
Rabbit C7 T12 L7-8 S3-4 Cy 14 to 20
Chicken C15-17 T7 L+ S14 Cy 5 to 6

(3) Paired ribs

Species Ribs in pairs Sternal ribs

Cattle, Buffalo 13 8
Sheep, Goat 13 8
Pigs 14-15 7
Horse 18 8
Dog 13 9

(4) Bone percent of carcasses

Sr. No. Animal type Bone percentage

1. Cattle 12-28 (Avg. 15)
2. Veal calf 25
3. Bobby calf 50
4. Lamb 17-35
5. Pork 12-20
6. Poultry 8-17

Differentiation of carcass of sheep and goat

Features Sheep Goat

Back and withers Round and well fleshed Sharp, little fleshed
Thorax Barrel shaped Flattened laterally
Tail Fairly broad Thin
Radius 1.25 times length of Twice as long as metacarpus
metacarpus
Scapula Short an broad, superior Possess distinct neck. Spine
spine, bent back and straight and narrow, lateral
thickened border thin and sharp
35
Sacrum Lateral borders thickened in Sharp borders
the form of rolls
Flesh Pale red and fine in texture Dark red and coarse with
goaty odour. Sticky
subcutaneous tissue, which
may have adherent goat hairs.

Differentiation of carcasses of horse and cattle

• Unusual length of sides and great musculature in horse.

• 18 pair ribs in horse and 13 pair ribs in cattle.
• Markedly developed superior spine of dorsal vertebrae.
• Soft yellow fat beneath peritoneum in horse while in cattle white kidney fat abundant.
• Horse liver is purplish in colour while of other animals is reddish brown.
• Horse flesh is dark bluish red while beef is lacking this.
• Articulated last 3 lumber processes in horse not in cattle.
• Gall bladder is absent in horse.

Differentiation of carcasses of cattle and buffalo

• Generally fresh buffalo meat is darker (more reddish brown) and the fibres are coarser
and looser in structure than beef.
• The odour of the buffalo meat and fat are always strikingly musky and if boiled in strong
acidified (H2SO4) water, it develops a disagreeable odour similar to that of cattle
manure.
• The fat of buffalo is strikingly white and drier and less sticky than in cattle.
• The confirmation of the bones of the buffalo is generally thinner and the bones are very
brittle.
• The ischio pubic symphysis of the buffalo is strikingly plain.

2. CHEMICAL METHODS:

A. Meat composition:

1. The intra muscular fat content in mutton is higher (13%) and the least is buffalo (1.0%).
Beef contains 2.5%, Goat 3.5% and Pork 4.5%.
2. Vitamin A content is significant in beef and mutton but highly insignificant in buffalo
meat, Chevon and pork.

36
 3. The glycogen content is high in Horse, by at least 10 times compared to other food
animals.
4. Myoglobin content in horseflesh is maximum (0.7%) compared to other food animals.

B. Body fat composition:

1. Refractive index – The refractive index value for horse fat is 53.5 when in pork fat it is
less than 50 and beef fat it is less than 40.
2. Iodine number – Horse fat (70 to 85) is the highest compared to lard (50 to 70), ox and
sheep fat (at 35 to 46).
3. Carotene content in buffalo fat is zero.
4. Linoleic acid content – horse fat contains 1 to 2% linoleic acid where as all other fat
contain less than 0.1%.

3. BIOLOGICAL METHODS:

A. Electrophoretic methods:
The various electrophoretic methods include:
 Agar gel electrophoresis
 Counter Immuno Electrophoresis (CIE)
 Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
 Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
 Iso-electric focusing

 Agar gel electrophoresis: Electrophoretic separation of proteins on the basis of mobility

of proteins in a supporting gel of agarose at a constant pH and electrical field is termed
as Agar gel electrophoresis.
 Counter Immuno Electrophoresis (CIE): The principle of this technique is very similar to
agar gel immunodiffusion. The diffusion of antigen and antibody is facilitated by the
application of a low voltage current. Further, the endosmosis created by the agar gel
changes the charge of g -globulins and moves them towards cathode. The meat proteins
moving towards anode provide immunoprecipitate with homologous g -globulin at the
point of equivalence.
 Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE): Polyacrylamide gels are prepared using
acrylamide and bis which provides cross linking between the polymerized long chains of
acrylamide. The separation of proteins on the basis of their mobility in a polyacrylamide
gel is comparatively better since the resolution of different proteins are optimum.
Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis also requires a constant pH and electrical field to
provide high resolution of protein.

37
  Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis: Similar to Polyacrylamide
gel electrophoresis (PAGE) except that instead of Polyacrylamide, Sodium dodecyl
sulfate polyacrylamide gel is used.
 Iso-electric focussing (IEF): It is an electrophoretic technique, which utilizes the change
at the surface of a protein to drive it through a pH gradient gel. Polymeric compounds,
the ampholyte, set up the pH gradient. The proteins applied on the gel reach a point
where their surface charges become neutral, the isoelectric point. Subsequent fixing
makes the proteins to get precipitated and fixed at the same point as bands, this pattern
is species specific. By determining the location, density and the area of the pattern
specific bands, the meat species can be quantified up to the extent of 10% pork in
heated mixture of beef and pork.

B. Immunological methods:

The homologous response of coctoprecipitins (antibodies against cooked/heat denatured

proteins of meat) have been assessed by various immunochemical techniques such as,

a) Immunodiffuson (Agar gel Immunodiffusion-AGID and dry disc test)

b) Immunoelectrophoresis (Counter immunoelectrophoresis-CIE and rocket
immunoelectrophoresis) and
c) Enzyme immunoassays (different forms of ELISA)

The basic principle in these methods of meat species identification is the reaction of the
homologous meat extract (antigen) with specific antiserum raised against the particular species
meat.

Raising of antisera:

Freeze dried water extracts of skeletal muscles are to be reconstituted in physiological saline to
get 75mg/ml solution. This has to be emulsified with an equal volume of Freunds complete
adjuvant. For immunization, healthy rabbits of 4 to 6 months of age (1.25 to 1.50kg) are to be
used. The antigen and the adjuvant mixture should be administrated intramuscularly in the
hind legs. This should be followed with booster doses of antigen but with Freunds incomplete
adjuvant at weekly intervals for three weeks.

Assessing the potency of antisera:

Separate the serum from 3ml of blood collected from the immunized rabbits one week after
the last injection to assess the potency of the antiserum by interfacial ring test. Here the known
antigens are layered carefully over the antiserum in precipitin tubes to form two distinct layers.
When homologous response is rapid (white precipitate formation at the junction of two layers
38
following 30min incubation at room temperature) and the heterologous response is absent (no
precipitation even after 2hr), the antiserum can be considered to be of good titer.

Harvesting of antiserum:

The blood collected from the immunized rabbits should be allowed to clot at room temperature
and placed at 4oC for 18hrs. Then the antiserum should be decanted and centrifuged at 3000
rpm for 10min to remove the remaining blood cells. Merthiolate should be added to this to get
a concentration of 1:10000 and the same should be stored at –20oC. By Tube agglutination test
the antisera should be tested for reaction with heterologous and homologous species antigens.
The unabsorbed antisera are to be rendered species specific by absorption of heterologous
antibodies.

Absorbed antiserum can be prepared by adding small amount (about 8.0mg/ml) of freeze dried
antigenic proteins of the species with which they cross react. The mixture is mechanically
shaken for 4hrs at room temperature can be held overnight at 4 oC. later the same should be
centrifuged at 3000 rpm to eliminate antigen-antibody complex formed. The species specific
antiserum thus obtained can be used for species identification of meats by serological
techniques.

Preparation of antigens:

Initially 100g of sample of meat should be minced thoroughly for two minutes, then mixed in
100ml of normal saline solution and refrigerated for 12 hrs to facilitate the separation of
maximum quantity of meat proteins. The decanted extract then should be filtered through
Whatman No.4 and stored under refrigeration. This would be useful for AGID, CIE and dry disc
Immunodiffusion tests.

a1. Agar gel Immunodiffusion (AGID): By this method known and unknown samples of meat
and meat mixtures can be tested against the raised antisera. The two reactants diffuse in to the
gel during 24 hr of incubation at 37oC and a positive reaction is indicated by the formation of
immunoprecipitates (opaque lines) at the point of equivalence for each antigen-antibody pair.
Research have reported detection of chicken flesh at 1, 3 and 5% levels in heated beef sausages
following this method. The AGID (or AGPT) is a sample test but long duration of incubation (of
24 to 48 hrs) is a disadvantage.

a2. Dry disc test: It is based on the principles of AGID. Antigens and antibodies are absorbed on
to the filter paper discs and freeze dried for stability. Known anti species anti body discs and
reference meat discs should be placed on the agar surface of the petri dishes. Blank sample
discs are to be soaked in drip/extracts of meat samples and gently deposited on parallel test
positions. These petridishes are to be incubated overnight at room temperature for

39
precipitation lines. The tests for fresh meat are called as overnight rapid Bovine identification
test (ORBIT), Poultry rapid overnight identification method (PRIME). The detection level of
adulteration is reported to be 3 to 5%.

b1. Counter immunoelectrophoresis: The diffusion of antigen and antibody is facilitated by the
application of low voltage current. In addition, the electro osmosis created by the alkaline agar
gel moves the gamma globulins (antibodies) towards cathode. And the meat proteins moving
towards anode produce immuno-precipitates with homologous gamma globulins at the point of
equivalence. Adulteration at 1:300 dilutions can also be detected by CIE. The main advantage of
CIE is its rapidity (just 1hr) and high sensitivity, compared to AGID.

b2. Rocket electrophoresis: The protein assay by the migration of antigens in an

electrophoretic field in to a gel containing antibody is the basis of electroimmuno diffusion
referred to as electroimmunoassay. Agarose containing an antibody is produced to get a gel of
uniform thickness. Wells are punched out of the gel at one end in to which various samples can
be introduced. On electrophoresis the various samples migrate in to the gel and form
precipitation line and each sample will have a characteristic rocket shape of lines and the height
of rocket would be proportional to the concentration of the antigen.

C. Enzyme immunoassay: Enzyme linked immuno sorbent assay (ELISA) can be employed in the
diagnostic procedures to study both qualitative by as well as quantitatively the antigen and
antibodies. The interaction of antigen and antibody occurring as a monomolecular layer
immobilized on an inert surface rendered this procedure a rapid and convenient method of
determining antigens of meat food origin. Three forms of ELISA can be employed in meat
speciation to recognize homologous species proteins viz., Indirect, Double antibody sandwich
(DAS) and Competitive ELISA.

C. DNA based methods: Identification of species, based on nucleic acid. DNA hybridisation and
polymerase chain reaction based on Mitochondrial and nuclear markers. PCR based methods in
species identification are,

 RFLP -PCR (PCR- restriction fragment length polymorphism)

 Multiplex PCR assay
 RAPD-PCR (Random amplified polymorphic DNA PCR) technique
 SSCP-PCR (single strand conformation polymorphism technique)
 PCR fingerprinting: simple mt-DNA fingerprints and Actin fingerprinting characteristic of
species

40
Electrophoretic techniques such as SGE and IEF-PAGE and Immunochemical methods viz., AGID,
dry disc test, CIE, Rocket IE, ELISA and different forms of DNA based methods can be
successfully employed to detect various levels of adulteration in meat and meat products.

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF FRESH MEAT

Fresh meat is a product obtained from muscle that has undergone the chemical and physical
changes that follow slaughter but has not been further processed. The properties of fresh meat
dictate its usefulness to the buyer, its appeal to the consumer / purchaser and its adaptability
for further processing. In particular the important characteristics of fresh meat are water
holding capacity, colour, structure, firmness and texture.

WATER HOLDING CAPACITY (WHC)

It is defined as the ability of meat to retain its own water or added water during application of
external forces such as cutting, heating, grinding or pressing. WHC acts as a determinant of
various physical properties of meat including Colour, texture, firmness in fresh meat and
juiciness and tenderness in cooked meat. WHC in meat is important because of three main
reasons:
 Appearance: Meat with poor WHC has fluid exudation, which detracts the appearance.
 Weight loss: The loss of moisture and consequently the loss of weight during storage in
the tissues having poor water holding capacity. This moisture loss is directly
proportional to the area of the exposed cut surface.
 WHC has been thought to influence the perceived juiciness of fresh meat when cooked.
Meat with low WHC losses lot of fluid on cooking and may taste dry and lack succulence.

Water in meat:
The water in the muscle exists in three different forms: the bound form, immobilized
and free forms. Water molecules are not electrically neutral due to the distribution of the
electrons and have a positive end and a negatively charged end i.e. they are polarized, thus
they can get associated with the electrically charged reactive groups of the muscle proteins.
Charged hydrophilic groups on the muscle protein attract water and form a tight bound layer.
Of the total water present in the muscle, 4 to 5% is so located and is known as bound water.
This portion of water remains tightly bound even during the application of a severe mechanical
or physical force.

41
 Other water molecules are subsequently attracted to the bound molecules in layers
that become successively weaker as the distance from the reactive group on the proteins
become greater. Such water is termed as immobilized water and the quantity depends on the
amount of physical force exerted on the muscle. Water that is held only by weak surface or
capillary forces is known as free water.
Bound Immobilized H20 Free H20
Water

Several factors influence the number of reactive groups of the proteins and their availability for
binding water.
1. Net Charge effect: The formation of lactic acid and resultant drop in pH in the post
mortem period are responsible for an overall reduction of reactive groups available for
water binding on the protein. The reduction of reactive groups occurs because the pH
approaches the isoelectric point of the muscle proteins, that pH at which the number of
positively and negatively charged groups are equal. Consequently, these reactive groups
tend to be attracted to each other and only those left over groups are available for
water binding. Relationship of muscle pH and WHC,

42
 2. Steric effect: Certain ions especially the divalent ions, Mg++ and Ca++, in the sarcoplasm
have the ability to combine with and neutralize the two negatively charged reactive
groups on the protein giving no room for the water molecules.
3. Redistribution of ions: Ageing of meat permits the recovery of water binding capacity of
proteins. Calpains and Cathepsins, the proteolytic enzymes from lysozomes are
supposed to degrade the membrane structures and effect the redistribution of ions,
bringing in replacement of some divalent ions with monovalent ions like Na+.
Consequently, one reactive group on a protein is freed to bind with water. This
exchange of ions in muscle proteins during ageing results in an improved water holding
capacity.

Manifestation of poor WHC: Poor WHC is manifested as ‘Weep’ in fresh, uncooked meat which
has not been frozen, as ‘Drip’ in thawed uncooked meat and as ‘Shrink’ in cooked meats.
Weep: Retail meat cuts may lose some moisture even in a moisture proof package which may
get accumulated around the meat resulting in a wet unattractive appearance. This free water
exudation from the cut surfaces in the form of meat juice is known as “Weep”. When large
quantities of juices escape the products normally lose weight and value due to the loss of some
of the soluble proteins, vitamins and minerals. Achieving proper protein and water ratio is
important for palatability and adequate yield of finished product weight.

Measurement of WHC:
1. Gravity method: Suspend meat sample or entire chop of meat with or without bone
inside a polythene bag and hold it for 48-72 hours at 1-5C and the loss of drip is
measured as an indication of WHC.
2. Filter paper press method: Developed by Hamm and Deatherge (1953). 0.2 gms of meat
is pressed on a Whatman No. 41 filter paper between two clear glass plates to form a
thin film. Water is squeezed out and absorbed by the filter paper to form a ring of
expressed juice. The area of the ring relative to the area of meat is an index of WHC. A
major advantage of this method is that it can be used in ground or processed meat. The
area is measured using compensation polar planimeter and expressed as percentage.
3. Centrifugal method: Centrifugation of small sample of meat at high speed and high
gravitational force (60-100,000g) for long period. The exudate forms as supernatant and

43
 can be poured off and the meat sample weighed. The difference in weight is an
indication of WHC.
4. Capillary method: It involves the use of absorbent materials such as gypsum (CaSO4) or
filter paper. A sample of meat is pressed between a plate and a block of gypsum. Air is
displaced from the block by exudate and rises up a capillary tube, in turn displacing the
colored fluid. The volume of exudate is read off a scale
5. Other method: A disc of filter paper is applied for 2 seconds to the meat surface about
15 mins after cutting. The paper absorbs juice, the amount being assessed subjectively
or by re-weighing the filter paper. This method is quick but not very precise.

COLOUR
Colour, as detected by naked eye, is a result of combination of several factors. Meat colour is
important because it is the initial impression a consumer gets on a product and has a major
impact on the purchase decision. The three important attributes of colour are:
 Hue: It describes the wavelength of light radiation. It describes what we commonly
refer to as colour that is, red, green, yellow or blue.
 Chroma (Purity or saturation): describes the intensity of a fundamental colour with
respect to the amount of white light mixed with it. It refers to colorfulness or lack of
dullness.
 Value: Indication of overall light reflection of the Colour (Brightness).
The most important contributors of colour are the pigments that absorb certain wavelength of
light and reflect others. The meat colour is dependent on the pigment content, ultimate pH,
rate of pH decline postmortem, and the physical characteristics of the muscle.
Pigments: The pigments in meat consist largely of two proteins. The pigment of the muscle
called Myoglobin constituting 80 to 90% of total pigment, Haemoglobin, the pigment of blood
and also there are Catalase and Cytochrome enzymes whose contribution to the color is minor.
Myoglobin: The Myoglobin molecule is one fourth as large as the Haemoglobin molecule. It
consists of a globular protein portion called globin and a non-protein portion called Haem ring.
The latter portion of the pigment is of special interest because the colour of meat is partially
dependent on the chemical state (oxidation /oxygenation state) of the ion with in the ring.

Compound State of Iron Colour

Myoglobin Fe2+ (Ferrous state) Purplish red colour
2+
Oxy-myoglobin Fe (Ferrous state) Bright red

44
Met-myoglobin Fe3+ (Ferric state) Brown
Metsulphmyoglobin Fe3+ (Ferric state) Red colour
The quantity of myoglobin varies with species, age, sex, muscle and physical activity, and this
accounts for much of the variability in meat colour. The intensity of colour is affected by the
amount of myoglobin pigment and other factors.
Factors affecting meat colour:
1. Species:
Species Colour of the meat Myoglobin(mg/g)
Beef Bright cherry red 4 – 10
Fish Grey white to dark red 0.5 – 1
Mutton Light red to brick red 4-8
Pork Grayish red 1-3
Poultry Gray white to dull red 1-2
Veal Brownish pink 1–3

2. Age: Pale muscles of veal carcasses indicate that they are immature and have lower
myoglobin than the matured Cattle/ Buffalo.
3. Location and function of the muscle: Because of the difference in myoglobin content, the
light breast muscles of the chicken contrast strongly with the dark muscles of the thigh and
leg. The muscles in the game animals are darker that those of domestic ones partially due to
the higher level of physical activity on their myoglobin content.
4. Sex: The intact male has muscles that contain more myoglobin than to those of female or
castrated ones.

CHEMICAL STATE OF THE PIGMENT:

The availability of pigment to combine with or tie-up with a molecule depends on the
state of iron in the heam ring. When the iron is oxidized it cannot combine with other
molecules including molecular oxygen when it has been reduced (ferrous state) it can readily
combine with water or oxygen. In living muscles: Reducing condition in meat can occur
naturally as a result of normal enzyme activity (electron transport chain) that takes place
continuously. These enzymes use up all of the oxygen available in the interior of the muscles,
consequently the pigment in uncut meat is in the reduced form and has only water with which
to react. Such pigment is purple in colour and is in the reduced form called deoxy myoglobin.

45
 In the presence of small quantities of oxygen as in case of partial vacuum or semi-
permeable package the iron portion of the pigment becomes oxidized and changes to brown
colour. In this oxidized state the pigment is called “met-myoglobin”. The formation of this color
is a serious problem to the meat merchandize, as the consumers associate it as a problem of
long storage, though it can be formed in a matter of minutes. The brownish color of meat
remains until the oxygen is removed and develops reducing conditions, where it gets converted
back to the desirable color. Upon cutting, grinding, and exposure to air, the pigments in meat
undergo colour changes due to their reaction with oxygen
When meat is allowed to come in full contact with the air, the reduced pigments will
react with molecular oxygen and form a relatively stable pigment called “oxy-myoglobin”, this
pigment is responsible for bright red color that consumers expect in fresh meat. Oxymyoglobin
will form within 30 to 45 min after exposure to air and retained upto 72 hours under favorable
condition. This bright red color development is known as “bloom”. In this reaction, myoglobin
(purple) is oxygenated (atmospheric/molecular oxygen is added). Metmyoglobin (brown) is the
oxidized form of the pigment (the chemical state of the iron is changed) under atmospheric
condition, the oxymyoglobin is stable and not easily oxidized to metmyoglobin.

Discoloration of meat may occur as a result of bacterial destruction of myoglobin to the

haem portion and protein portion when used as a nutrient. This usually causes a green color to
develop on the surface. Bacterial contamination results in brown discoloration consequent to
the reduction of oxygen tension on the meat surface leading to formation of metmyoglobin.
When meat is exposed to air for a long time, it becomes darker in color inspite of an adequate
oxygen availability, because of the drying process where the pigments gets concentrated and
deepen the color expression.

Muscle pH and colour

The rate and extent of pH decline post-mortem greatly affects meat colour. Faster pH decline
leads to paleness and if pH does not drop to desired level the meat is dark in colour.
PSE: Sudden drop in pH at higher carcass temperature causes denaturation of proteins, leading
to higher proportion of free water in the tissues especially in the extracellular space. Such
tissues have many reflecting surfaces that totally reflect light, but have only limited light
absorption capability and hence appear pale and also exudate the free water.

46
DFD: High water binding capability at higher pH and water is intracellular in nature and hence a
white light reflection is minimized and enhanced colour absorption occurs. These tissues have
high rate of oxygen using enzymes and hence oxy-myoglobin state of pigment is less.

Factors affecting colour stability:

1. Storage time and temperature: colour acceptability decreases as storage time increases,
however the length of time the colour is acceptable is affected greatly by the storage
temperature. Fresh meat and meat products stored at –1.50 C gives a maximum shelf life
and stability to the colour of meat.
2. Increased time from slaughter results in reduced colour stability because the co-factors
necessary for the reduction of met-myoglobin are depleted as postmortem time increases
3. Particle size reduction and mixing: longer mixing times and smaller meat particle size results
in shorter colour stability.

pH: pH refers to the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. The pH of fresh meat,
more precisely muscle at 45 minutes post slaughter is in the range of 6.8 -7.2, which reduces to
about 5.2-5.6, at about 24 hours post slaughter in case of cattle, while it takes in about 4-8
hours in pigs. This decline in pH is on account of the conversion of the glycogen stored in the
muscle to lactic acid.

Structure, firmness and texture:

These properties are measured by visual, tactile and gustatory senses. The extent to which the
meat cuts confirm to the surface on which they rest, the degree of separation between the
muscles and prominence of the bundle divisions make a composite impression that can be
either attractive or unattractive. Rigor mortis and associated water holding capacity,
intramuscular fat, connective tissue and bundle size contribute to these physical properties.

47
 MEAT PRESERVATION

Meat preservation involves application of measures to delay or prevent certain changes, which
make meat as unusable as food or which downgrade some quality aspects of it. The pathways
by which such deterioration can occur are diverse and include microbial, chemical and physical
processes.

The processes adapted in meat preservation are primarily concerned with inhibiting
microbial spoilage, though they are aimed at minimizing concomitant depreciation of quality of
meat. Methods of preservation, however different superficially are alike in strategy that they
employ environmental conditions, which discourage the growth or survival of micro organisms.
Viz., extreme cold or heat, deprivation of water and sometimes oxygen, excess of saltiness or
increased acidity. These methods can be grouped in different broad categories based on:

I. Control of moisture

 Dehydration- Natural (Drying) or artificial dehydration

 Increasing the extracellular osmotic pressure - Curing

II. Control of temperature

 Application of cold – Refrigeration

 Heat treatment – Canning, Pasteurization, Retort pouching

III. Direct microbial inhibition

 Ionizing Radiation
 Chemical preservatives

IV. Modifying the atmosphere

 Modified or controlled atmospheric packaging

 Vaccum packaging

CONTROL OF MOISTURE:

Water is a basic requirement for the growth of microbes. Deprivation of available moisture not
only prevents the growth of microorganisms found in the meat but may also kill them. Water

48
may be made unavailable by direct removal as in drying, dehydration and freeze drying or by
increasing the extracellular osmotic pressure as in salting and curing. The moisture control
methods do successfully prevent meat spoilage but the processed product differs significantly
from fresh meat.

DEHYDRATION:

This is an age old drying procedures, which involved exposure of strips of lean meat to the sun,
as in the manufacture of pemmican in North America, Jerked beef of South America or a
combination of light salting followed by air drying as in the preparation of charque (in South
America) and biltong (in South Africa). These products are considerably different from fresh
meat and to most taste lower in eating quality.

Sun drying is a slow process and mainly dependent on the weather or climatic condition of the
area which is not controllable by mankind. The moisture content of the food is not reduced to
less than 10-15 % and the food materials are exposed to various contaminants like dust, insects,
rodents, bird’s etc. The colour development in the sun-dried product is slow and the cooking
characteristics of such products are inferior. This process being slow cannot be employed in
larger cuts and the longer duration involved causes surface hardening (Case hardening) which
inturn affects consumer acceptability.

Dehydration refers of to artificial removal of water from food under controlled atmospheric
condition. Improvement from sun drying has been popular in temperate climates in the form of
hot air drying. Hot air is passed on the meat to facilitate moisture removal wherein the
temperature and the rate of air movement are carefully controlled. Meat dehydrated by this
method has residual moisture content of about 5%. A temperature of 65.5 oC is applied for 3
hours. Use of high temperature causes protein denaturation and hence such products have
poor rehydration properties.

Driers: They are generally employed in the process of dehydration of food products and are
classified into two types:

1. Adiabatic driers: Heat is carried into the dryer by hot gas, gas gives up heat to water in
the food which forms water vapour and is carried out. The hot gas may be a product of
combustion or heated air. Medium of heat transfer is air. Generally employed in
dehydration of fruits and vegetables in small scale.
2. Dryers involving heat transfer through solid surface: Heat is transferred via conduction
through a metal plate, which carries the food. Heat may be sometimes applied by
microwave or infra red rays. Eg: Drum driers.

49
But inhibition of microbial activity cannot be determined by the moisture content alone, but by
the availability of the water to the micro organisms, which is referred to as water activity (a w)
level, the ratio of the vapour pressure a solution to that of pure water at the same
temperature.

p
aw = Where, P is the vapor pressure of the solute
po and Po is the vapor pressure of pure water.

aw level and microbial activity:

aw level lower limits for

0.99 water activity of fresh meat.

0.90 growths of most bacteria.
0.86 the enterotoxin production by Staphylococcus.
0.85 the growth of many yeasts.
0.84 Staphylococcal growth.
0.80 the growth of many fungi.
0.70 the growth of most xerophyllic fungi.
0.60 extreme limit for xerophyllic fungi and osmotolerant yeast.
0.55 DNA disordered.

For drying, lean meat is preferred from low-grade carcass and is cut into strips (in the range of
0.3 to 0.8 cm in diameter). It is further ground and sun dried for 3-5 days or air dried at 65.5oc
with high air speed for 3 hrs to obtain the dried minced meat.

Freeze Dehydration: Freeze dehydration an alternative means of drying involves freezing and
sublimation, the freezing is the basic dehydrating factor and the latter is elimination of frozen
moisture in the form of vapour. This process is carried out in a vaccum chamber with pressure
of 1.0-1.5 mm of mercury and at a temperature of 43 oC. The rate of freeze dehydration is
dependent on the rate of heat transfer and hence infrared heating is generally employed. The
residual moisture content of freeze dehydrated product is 2-3%.

Meat cooked before FD are generally stable (24-48 months) compared to uncooked
freeze dried meat. The texture, flavour, and other characteristics of FD meat depend on the
method of rehydration. The extent of rehydration is greatest if the rehydration solution are
maintained at temperature just below boiling and addition of 1-2% NaCl and 0.5-0.15%

50
polyphosphates improves the palatability of rehydrated product. Generally lean meat with less
fat content is utilized for FD because of problem of oxidative problems in fattier cuts.
Commonly available FD meat product is dehydrated soup mix.

MEAT CURING:

Curing may be defined as the addition of common salt and nitrate/nitrite/nitric oxide to the
meat, which results in the conversion of meat pigments, predominantly myoglobin to the
nitroso or cured form. While curing may be applied to all kinds of meat it is best adopted to
those with high fat content. Eg: Pork or Fine fibered beef inter mixed with fat. Salt is the
principle preserving material used in curing though it has little direct harmful effect on bacteria
it works on the osmotic pressure principle removing the water from meat, which is necessary
for bacterial growth.

Curing salts and additives Functions

1) Sodium chloride 1.5 to 3.0% Preservative, improves texture
2) Sodium nitrate 0.15 to 1.5% A source of nitrite
3) Sodium nitrite 500 to 1000 ppm Preservative gets reduced by meat enzymes to nitric oxide,
which combines with myoglobin (the uncured meat
pigment) forms nitroso-myoglobin, the cured meat
pigment.
4) Poly phosphates 2 to 4% Reduce cooking losses and during smoking, improve
texture.
5) Sugars eg: Sucrose 1 to 4% Improve flavour by masking the harshness of the salt
6) Smoke Flavoring agent
7) Sodium ascorbate 0.2 to 1% Reducing agent, improves colour formation and stability
by effecting rapid reduction of nitrite to nitric oxide in the
meat.
8) Monosodium glutamate Flavour enhancer
500 ppm

Distinction must be made between salted meats (beef, pork) and cured meats (bacon, ham,
corned beef). In salted meat, salt first dissolves in the surface fluids and then passes slowly
inwards until it is evenly distributed throughout the meat substance. A considerable amount of
moisture is removed when the salt draws to the surface some of the fluids in which it dissolves.

51
Methods of curing:

Several method of curing are available. Irrespective of the method used the basic requirement
is to distribute the cure ingredients throughout the product.

1. Dry cure: an older method of curing in which the curing ingredients are rubbed in dry
form over the cut surfaces. The cut surfaces are then placed in refrigerator or shelves or
in containers and allowed to cure. For larger cuts like ham, cure ingredients must be
applied more than once and the cuts must be turned over and restacked at intermittent
period. Since, dry curing is a slow process and the cure penetration rate is 2.5 cm per
week and require large amount of labor handling it is now used in only specialty items
such as country cured ham and bacon. These products have a unique flavour and
texture which cannot be apparently developed by other methods.
2. Pickle cure: The curing ingredients are dissolved in water to form a solution called
pickle. Several methods of pickle application are available:

 Immersion: The cuts are sometime immersed in a pickle solution. This is a slow method,
since extended periods are required for the pickle to diffuse through the entire product
and in addition microbial growth and spoilage. Neck bones, tails, pig feet and salt pork
are cured by this method
 Injection method: The curing procedure may be shortened by injection of pickle directly
into meat cuts using one of the several methods which are more rapid and ensure
uniform distribution of the cure
 Artery pumping: The pickle solution can be pumped directly into the vascular
system via the large arteries and care should be taken not to rupture the blood
vessels by excessive pumping pressure. The major disadvantage of this method is
that it is product specific (Ham and picnic) and special care needs to be taken during
cutting to prevent damage to arteries.
 Stitch pumping: A popular method of pumping that can be used in any type of meat
cut, in which pickle is injected through a hollow needle into various parts of the cut
especially the thickest part and near the joints. Multiple needle injection systems are
available.
3. Thermal or Hot cure: Applications of cure solutions in hot condition accelerates the rate
of curing and also allow acceleration of entire processing step. This can be applied either
by artery or stitch pumping. Best results are obtained by using pickle at 57-60oC.

Tumbling or massaging: Diffusion and binding of pickle within cure injected meat cuts are
facilitated by mechanical action, by a process known as tumbling or massaging. This process
subjects product to agitation, which helps to disrupt tissues and hasten the distribution of cure

52
ingredients. Tumbling is a process, which utilizes the kinetic energy of falling meat pieces to
fracture the myofibrillar membrane structures. This brings salt into contact with salt soluble
proteins resulting in greater WHC and solubilization of proteins. Tumbling has several effects:

 Improves smoke yield because of improved WHC

 Improves tenderness due to hydrated state of proteins and loss of structural integrity.
 Improves uniformity of colour development and palatability.
Tumbling is done in equipment called Tumbler. Tumblers are horizontally or eccentrically
mounted rotating drums, as the drum rotates the meat are carried towards the top by means of
paddles or baffles before falling back to the base and impacting against the drum walls. Vaccum
tumblers are available and are considered to improve uptake and distribution of cure but the
capital investment of the equipment is significantly higher.

Flavour of cured meat: The most important aspect of curing of meat with nitrite and forming
nitrosylhemochrome is to immobilize the iron in the complex, which retards the catalytic
activity of Iron in formation of warmed over flavor. Iron catalyzes the breakdown of
unsaturated fatty acids leading to formation of volatile substances and off flavour

Cured meat colour:

Conversion of nitrite in curing mixture to nitric oxide is an important phenomenon for

development of cured meat colour.

1. In water nitrite is present as Nitrous acid (HNo2). At pH of 5.5-6.0 this nitrous acid is
converted into nitric oxide. 3HNO2 HNo3 + 2NO + H2O.
2. Reducing activity of post-mortem muscle converts nitrite to nitric oxide.
3. Addition of certain chemicals or reducing agents causes acceleration in the process of
conversion of nitrite to nitric oxide such agents are called CURE ACCELERATOR (Sodium
salts of ascorbic or erythorbic acid).

Stability of cured meat colour:

Nitrosylhaemochromogen is heat stable pigment and does not undergo further changes upon
cooking. However the pigment undergo other reactions such as light fading resulting in colour
change.

Light fading: Nitric oxide myoglobin and Nitrosylhaemochromogen are very susceptible to light
fading. Exposure of meat to highly illuminated light in the presence of air results in a two step
process:

1. Disassociation of Nitric oxide from heme group catalyzed by light.

53
 2. Oxidation of nitric oxide and heme group by oxygen.

A brownish grey color appears on the surface of the meat during light fading due to pigment
Hemichrome in which the state of iron is Ferric (Fe3+).

Chemistry of Cured meat colour:

One of the purposes of curing is to develop an attractive and stable colour.
Oxygenation
Oxy-myoglobin
Deoxy-myoglobin
(Bright Red – Fe2+)
(Purplish Red – Fe2+) Deoxygenation

Oxidation Reduction +
Nitric oxide Oxygenation Oxidation

Reduction

Heat
Nitric oxide myoglobin Met myoglobin

(Red – Fe2+) (Brown – Fe3+)

Oxidation
Nitric oxide
Haemochrome Reduction
Heat
Nitric oxide met myoglobin Heat
(Greenish brown – Fe2+)
(Brown – Fe3+)

Nitric oxide Oxidation

Hemichrome or denatured
Nitrosylhaemochromogen
met myoglobin
(Pink – Fe2+)
( Brown – Fe3+)

Co-Oxidation: Unsaturated fatty acids present in the meat oxidize in the presence of oxygen
and in addition the oxidation of one accelerates the oxidation of the others and is called as co-
oxidation and this reduces the color stability.

Nitrite burn: Excessive amount of nitrite in the cure also may cause greening of the cured meat
and this results from the oxidation of the cured meat pigment.

Formation of Nitrosamines:

54
Amines are always present in muscle foods since they occur as breakdown products of natural
precursors in the meat. Under certain conditions, a class of carcinogenic compounds known as
Nitrosamines can be formed in food products by the reaction between the nitrite and the
amines especially the secondary amines and their carcinogenesity varies with species and
organs. To prevent this the residual nitrite level in the product should be 120 ppm or lower. A
concentration of 40-80 ppm of nitrite can inhibit the spores of Clostridium botulinum, but this is
not practicable and hence lactic acid bacteria can be used to lower the pH and there by causing
an effective prevention of growth of these spores.

SMOKING

Smoking of meat is the process of exposing the product to wood smoke at some point of
manufacture. The purpose is to preserve colour and flavour of the meat. The basic principle
behind smoking is that it causes superficial dehydration, coagulation of proteins and absorption
of resinous substances which in turn prevents bacterial proliferation.

Smoke generation – Smoke, generally is produced by slow and controlled combustion of

sawdust derived from hard woods such as oak and hickory because of their low resin content.
The temperature has a bearing on the contents of smoke. As the temperatures increase over
575°F the ratio of acids to phenols is reduced since acids are produced at lower temperature
and phenols at higher temperatures. The best quality smoke is produced at a temperature of
650-750°F with subsequent oxidation temperature of 480°F. Temperatures around 750°F
encourage the production of the polycyclic hydrocarbons. To reduce the production of these a
more practical temperature for smoke production might be closer to the 650°F temperature.
The smoking process is taken up to three days at 29.5 oC. The chief bacteriostatic and
bactericidal substance in wood smoke is formaldehyde. Varying amounts of heat are applied in
the smoke room, and the combination of heat and smoke usually causes significant reduction in
the surface bacterial population.

Smoke has two phases the liquid and the gas phase. Direct deposition of smoke has a negligible
effect whereas vapor absorption by surface and interstitial water is more important for its
preservative effect. The composition of smoke is complex and contains a mixture of formic,
acetic, butyric, vanilic and caprylic acid, methyl glyoxal, diacetyl, acetone, sulphur containing
organic compounds, phenols, terpenoids and hetrocyclic hydrocarbons (3-4- benzpyrene and
dibenz anthracene). These hetrocyclic hydrocarbons are carcinogenic in nature and hence to
prevent this smoke produced is condensed and fractional distillation is carried out. The selected
fractions are diluted in water to produce liquid smoke (Hetrocyclic hydrocarbons are water
insoluble). Hardwood smoke consisits of the following major constituents:

Component PPM

55
Phenols 20 to 30
Resins (phenol + formaldehyde) Over 1000
Acids:
Formic Acid 20 to125
Acetic and higher acids 450 to 500
Carbonyls:
Formaldehyde 25 to 40
Higher aldehydes 140 to 180
Ketones 190 to 200
Humidity during smoking – the humidity during smoking in the smokehouse is important as it
effects the smoke deposition on the product. High humidity favors smoke deposition but also
tend to limit color development. With high humidity there is higher amount of smoke
penetration. When it is too low the smoke is deposited on the surface only and desirable color
is not achieved. Its likely to acquire a dull brown tan.

The benefits attributed to the smoking of meats are as follows;

 Flavour and odour enhancement- largely conntributed by phenols, acids, and carbonyls
(Hickory has not been shown to differ from the other hardwoods in flavor
enhancement)
 Colour development on the outside of the product – largely conributed by constituents
of the dispersed phase and the contribution of phenols in developing “sheen”.
 Preservation of the product – the prevention of oxidation (largely due to the
antioxidant properties of the phenols), and the prevention of microbial growth largely
attributed to formaldehyde and to the phenols, carbonyls, and acids.

Smoke houses – 3 types:

1. Natural air: regulation of air volume done by opening and closing of series of dampers.
2. Air-conditioned or forced air: air circulation controlled by fans.
3. Continuous smokehouse: available in the processing lines.

Liquid smoke: Several liquid smoke preparations are available in developed countries. The
liquid smoke is prepared from hard wood. The tarry droplets/polycyclic hydrocarbons are
removed by filtration. Final product is composed of primarily of the vapour phase containing
mainly phenols, organic acids, alcohols and carbonyl compounds. They do not contain polycyclic
hydrocarbons especially benzapyrene a carcinogenic substance, which is removed during
production of liquid smoke. Liquid smoke has several advantages. It has a little or no
preservation effect although it contributes to the flavour.

Composition of liquid smoke

56
  20 – 30 parts of liquid smoke
 5 parts citric acid or vinegar
 65 - 70 parts of water
 Citric acid or vinegar is used to enhance the skin formation on skinless sausages.
 Acid is commonly added to reduce the cost.
 Liquid smoke makes it easier to keep the equipment clean.
 Cooking after spraying with liquid smoke preparation is essential to give good smoke
colour formation.
Application of liquid smoke:
1. Adding it directly to meat emulsion
2. Dipping the product directly
3. Spraying smoke solution over the product
4. Atomizing the liquid smoke into dense fog and injecting into smoke house
5. Vaporizing the liquid by putting on hot surface
6. Adding by way of smoke heated casings.

Effect of smoke on nutritive value of meat – As the phenols and polyphenols react with the
sulfhydryl groups of the proteins and the carbonyl groups react with the amino groups which
are likely to cause losses of amino acids like lysine.

INTERMEDIATE MOISTURE MEAT PRODUCTS (IMM)

These are heterogeneous group of foods that are based on hurdle concept. The intention is to
lower the water activity of the food to a point at which bacteria will not grow, even at high
temperature, without lowering the water content to the point at which the product becomes
unpalatable. IMM are characterized by a moisture content of around 30-50 % being
intermediate between fresh and dry meats and a water activity of around 0.6 to 0.85. These are
partially dehydrated products and have a suitable concentration of solids to bind the remaining
water, sufficiently to inhibit the growth of bacteria, moulds and yeast.

Lowering the water is achieved either by physical means or with the aid of ingredients called
humectants or by a combination of both. Usually IMMs are formulated based on hurdle
(combination) concept (growth of yeasts and moulds is controlled by an antimycotic agent such
as sorbic acid). It is also possible to keep the aw level higher than 0.85 when the pH value is
lowered to 5.0.

Humectants: Traditionally salt or sugars have been used as humectants (the traditional
example of intermediate moisture meat product is the fully dried fermented sausage). In
modern formulations glycerol is the major humectant, being soluble, relatively stable, non-

57
volatile and almost free of colour and odour. The most common humectant mixture is made up
of glycerol, salt, glycine and lactic acid towards lowering aw level as well as the pH value besides
the appraisal of organoleptic value.

Method: The method involves the soaking of foods in an infusion solution of higher osmotic
pressure so that after equilibration its aw is lowered to a desired level. Lean meat is cut into
strips of about 1 cm in volume and is immersed in about one and a half times their weight of
infusion solution (contains 10% NaCl, 0.5 % antimycotic agent and sufficient glycerol 33-40%) to
achieve a aw of 0.85- 0.86. The mixture is heated to 70oC for 15 minutes and subsequently held
for 15 hours at room temperature for equilibration, the meat pieces are surface dried and
stored in plastic bags. These products are shelf stable for several months and can be eaten
without rehydration.

Hurdle Technology

Food preserved by combined methods (hurdles) remains stable and safe even without
refrigeration, and is high in sensory and nutritive value due to the gentle process applied.
Hurdle technology is the term often applied when foods are preserved by a combination of
processes. The hurdle includes temperature, water activity, redox potential, modified
atmosphere, preservatives, etc. The concept is that for a given food the bacteria should not be
able to “jump over” all of the hurdles present, and so should be inhibited. If several hurdles are
used simultaneously, a gentle preservation could be applied, which nevertheless secures stable
and safe foods of high sensory and nutritional properties. This is because different hurdles in a
food often have a synergistic (enhancing) or additive effect.

For instance, modified foods may be designed to require no refrigeration and thus save energy.
On the other hand, preservatives (e.g., nitrite in meats) could be partially replaced by certain
hurdles (such as water activity) in a food. Moreover, a hurdle could be used without affecting
the integrity of food pieces (e.g., fruits) or in the application of high pressure for the
preservation of other foods (e.g., juices). Hurdle technology is applicable both in large and small
food industries. In general, hurdle technology is now widely used for food design in making new
products according to the needs of processors and consumers. For instance, if energy
preservation is the goal, then energy consumption hurdles such as refrigeration can be replaced
by hurdles (aw, pH, or Eh) that do not require energy and still ensure a stable and safe product.

Control of temperature

The cold method is the basis of the great industry of refrigeration for the preservation of food.
The following are the general principles of mechanical and chemical systems used in the
production of cold:

58
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS

There are five basic components of a refrigeration system, these are:

 Evaporator
 Compressor
 Condenser
 Expansion Valve
 Refrigerant; to conduct the heat from the product
In order for the refrigeration cycle to operate successfully each component must be present
within the refrigeration system.
The Evaporator

The purpose of the evaporator is to remove unwanted heat from the product, via the liquid
refrigerant. The liquid refrigerant contained within the evaporator is boiling at a low-pressure.
The level of this pressure is determined by two factors:

 The rate at which the heat is absorbed from the product to the liquid
refrigerant in the evaporator
 The rate at which the low-pressure vapor is removed from the evaporator by
the compressor

To enable the transfer of heat, the temperature of the liquid refrigerant must be lower than the
temperature of the product being cooled. Once transferred, the liquid refrigerant is drawn from
the evaporator by the compressor via the suction line. When leaving the evaporator coil the
liquid refrigerant is in vapor form.

The Compressor

The purpose of the compressor is to draw the low-temperature, low-pressure vapor from the
evaporator via the suction line. Once drawn, the vapor is compressed. When vapor is
compressed it rises in temperature. Therefore, the compressor transforms the vapor from a
low-temperature vapor to a high-temperature vapor, in turn increasing the pressure. The vapor
is then released from the compressor in to the discharge line.

The Condenser

The purpose of the condenser is to extract heat from the refrigerant to the outside air. The
condenser is usually installed on the reinforced roof of the building, which enables the transfer
of heat. Fans mounted above the condenser unit are used to draw air through the condenser
coils. The temperature of the high-pressure vapor determines the temperature at which the
condensation begins. As heat has to flow from the condenser to the air, the condensation
59
temperature must be higher than that of the air; usually between - 12°C and -1°C. The high-
pressure vapor within the condenser is then cooled to the point where it becomes a liquid
refrigerant once more, whilst retaining some heat. The liquid refrigerant then flows from the
condenser in to the liquid line.

The Expansion Valve

Within the refrigeration system, the expansion valve is located at the end of the liquid line,
before the evaporator. The high-pressure liquid reaches the expansion valve, having come from
the condenser. The valve then reduces the pressure of the refrigerant as it passes through the
orifice, which is located inside the valve. On reducing the pressure, the temperature of the
refrigerant also decreases to a level below the surrounding air. This low-pressure, low-
temperature liquid is then pumped in to the evaporator.

Methods: In commercial refrigeration these principles are applied by two general processes:

1. Mechanical Refrigeration: In this process, the refrigerant, coming from the evaporator
in gaseous state, is compressed with a resultant and considerable rise in temperature.
The hot compressed gas now enters a series of high pressure coils, contained in the
pressure cylinder called the condenser where they are reduced to liquid. The liquid gas
refrigerant still under pressure is led to the evaporator consisting of series of low
pressure coils which may be arranged in different ways. The temperature of the
evaporator reaches –20 to –50oC.
2. Ammonia absorption system or Chemical Refrigeration: In this process, use is made of
the large absorptive power of water for ammonia (1 volume of water can absorb 500-
1000 volumes of ammonia). Ammonia gas passes through the evaporator into the
absorber, where absorption takes place leading to low pressure. This passes into the
generator where heat is applied and ammonia is driven off as gas and there is a
considerable increase in the pressure. This hot gas then passes through the condenser
where it is converted to liquid by cooling, followed by expansion in the evaporator
leading to decrease in temperature and cooling thereof.

The preservative action is by lowering the temperature to prevent the multiplication of harmful
bacteria, yeasts and moulds. At a temperature of -8oC the multiplication of all microorganisms
stops and only resumes when the temperature is raised later to a suitable level, and this is due
to removal of available water as ice. The surface growth of moulds on meat is controlled not

60
only by the temperature but also by the relative humidity of the atmosphere and so prevention
of moulds calls for reduction of both temperature and relative humidity.

The refrigeration has two principles;

1. To preserve meat at temperatures low enough to prevent the growth and multiplication
of spoilage organisms.
2. To avoid slow freezing which alters the texture of meat when thawed and lowers its
keeping quality and marketability.

Refrigeration usually begins with chilling of the carcass shortly after slaughter. The temperature
utilized in refrigerating chambers falls into two categories according to temperature - Chilling
and Freezing., though good air circulation, right humidity and constant temperature range are
common features.

CHILLING

It refers to holding of the meat just above the freezing point (-1.5oC) at about –1oC. The cold
temperature method is the simplest method of preservation of foods. Efficient refrigeration can
preserve meat in the condition approaching its natural state for commercial requirements, its
appearance, weight and flavour are little altered and no substance is added to meat nor
anything extracted. At the completion of slaughter, the internal temperature of the animal
carcass generally ranges between 30-39oC. This body heat must be removed during initial
chilling and the internal temperature of the thickest part should be reduced to 5 oC of less. In
order to preserve the quality, bloom and weight of meat, it is highly desirable to begin
refrigeration as soon as possible after slaughter

Chilling scarcely affects flavour, appearance or nutritional value of meat and is

particularly useful for short term handling. The meat is maintained at about -1oC and preferably
in dark, for light accelerates the oxidation of fat with the liberation of free fatty acids and
production of rancidity. The atmosphere is kept dry to hinder the mould growth, which is more
common in chilling than freezing.

The temperature in the chill room is between –1 to 5o C. in chilling of meat three main factors
need consideration- temperature, relative humidity and air speed. As per the EEC, meat should
be stored at 7o C and offal at 3o C. The temperature during the initial stages of chilling should
be  7o C and air speed  0.75 m/second and at the final stages a temperature of about –1 to
2o C with an air speed of 0.75 m/second is considered optimum. The relative humidity should
be maintained between 85-90 % so that losses due to shrinkage can be kept minimal during
storage.

61
Factors affecting chilling rate:

1. Specific heat of meat which depends on the lean : fat ratio ( Pork- 0.51-0.57, Veal – 0.70
to 0.77), carcass size and the amount of external fat.
2. Temperature of the chilling environment
3. Number of carcasses placed in the chill room and the space between each carcass for
efficient air circulation.
4. Speed of the air.

In recent years, emphasis has been placed on shorter chilling cycles and lower temperature
called Quick Chilling. This refers to a rapid lowering of carcass temperature not later than 1
hour after slaughter and avoid freezing. This process has the advantages of saving time and
space, better keeping quality because of low air temperature, substantial reduction in shrinkage
and enhancement of bloom. The major disadvantage being that at low temperature and high
air speed a condition called Cold Shortening occurs. It is the toughness of meat owing to
extreme contraction of muscles when they are subjected to temperature of around -10 o C
when the muscles were in pre-rigor state ( pH still above 6.2 and ATP still present in the
muscle). Cold shortening is caused by the release of stored calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic
reticulum of muscle fibers in response to the cold stimulus. The calcium ions trigger powerful
muscle contraction aided by ATP molecules This shortening can occur in the entire carcass or in
parts of the carcass.

Prevention:

1. Delay the process of chilling for 10-12 hours when the pH will be below 6.2 and rigor
would have taken place with complete disappearance of ATP.
2. Use of Electrical Stimulation (ES): The effect of ES is to advance the process of rigor and
producing a pH of 6.0 in 2-3 hours after slaughter. Pulses of electricity are passed
through the carcass immediately after slaughter, the current causing the muscles to
contract and there by use up the glycogen, ATP and Creatine phosphate, the depletion
of which initiates rigor mortis. The ES unit may be placed on the dressing line between
the evisceration and the carcass splitting point. High voltage of 500-1000 V, 5-6 amps
current, 25 cycles/second for 2 seconds 30 minutes after slaughter or low voltage of less
than 100V (60-90V) for 15-30 seconds can be applied.

Expected storage life of different meats at -1 oC

62
 Type of meat Storage life
Beef 3 weeks
Veal 1-3 weeks
Lamb 10-15 days
Pork 1-2 weeks
Edible offals 7 days
Rabbit 5 days

Physical changes in chilled meat:

Meat undergoes certain physical changes as a result of chill storage:

1. Shrinkage: Shrinkage or loss of weight occurs as a result of evaporation of moisture from

the surface of the meat during the process of storage. A freshly killed carcass dissipates
body weight slowly, losing about 1.5-2.0 % of weight during 1st 24 hours of storage due to
evaporation. The rate of loss is dependent on the temperature, Relative humidity and air
velocity in the chill room. High temperature, drier air and low RH in the chill room causes
much higher shrinkage. Hence maintenance of low temperature with RH of 85-90% and air
velocity of 0.75 m/second during initial stages and 0.5m/second during final stages of
storage (Once the temperature gradient between the meat surface and air narrows the
speed must be reduced to avoid moisture loss) will help reduce shrinkage.

2. Sweating: This denotes the condensation of water vapor on the meat especially chilled
meat when taken out of the chill room and kept at room temperature. The condensation
occurs because the chilled carcass lowers the temperature of the surrounding air to below
its dew point and thereby water condenses on the surface, which encourages microbial
growth.

3. Loss of Bloom: Bloom is defined as the color and general appearance of the carcass surface
when viewed through the semitransparent layers of connective tissue, muscle and fat,
which forms the carcass surface. The moisture in tissues due to condensation or excess RH
in the chillers causes the collagen fibers in the tissue to swell and they become opaque and
hence the meat surface assumes a dull and lifeless appearance. This loss of bloom may also
be caused by undue oxidation but can be prevented by avoiding temperature fluctuation,
RH and appropriate air velocity in the chill room.

FREEZING

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It refers to storage of meat or meat products below its freezing point. The basic principle
behind is to reduce the water available to the microbes by ice crystal formation and also by
lowering the temperature to a very low level where their growth is retarded.

Freezing has been recognized as an excellent method for preservation of meat. It results in
fewer undesirable changes in qualitative and organoleptic properties of meat than other
storage methods and in addition most of the nutritive value of meat is retained during freezing
and throughout the freezer storage. The outstanding and unfavorable changes that take place
following freezing of meat are:

1. When temperature goes below -2oC, the ice crystals formed raise the concentration of
globulin and albumin proteins so that they become insoluble and their solubility does
not get regained when the meat is thawed. This is the same irreversible change which
happens when the eggs are frozen.
2. The freezing point of meat lies between -1 and -1.5oC when ice crystals begin to form.

At -1.5oC 35.5% of muscles water becomes ice.

-5oC 82% water in the muscle becomes ice
-8oC 90% water is frozen
-10oC 94% water frozen
-20oC 98% water is frozen

During freezing the water present in the muscle fibers diffuses from the sarcoplasm to form
crystals of ice. The speed of freezing has an important bearing on the size of the crystals and
future quality of the product. Depending on the freezing rate, freezing process can be classified
as:
1. Fast freezing: Rapid heat transfer is required for fast freezing and may be accomplished
by extremely low temperature (-40oC), rapid air movement or direct contact with
freezing medium at intermediate temperature. Here the temperature is lowered to
about -18oC within 30 minutes. Numerous ice crystals with filament like appearance are
formed both in intra and extra cellular space at approximately same speed. Because of
the rapid heat transfer small ice crystals formed have little opportunity to grow in size
and also very little translocation of water and most of the water inside the muscle
freezes intracellularly and so drip losses during thawing are minimal. The muscle fiber
shrinkage and distortion are minimized in fast freezing and since the ice crystals are
smaller and more numerous they reflect more light and hence the colour appears
lighter.

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 2. Slow freezing: In this process the temperature of the meat product remains near the
initial freezing point for an extended period of time. As a result freezing boundary
forms and proceeds slowly from exterior to interior. Extracellular water freezes more
readily than the intracellular water because of its lower solute concentration. As
extracellular ice formation proceeds the remaining unfrozen extracellular fluid
increases in ionic strength and draws water osmotically from the super cooled interior
of the muscle cell. This freezes on to the existing ice crystals, causing them to grow thus
distorting and damaging the fiber. Migration of water from intra to extracellular space
occurs and because of longer time available these small crystals formed coalesces to
form large ice crystals, which are more extracellular. Drip losses are more on thawing.

Methods of Freezing:

Several commercial methods are available:

1. Still air freezing: In this the air is the heat transfer medium. This method is entirely
dependent on convection and the meat freezes slowly. Home freezer units and
refrigerator freezer units operate on this principle. Temperature commonly used ranges
from –10 to –30o C.
2. Plate freezing: The heat transfer medium is metal and heat transfer occurs by
conduction. Trays containing meat are placed directly in contact with metal freezer
plates or shelves. This method is generally limited to thin pieces such as steaks, chops,
fillets and patties. The freezing rates are faster compared to still air freezing and the
temperature commonly used ranges from –10 to –30 o C.
3. Blast freezing: The most commonly used commercial method for freezing meat
products is cold air blast freezing in rooms or tunnels equipped with fans to provide
rapid air movement. Heat transfer medium is air, but because of its rapid movement
rate of heat transfer is greater and hence freezing is faster. Proper spacing and stacking
of meat on pallets or shelved racks in blast freezer is important for rapid and efficient
freezing Temperature: -10 to –40oC Air Velocity: 30 to 1070 meters/minute (mpm).
Commercially –30 o C with air velocity of 760 mpm is employed.
4. Liquid immersion or spray: Most widely used method for freezing of poultry and some
fish products. Products to be frozen are placed in plastic bags, stacked on pallets or
shelves and either immersed in liquids or moved through the liquid by conveyors. In
other application the products are conveyed through closed freezing cabinet where cold
liquid is continuously sprayed on the product surface. After the product is removed from
the cabinet the freezing liquid is removed by cold water wash. The liquids used should
be non-toxic, relatively inexpensive, have low viscosity, low freezing point and high heat

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 conductivity. Liquids generally used include Sodium chloride brine, glycerol and glycol
(propylene glycol).
5. Cryogenic freezing: This is very low temperature freezing and is done by use of
condensed or liquefied gases. Meat frozen by this method has excellent qualitative
characteristics but the cost involved is very high. These agents are applied either as
immersion or liquid spray or as cryogenic vapor on to the product. Most commonly used
cryogenic agents are Nitrogen (liquid/vapour) and Carbon dioxide (liquid under pressure
or snow).

Durability of frozen meat: The condition under which the frozen meat is stored is an important
factor for maintaining quality. The length of time frozen meat may be stored depends upon
species, type of product, freezer temperature, temperature fluctuation and quality of wrapping
material. In general rates of chemical deterioration are greatly reduced by freezing, but
reactions such as oxidative rancidity continues slowly even in frozen state.

The amount of time meat may be held in frozen state, while maintaining acceptable
quality, depends on the degree of saturation of meat fats. Fish, poultry and pork fats are highly
unsaturated than beef and lambs and hence are highly susceptible to oxidative rancidity.
Frozen meat stored too long becomes dry, rancid and less palatable, the most important
change being the breakdown of the fat into free fatty acids with the production of rancidity. It is
generally accepted that frozen beef has the longest storage life and frozen pork the shortest.
The processing state of meat also influences the storage period. Products containing salts
generally have shorter frozen storage life because salt enhances development of rancidity.

The main factors ensuring the best results in the storage of frozen meat are controlled
humidity and unchanging temperature. With regard to the storage temperature of frozen beef -
12.5oC or slightly above is considered suitable commercially, but -18 to -15oC is preferred. Pork
for long storage is held at temperatures of -12 to -24oC the lower one being essential for 6
months storage without rancidity and discoloration of the cut surfaces.

PRACTICAL STORAGE LIFE (in months) OF FROZEN CARCASS MEAT:

Meat -18oC -25oC -30oC

Beef 12 18 24
Lamb 09 12 24
Pork 06 12 15
Poultry 04 08 10
Edible offals 04 - -

Changes in frozen stored meat:

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1. Weep or Drip: Weep denotes the presence of a watery, blood stained fluid, which escapes
from frozen meat on thawing. It consists mainly of water together with salts, extractives,
proteins and damaged blood corpuscles, the latter are responsible for the pink coloration of the
fluid and readily recognizable on microscopic examination. It is an undesirable feature and is
caused by partly by the rupture of the muscles and the tissues by the large crystals of ice and
partly by the permanent irreversible changes in the sarcoplasm which prevent frozen muscles
from reabsorbing water on thawing.

As the time of freezing increases structural damage to muscles also increases. It is

important that as the time to freeze (time to pass between –1 and –7oC) decreased below 15 to
20 min, the extent of drip decreased rapidly, this being associated with increasing proportions
of intracellular ice formation with times of freezing and between 20 to 200 min the amount of
drip was appreciable and associated with extracellular ice formation. The extent of drip is
determined by two factors, the ratio of cut surface of the meat (higher the surface area greater
the drip) and the rate of freezing (slow or fast freezing). The amount of drip is greater in beef
than in mutton, lamb or pork.

2. Freezer burn: During freezer storage an excessive loss of moisture from meat surface will
result in localized area of dehydration and discoloration. This condition is known as freezer
burn and is characterized by corklike texture and gray to tan color. This occurs on the outer
surface of the frozen offals, particularly livers and kidneys and is attributed to loss of moisture
from the outer tissues and is manifested in the form of whitish or amber colored patches
following the sublimation of ice crystals in the atmosphere of the cold storage. It can result
when wrapping materials have been punctured or when waterproof wrapping is not used.
Improper maintenance of temperature, with frequent cycles of partial defrosting followed by
refreezing during storage also contributes to freezer burn. During freezer burn the protein gets
denatured and hence rehydration is poor. Meat with severe freezer burn is dry and tasteless
and results in oxidation of myoglobin to met myoglobin and surface fat gets oxidized giving a
bitter flavor.

3. Bone darkening: it is a condition induced by freezing and thawing young chicken, especially
fryers. After freezing and thawing the muscle area adjacent to bones exhibit a bloody
appearance in the uncooked state. This red coloration is due to haemoglobin that has leached
out from the bone marrow of relatively porous bones of young chicken. Upon cooking, the
hemoglobin is oxidized and converted to met hemoglobin, causing dark brown or gray
discoloration. This discoloration is generally seen around the thighbones, leg, knee joints, and
wing second joints. This can be prevented by pre-cooking before freezing of such young birds.

4. Brine staining: Calcium chloride is used more commonly now days for chilling or freezing of
meat than brine. The term brine staining is applied to contamination by either of these liquids.

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Meat stored in refrigeration chambers with imperfect joints or leakage’s in the circulating
system may become partly covered with calcium chloride, which produces a characteristic dull
or pale greenish color on the carcass surface. The staining frequently penetrates and darkens
the muscular tissue, which acquires an extremely bitter taste. Brine staining can be easily
differentiated from staining of meat by seawater since the latter gives a salty and not bitter
taste and there will be no pale green discoloration. The affected carcasses can safely be
released after trimming.

Effect of freezing on pathogenic micro organisms and parasites:

Freezing destroys some bacteria but in case of others low temperature merely inhibits their
growth and multiplication until conditions favorable to their growth to reappear. Freezing is
therefore of no great value in rendering a carcass affected with pathogenic bacteria safe for
human consumption nor are the bacteria commonly found on beef carcasses are destroyed by
slow or sharp freezing.

Anthrax bacilli can withstand a temperature of -130oC while Salmonella can withstand
exposure to -175oC for 3 days and tubercle bacilli have been found alive after two years in
carcasses frozen at -10oC. FMD virus can remain viable for 76 days and the virus of swine fever
may remain infected in the bone marrow at least for 73 days and the virus has been shown to
be viable in frozen pork for 1500 days. Freezing is however a valuable method for the treatment
of meat affected with certain parasitic infections. Pork affected with Cysticercus cellulosae can
be rendered safe if held for four days at –10.5 to -8oC. Beef with Cysticercus bovis can be
rendered by holding for three weeks at a temperature not exceeding -6.5oC or for two weeks at
temperature not higher than -10.5oC. Trichinella cysts in pork are destroyed by holding the
carcass for 20 days at -15oC or by quick freezing for 24 hours at -18oC.

Identification and inspection of frozen meat

The identification of frozen meat in the form of carcasses and quarters presents little difficulty;
this difficulty is increased when the carcasses have been cut into retail size. Fresh meat
possesses a bloom or natural colour, which is lacking in frozen meat. The bulk of the frozen
meat arrives in quarters and so there is a stale cut quartering surface. Home killed beef has a
cold, dry characteristic sheen on the surface, where as chilled beef is cold and damp and is
without this sheen. Frozen beef is cold, moist, possess no sheen and on thawing exhibits
considerable amount of weeping or drip. The muscular tissue is a bright red color in home killed
beef, a bright red but occasionally a slaty blue in chilled and pale red in frozen beef. The

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amount of drip is least in home killed beef, greater in chilled and most abundant in frozen beef.
So much so the shrinkage in weight is proportional to the amount of drip.

Home killed meat turns green on decomposing; this green coloration is rare in chilled or
frozen meat, which tends to decompose from the external surface with the production of
superficial blackish areas and slimy erosions. A characteristic feature of frozen mutton and lamb
is the ragged dirty appearance and gray color of the carcass surface, which is the marked
distinction to the light sheen on the surface of home killed mutton or lamb. This ragged skin
called bark, is usually trimmed from mutton before they are exposed for retail sales. Frozen
pork has a darker skin than the home killed pork and its muscle is pale and the fat is harder.

THERMAL TREATMENT

Principles of Heat transfer: Conventional method of thermal processing involves heat transfer
by conduction, convection and radiation. Heating by conduction involves direct heat transfer
from particle to particle without use of medium other than the product itself. Convection
heating involves heat transfer by mass movement of heated particles in medium such as air,
steam or water. Heating by radiation is transfer of heat energy through space. The rate of heat
transfer is dependent on various factors:

 Temperature differential between the product and the heat source

 Length of time heat is applied
 Specific heat of the product and its thermal conductivity- meat with more fat has lower
specific heat and hence requires less heat. Fluids and semi-fluids transfers heat energy
faster than solids because heat transfer occurs by both conduction and convection.

Methods of thermal processing:

1. CANNING: Canning may be defined as process of preservation of foods in sealed containers

and usually implies heat as principle factor in prevention of spoilage. The principles of canning
was given by Nicholas Appert (Father of Canning) and hence this process is also called as
Appertization.

Thermal Death Time (TDT): The time required at certain temperature to kill specified number
of organisms under specific conditions.

D-value (Decimal Reduction Time): It is the time taken at a constant temperature to reduce the
surviving bacteria in a suspension to 10 % of their original numbers.

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F-value (Farenheit value): The time in minutes required to destroy the organism in a specified
medium at 250oF (121.5oC) or TDT at 250oF. F value of Cl. botulinum is 2.45 minutes. The effect
of any thermal processing is measured against the activity of the spores of Cl. botulinum, the
most heat resistant pathogenic form known.

12-D Concept: Thermal schedule to reduce 1012 Cl. botulinum organism to 1 per ml or heat
treatment to reduce Cl. botulinum spores by a factor of 10 12 or process enough to reduce or
cause lethality of 1012 spores to 1 spore per ml.

If pH less than 4.5, Clostridium spores don’t germinate and hence less treatment may be
applied but meat has a pH of 5.5-6.0 and hence sufficient heat should be applied.

Classification of foods based on the acidity:

 Low acid foods: pH of 5.3 and above (meat, fish, poultry, peas and corn).
 Medium acid foods: pH of 5.3-4.5 (Spinach, Beet root)
 Acid foods: pH of 4.5-3.7 (Tomatoes, pears and pineapple).
 High acid foods: pH below 3.7 (Sauerkraut, berries).
Higher the acidity of foods lower the heat treatment required during processing.

Formation of cans: For meat purpose, metallic cans (tin) are used. The main body is
constructed of mild steel with a thin coating of tin representing 1.5% of the can weight. Coating
of steel plate is necessary to prevent corrosion. Lacquer is an organic material applied as an
inner layer of coating over the tin layer. Unsightly staining (Sulphiding) may occur on surface of
certain food stuffs and can be prevented by phenolic meat lacquer or sulphur resistant lacquer.

Types of can: Sanitary or open top can, double seamed cans, Pullman base, pear shaped and
oblong cans.

Canning operation:

The foods to be canned must be clean and of good quality, the use of any material showing
obvious signs of spoilage will result in deterioration of quality of the product. The various
processes involved in canning are:

1. Preparation of meat and gravy: Meat is deboned and 4 cm meat chunks are prepared.
Fatty cuts are not generally canned, whereas meat from older animals and lean meat
are preferred for canning. Meat gravy is prepared using condiments, tomatoes, dry
spices, salt etc.

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 2. Precooking: Meat and gravy both are precooked at 70°C for 15 minutes. It causes
inevitable shrinkage of meat chunks and reduces the initial microbial load.
3. Filling of cans: Cans may be filled either manually or by automatic machinery. It is
important that correct weight is filled in each can. Overfilling may result in under
cooking and distortion of can’s seam, whereas under filling may result in air pockets,
which may interfere with heat transfer by conduction during processing.
4. Exhausting: It is the removal of air from the cans before sealing. The purpose of
exhaustion are:
 Prevent expansion of contents during processing
 To produce concave can ends so that any internal pressure is readily detectable
 Lower the amount of oxygen in the can and prevent discoloration of foods.

Exhaustion and sealing are simultaneous process and is done by two methods:

a) Heat Exhausting: In this contents are filled cold into the cans, then passed into steam
heated chamber before sealing
b) Vaccum Exhausting (Vaccumizing): In this cold materials are filled into the cans, which
are then placed in a vacuum machine and can be subjected to high vaccum before the
sealing operation.

4. Retorting or Heat Processing: This is an important step in canning process which ensures
killing of pathogens and their spores and increases the shelf life and cooks the product. In
non-acid foods like meat, the destruction of bacterial spores is slow, the temperature of
about 115oC are required within a practical time limit. The cans can be placed in retorts and
processed by pressurized steam.

Retorts: There are three types of retort available for processing heat processing.

a) Non-agitating: Most commonly used for canning of meat products. It is a steel cabinet
with stacks/ racks to hold the cans. The retort is covered by a lid to generate sufficient
pressure. Steam is the heating medium and is used for cooking canned material. These
retorts have an operating pressure of 15-16 psi.
b) Agitating Retorts: This has the provision for agitation of cans during processing. This
results in shorter processing schedule due to faster rate of heat transfer.
c) Hydrostatic retorts: It is so called because the steam pressure is maintained by water
pressure. This has two chambers- Water and Steam chamber. The temperature of water
in chamber varies from 15oC to 126.6oC. Canned materials in the cans are arranged in
conveyor belts and are passed through the hot water chamber. They are initially
exposed to a temperature of 82-83oC and as the can moves down the chamber it is
exposed to high water temperature of 98-100oC and hence the product temperature

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 increases. It is then passed into the steam chamber and is exposed to temperature of
112-115.5oC. the duration depends on the type of food and the cans used. The major
disadvantage is high cost of initial investment.

5. Cooling: Prompt cooling after processing is important as it checks the action of heat and
prevents undue change in texture and color in addition to considerable reduction in internal
pressure in cans which builds in during processing. The cans may be placed in cold water
shower or pressure cooled in retorts. Water used should be of potable quality and
sometimes chlorinated water can be used as surface decontamination. In commercial
practice cans are water cooled at 30oC.

6. Can Washing: Cans that have just been cooled are dirty and greasy outside and therefore
are washed in bath with soap or saturated with fatty alcohol and rinsed.

7. External Lacquering: This is done using enamel (Color varnish) containing vegetable or
synthetic resins. This is done to prevent external corrosion of outside metal (Mild steel).

8. Labeling and handling: The cans can be labeled with labels containing the ingredients, date
of manufacture, storage condition, manufacturers address and expiry date. Excess manual
handling needs to be prevented, which can act as a source of, can contamination with
microbes around the seal area or the seam.

Commercial Canned Meat products:

1. Corned Beef: This is a popular product in the west. Beef is pickled by application of salt,
sugar, nitrite etc., After pickling it is boiled for 1 hour (par boiling) and external cartilage and fat
removed. Then it is filled and canning proceeds. The cooking schedule depends on the type of
can used for processing.

453 grams tin - 104.6 C for 2.5 hours

2.7 Kg tin - 105.5 C for 5 hours
6.3 Kg tin - 108.3 C for 6 hours.

2. Canned Hams: Ham packed in double seamed container, sealed manually by hand soldering
machine and cooked at 93.5 C for several hours. It is not retorted.

Spoilage of Canned Foods:

Spoiled cans show obvious abnormalities such as distortion, blowing, concave ends or slightly
constricted ends or sometimes may be normal.

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1. Swell or Blower: A can with its ends bulged by positive internal pressure due to gas
generated by microbial or chemical activity.
2. Flipper: A can with normal appearance and one end flips out when the can is struck against
solid object, but snaps back to normal under light pressure.
3. Springer: A can in which one end bulged but can be pushed back to normal whereupon the
opposite end bulges.
4. Microbial Spoilage: Insufficient processing and post-process contamination’s are
responsible for unsoundness of canned products.

 Flat Souring: Production of sour odour of food stuffs especially those containing sugars or
starches and meat products such as sausages and is caused by thermophilic organisms such
as Bacillus coagulans, B. Stearothermophilus and B. cirulans which attack carbohydrates
and produce acid but not gas.
5. Chemical Spoilage:

 Hydrogen Swell: Imperfection or scratches in tin layer may expose the steel and when it
comes in contact with acids in food, it reacts and produces hydrogen gas in the cans
following internal corrosion.
 Purple Staining: This occurs on the inner surface of the can containing foods especially liver,
Kidney, and tongue. It is due to the breakdown of sulphur containing proteins by
thermophilic sulphur stinker Clostridium nigrificans, producing hydrogen sulphide resulting
in formation of thin layer of sulphur on the inner surface of the can.
6. Other changes: This involves rust or damage, which can be due to exposure to hygroscopic
environment or damage due to handling.

Retort pouching

The retort pouch is a flexible laminated food package that can withstand thermal processing. It
has the advantage of offering the shelf stability of metal cans, coupled with the texture and
nutrient value associated with frozen foods. The retort pouch has been considered the most
significant advance in food packaging, and has the potential to become a feasible alternative to
the metal can and glass jar.

The retort pouch has a number of advantages compared to a metal can.

1. The thin profile permits a reduced heating time and thus less of a chance to overcook
the product while producing better color, firmer texture and less nutrient loss. The
pouch (because of its thinner profile) transfers heat faster to its critical point.

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 2. Some pouches have an easy to open notch that eliminates the requirements for can
openers and reduces the risk of cuts.
3. Labels can be printed into the laminate, making them permanent.
4. Flexible pouches are easier to distribute and therefore have lower transportation costs
and require less disposal space.
5. Storage space for empty flexible pouches is also reduced.

The retort pouch system has disadvantages in processing.

1. The first obstacle is that processors often require a large capital investment for the
unique machinery. Filling is slower and more complex compared to metal can lines.
2. The thermal process is complex due to the number of critical processing parameters
which must be monitored (e.g., residual air, pouch thickness, steam/air mixture). Also,
special racking systems may need to be set up in order to provide optimal heating media
flow and prevent pouch to pouch contact.
3. Since pouches are more easily punctured they may require over wrapping for
distribution.
4. Specialized equipment such as a burst tester or a tensile tester is required for leak
detection and container integrity evaluation.

Characteristics essential to a satisfactory retort pouch are:

 Low gas permeability (oxygen)

 Low moisture permeability
 Low hydrophilic properties
 Heat sealable and sterilizable
 Resistant to penetration by fats, oils and other food components
 Physical strength to resist physical abuse during packing, retorting, storage and
distribution (i.e., tearing, pin-holing, fatigue, impact and abrasion)
 Bonding materials for the laminates must not migrate into the foods.
 High light barrier.

Pouch Laminates

Most retort pouches are constructed with a 4-ply laminate consisting of a polyester outside
layer (High temperature resistance, toughness and printability), a nylon 2nd layer (Abrasion
resistant), an aluminum foil 3rd layer (Barrier to light, gases and odor) , and a polypropylene
inside layer (good heat seal surface, flexibility, strength, food compatibility) . Some pouch
material has polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC or SARAN), ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) or nylon

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instead of the aluminum foils in the middle layer. The components of the laminate are held
together with adhesive, such as ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA). Each component performs a
specific function that is critical to product shelf life stability and container integrity.

Direct Microbial Inhibition

IRRADIATION:

Irradiation as a method of preservation involves the application of Ionizing radiation to the

products. Ionizing radiation is defined as radiation having energy sufficient to cause loss of
electrons from atoms to produce ions. Recently Irradiation has been recognized as an
important food safety and preservation technology. Rays with shorter wavelength have a high-
energy content and those with long wavelength have low energy content. Electromagnetic
radiation with longer wavelength such as UV rays, Infra red waves and radio waves are non-
ionizing.

Sources of ionizing radiation and safety of irradiated foods:

The types of radiations legally and internationally permitted are:

a) Gamma rays from the nuclides of cobalt-60 and Cesium 137 with maximum energy of
1.33 MeV and 0.66 MeV, respectively.
b) X-rays generated from machine sources operated at or below on energy level of 5 MeV.
c) Electrons generated from machine sources operate at or below the energy level of 10
MeV

Mode of Action: Irradiation is ionizing of molecules due to the energy in the form of continuous
waves emitted and propagated by the material medium. Destruction of microbes happens due
to fragmentation of DNA molecules and ionization of inherent water within the organisms. This
destruction of microbes takes place with out significant raise in temperature and hence, is
referred to as “cold sterilization”.

Preservation of meat by irradiation

To sterilize products so that they are stable during subsequent un-refrigerated storage a dose
of 4.5 Mrad is required. Use of less than the sterilization dose for extending the shelf life of the
product is called Radiation pasteurization.

Expose of meat to ionizing radiation at appropriate doses can have different purposes:

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 1) Radurization: Also referred as radiation pasteurization, and this uses doses less than
that required for sterilisation, typically in the range 1- 10 kGy, as this dosage is sufficient
to kill many soilage organisms and thus can extend shelf life of meat under refrigeration
significantly.
2) Radicidation: It is a process in which doses less than 1kGy are employed to increase
shelf life, prevent sprouting in vegetables and for rendering pork free of Trichinella
spiralis.
3) Radappertization: (doses up to 25-45 KGy) This assures safe and long term storage
without refrigeration by the destruction of spoilage organisms and pathogens including
spore formers and it is called cold sterilization. It also reduces the quantity of nitrites
necessary in curing process.

Precautions to be followed in Radappertization:

The chances of continued activity of autolytic enzymes, oxygen and eventual meat spoilage
besides pathogenic organism have to be curbed, to achieve this goal the following are required

1. The meat should be heated to gain internal temperature of 70-80oC (bacon to 53oc)
to inactivate the intrinsic enzymes,
2. Vaccum seal to keep off oxygen
3. Irradiation should be carried out in frozen (-40 to -20oC) state to minimize the
occurrence of irradiation induced off flavors, off-colours, and textural and nutritive
losses.
4. Treatment of raw materials with 0.25 to 0.50% sodium tripolyphosphate and 0.5-
1.5% sodium chloride to eliminate the dry condition of the final product.
WHO has approved an Irradiation dose upto 7 KGy (0.7 Mrad) as unconditionally safe for
human consumption. Government of India gave approval in April 1988 for radiation processing
of a number of foods including meat, chicken, and their products for domestic marketing and
consumption.

Chemical and Physical Changes due to Ionizing radiation:

1) Colour: When meat is irradiated colour changes occur. At low dosage level these
changes are slight and not detectable. At higher doses, such as sterilizing levels raw
fresh meat usually gets browned. Cooked fresh meat that is normally brown/ Grey in
colour turns pink due to pigment denatured globin hemochrome.
2) Odour and Flavor: The most objectionable change, which occurs in irradiated meat, is
the production of unique odour and flavor. When fresh beef is irradiated, two general
types of odour occurs:

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  Upto dosage of 4 Mrad- odor characteristics of sulphur compound.
 Above dosage of 4 Mrad- Wet grain or Wet dog hair odour is noticeable.

The development of odour is species dependent Pork and chicken develop little
irradiated odor, whereas beef develops strong flavour and veal, lamb, and mutton are
intermediate. Reduction of off flavour and odour can be achieved by reduction or lowering the
temperature of meat during irradiation.

3) Texture: The magnitude of tenderisation is dependent on the dose of irradiation

employed. Increase in dosage has a positive effect on tenderness but is limited to
certain level of dosage above that it decreases.

Non-Ionizing radiation: These can also cause lethal effect on microbes and are useful in meat
preservation.

 Microwaves and Infrared rays: These rays have wavelength greater than the visible light
and are capable of generating heat in irradiated objects and are used in some thermal
and cooking applications. These radiations do not have sufficient energy to cause
ionization and any preservative effect is attributed to heat produced.
 Ultraviolet rays: They can cause death when absorbed by microorganisms, thus they
posses a germicidal effect. However, practical values of UV are limited because of its low
penetrating power and could be used only to sterilize surface of carcasses and meat
products. UV rays also accelerate discoloration of meat and development of rancidity in
fat.

CHEMICAL PRESERVATIVES:

Preservatives are substances, which are added to food with the purpose to retard, inhibit or
arrest the activity of microbes such as fermentation, acidification and decomposition of food.

In India preservatives are grouped under two classes:

 Class I: Preservative substances commonly used. Salt, Sugar, Glucose, Spices, Vinegar or
acetic acid and wood smoke. Their usage in food is not restricted unless otherwise
specified under a particular item.
 Class II: Benzoic acid and its salt, sulphur dioxide and its salts, Nitrates and Nitrites,
propionic acid and its salt, lactic acid and its salt. These substances are included and
their concentrations are restricted and specified under different food products.

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  Propionic acid: Moulds and other highly aerobic microbes are effectively inhibited,
whereas anaerobic Lactic acid bacteria withstand higher concentrations.
 Sorbic acid: Fungistatic agent used in food. Concentrations of 1-2% inhibit growth of
moulds, yeast, and some aerobic bacteria.
 Acetic acid and Lactic acid: Weak bacteriostatic property and hence should be used at
higher concentration.
 Addition of Pediococcus acidilactis in fermented products produces Pediocin, a
bacteriocin, which inhibits the growth of Listeria monocytogenes.
 Antibiotics such as Natamycin (potential fungistat) and Nicin (antimicrobial agent
effective against Gram negative organism) are generally employed in food as
preservative.
 An important objection to inclusion of antibiotics in meat is that, it will create antibiotic
resistant strains of pathogenic bacteria.
 Yet, another objection is that, the antibiotics are ineffective against yeast and moulds.
 There is also the danger that, producer, may be tempted to supplement good ideal
practice under antibiotic cover.
 Chloramphenicol and Streptomycin are somewhat toxic and Penicillin produces
hypersensitivity.
 Streptomycin, polymixin and subtalin have limited anti-bacterial spectra.
 Therefore, preservation of foods using antibiotics has been banned in many countries
due to public health concern.

PACKAGING INNOVATION – METHOD OF MEAT PRESERVATION

Modification of the atmosphere surrounding the meat has a considerable effect in extending
the shelf life of the product. Based on these principal several techniques for retarding microbial
activity in meat are in practice. Some of this includes:

1) Vaccum Packaging
2) Modified Atmospheric Packaging (MAP)
3) Controlled Atmospheric Packaging (CAP)
4) Active Packaging

Vaccum Packaging (VP)

VP extends the shelf life of chilled meat by maintaining an oxygen deficient environment
within the pack since most potent spoilage bacteria are inhibited in normal pH meat under
optimum vaccum condition. The air within the package must be evacuated effectively to
nominal anoxic levels (less than 500 ppm) to prevent irreversible browning due to low levels of

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residual oxygen. The microenvironment within the pack will determine the type of microflora,
which develops. When meat is first vaccum packaged any residual oxygen remaining in the pack
is consumed by meat (tissue respiration) and muscle pigments and carbon dioxide is produced
as end product. Under good vaccum the package headspace contains less than 1 % oxygen and
10-20% carbon dioxide.

During conventional vacuum packaging, product is placed in a package of low O2 permeability,

the air is evacuated and the package is sealed without replacement with another gas mixture.
Over time, an environment containing elevated levels of CO2 will develop as the meat product
and contaminating microorganisms consume residual O2 and produce CO2. The meat is purple
in appearance however and therefore unappealing to many consumers. However, a range of
beef, pork and lamb products in heavily printed and decorated bags, which are vacuum, packed
and put straight on the retail shelf have met with good consumer acceptance. Vacuum-skin
barrier packs are an alternative to conventional vacuum packaging for retail portions. A further
enhancement of this approach is to use special peelable films. In these systems, air is evacuated
and packs are sealed using an O2-permeable film overlaid with a peelable O2-impermeable film
to maintain the oxygen-free environment of the pack. Prior to retail display, the outer
impermeable film is removed and the meat blooms on exposure to air. VP severely restricts the
growth of aerobic microbes such as Pseudomonas and favors the facultative anaerobes such as
Lactobacillus (desirable) and Brochothrix thermosphacta (undesirable).

Type of products: VP can’t be used for meat products sensitive to pressure i.e. very thin slices
of ham packed under vaccum is difficult to separate without damage. VP can be used for thickly
sliced meats and whole pieces of deboned meat.

Pre-requisite for good storage life of VP meat

 Meat produced using Good Manufacturing Procedure (GMP)- Initial microbial load at 0-
5o C should be 102-103/ cm2 or less
 The packaging film should have low oxygen permeability (ml of oxygen/ Sq.m of film/
day/ atmosphere of gas pressure at 25o C and 98 % RH)- preferably it should be 50 ml.
 Good control of temperature during processing and storage.

Microflora of VP meat:

pH (5.5-5.7) pH (6.0 or higher)

Microflora
Oxygen No Oxygen Oxygen No Oxygen

Pseudomonas + - + -
Enterobacteriaceae + - + +

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Brochothrix + - + +
thermosphacta
Lactic acid bacteria + + + +
Aeromonas - - + +
Alteromonas - - + +
putrefaciens

Storage life: VP meat with normal pH of 5.5-6.0 can be stored for 12-14 weeks at 0o C

Effect of VP on meat:

1. Appearance: VP meat is considered unsuitable for red meats for retail display purpose,
since the oxygen depleted atmosphere causes the meat in these packages to be purplish
red colour due to deoxy myoglobin. The appearance of VP meat is also affected by the
accumulation of fluid in the pack called Weep or Drip. Drip accumulates as the meat
losses its capacity to hold water after Rigor mortis has set in and ageing progresses. In
general meat looses about 0.5% of its initial weight as drip in the first three days and
approximately 1-2% is lost over 3 weeks period. The amount of weep depends on the
temperature fluctuation, cut surface exposed and physical handling of meat.

2. Odour: During storage of VP meat any odour emaciating from the meat of from
bacterial growth are trapped inside the pack. The odours are released when the pack is
opened and usually has a strong meaty odour with slight smell of cheese or sour milk.
This odour is called Confinement Odour because they are normal smell of the meat,
which has been confined in the pack.

3. Tenderness and Flavour: Storage of VP meat for longer period of time results in
improved tenderness due to processes involved in meat ageing. The rate of ageing
depends on meat temperature but decreases with storage time. Meat ages within the
pack upto 3 Weeks. The process of vaccum does not have any effect on the ageing
process.

Defects of VP meat:

1. Greening – Aternomonas mephitica- due to production of Sulfmyoglobin

2. Black/ Brown Spot- Saccharomyocopsis lipolytica

Modified Atmospheric Packaging (MAP)

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MAP is the enclosure of food products in highly gas barrier materials in which gaseous
environment has been changed or modified with the objective of slowing down the respiration
rates, reducing the microbial growth and to retard enzymatic spoilage with the intend of
extending shelf life. MAP system most frequently uses mixture of gases, in which each gas has a
specific role in extending the shelf life and maintaining the appearance of the packaged meat.
The composition of gases in the package will determine the extent and type of spoilage that
develops during storage.

The main gases used in MAP are oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Oxygen and carbon
dioxide are of most significance in MAP meat and the relative proportions of each of them
affect changes in meat colour and microbiological quality. When exposed to O 2, fresh meat will
exhibit the bright red colour characterized by oxymyoglobin formation. However, low
concentrations of O2 – around 0.5 to 1% - lead to rapid onset of irreversible browning. These
conditions must be avoided by either keeping the O2 at much higher levels or by excluding it.
The role of CO2 is primarily to inhibit the growth and metabolism of microorganisms. CO 2
selectively inhibits the growth of gram negative spoilage bacteria, and, in doing so, may allow
other bacteria such as lactic acid bacteria to predominate. The lactic acid bacteria cause
spoilage only after extended periods. Nitrogen is used as inert gas filler. It provides no benefit
to the product in terms of bactericidal or bacteriostatic effects but helps maintain the structural
integrity of the package when carbon dioxide is absorbed into the meat. The use of nitrogen
has no direct effect on meat colour.

An important consideration with the use of CO2 in MAP is that it is highly soluble in muscle and
fat tissue. It will dissolve into the meat in an approximate 1:1 ratio (1 litre CO 2 per kg of meat).
The solubility of CO2 is temperature dependent and increases at lower temperatures.

In practice, with packs containing high O2 and moderate CO2, a compromise between that ideal
and a tolerable pack size means ratios are usually somewhat lower. A minimum of 20% CO 2
throughout the storage period should be aimed because the growth rate of the aerobic spoilage
organisms can be reduced by the addition of moderate amounts of CO 2 to the gas mixtures.
When the CO2 content of a gas mixture is about or exceeds 20%, the rate of growth of the
microbial population is approximately halved. Therefore, an atmosphere of around 80% O 2 and
at least 20% CO2 is beneficial for both microbiological quality and meat colour. In practice
atmospheric mixtures of 60-80% O2 and 20-40% CO2 are commonly used.

Lamb : 80% O2 and 20 % Co2

Pork Chops : 67 % O2 and 33 % Co2
Beef : 80 % O2 and 20 % Co2

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The optimum temperature of storage of MAP meat samples ate 0 to 1 oC, which mainly to
prevent microbial spoilage and at the same time the oxygen diffusion rate into the tissues are
greater at low temperature and hence deeper layers of oxy myoglobin can be formed. The shelf
life of MAP meat varies from 10-13 days at 2-4C. The efficiency of MAP depends on the
amount of gas mixture used for filling the packs. Gas mixture should be 1.5- 2 times the volume
of meat.

Packaging Materials

There are six main characteristics to consider when selecting packaging material for MAP foods:

1. Resistance to puncture
2. Sealing reliability
3. Antifogging properties
4. Carbon dioxide permeability
5. Oxygen permeability
6. Water transmission rate

Although an increasing choice of packaging materials is available to the MAP industry, most
packs are still constructed from four basic polymers: polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene
terephthalate (PET), polyproylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE).

Controlled Atmospheric Packaging (CAP)

In MAP the atmosphere is initially altered and then allowed to change over time during storage.
In CAP, the package atmosphere is altered initially and then maintained during the entire
storage period. This can be achieved by complete exclusion of essentially all oxygen from the
package, which requires the use of special evacuation system and totally gas impermeable
packaging material.

If Co2 is the sole component of the input atmosphere, then the quantity of added gas must be
adjusted to assure that the intended atmosphere persists after dissolution of the gas into the
tissues. For chilled meat, the most effective technology to date is high Co2 CAP through optimal
storage temperature (-1.5 C) and use of high gas barrier film.

Active Packaging:

It is an innovative concept that can be defined as a type of packaging that changes the
condition of the package to extend the shelf life or improve safety or sensory properties while
maintaining the quality of the product. Majority of active packaging utilizes substances that

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absorb oxygen (Oxygen Scavengers), moisture, flavour/ odour and those which release Co2,
antimicrobial agents, antioxidants.

1. Oxygen Scavengers (OS): The OS used in the meat industry are based on Iron powder,
which are mixed with acids and/or salts and a humectant. Recent innovation has been
incorporation of these substances into packaging structure itself. Low molecular weight
ingredients are dissolved or dispersed in a plastic or the plastic can be made from
polymeric scavengers. Enzyme systems like glucose oxidase have been employed for this
purpose.
2. Incorporation of anti-microbial into food contact surface packaging material- Sorbate
entrapped films prevents mould growth.
3. Moisture Scavengers: High humidity in packages due to tissue respiration will favor the
growth of yeast and moulds and hence desiccating films containing propylene glycol will
serve the purpose.
4. Carbon dioxide releasing substances

MODERN PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES OF MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS

Meat processing technology comprises the steps and procedures in the manufacture of
processed meat products. Processed meat products, which include various different types and
local/regional variations, are food of animal origin, which contribute valuable animal proteins to
human diets. Animal tissues, in the first place muscle meat and fat, are the main ingredients,
besides occasionally used other tissues such as internal organs, skins and blood or ingredients
of plant origin. All processed meat products have been in one way or another physically and/or
chemically treated. These treatments go beyond the simple cutting of meat into meat cuts or
meat pieces with subsequent cooking for meat dishes in order to make the meat palatable.
Meat processing involves a wide range of physical and chemical treatment methods, normally
combining a variety of methods.

Meat is further processed for the following reasons:

 Modify or upgrade the less noble (less valuable) cuts of meat, together with any edible
trimmings of fat and connective tissue removed from the noble (valuable) cuts ; and to
make the flavour and texture more acceptable to consumers than they would be if
treated only by the simple cooking and serving methods which are appropriate for the
noble (valuable) cuts. (Value addition)
 To provide greater choice to the consumers and make them consume more of the same
product.

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  To provide ready – to cook products or products that require minimal processing
(convenience foods) to the consumer.
 To accord preservation to meat exceptionally as in cured and dried meat products – It is
a rather ironical and debatable reason, because this is not the universal case and it fact,
processing generally makes meat more vulnerable to spoilage, due to increase in surface
area, greater handling and potential for temperature abuse.

Types of Meat Products: Meat products may be classified based on the treatment applied to
meat as,
 Comminuted Meat Products (Comminution)
 Cured Meat Products (Curing)
 Fermented Meat Products (Fermentation)
 Dried Meat Products(Drying)
 Smoked Meat Products (Smoking)
 Enrobed Meat Products. (Enrobing of the product with batter)
 Barbecued/Grilled or Tandoor Products (Type of cooking)
A meat product must have at least 50% of lean meat in it.
Primary factors to be attended in processing of meat,
 Moisture: The natural moisture content of the lean meat, and any liquids added in the
recipe, should be retained to a consistent optimum extent during the manufacturing
process - bearing in mind the interests of both yield and product quality , through the
stages of distribution, storage and eventual cooking by the consumer.
 Fat: The natural fat content of the meat and any extra fat which the product is designed
to incorporate should similarly be retained to a maximum or optimum extent
throughout.
 Connective Tissue: Where the product contains any of the tougher connective tissues,
there should be presented in some more acceptable form Cohesion.
 The product should retain its physical integrity.

Modern processing technologies in comminution of meat:

Comminution of meat (less noble cuts), trimmings from noble cuts of meat, offals and fat result
in the following useful effects:
 Uniformity in size and shape, rendering them more attractive.
 Breaking up of connective tissue making it less obtrusive
 Mincing fat and meat together, so as to make large to moderate to large proportions of
fat less obtrusive
 Comminuted lean meat binds the whole mixture together especially in the presence of
salt.

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  The texture and eating quality of the products are therefore superior to the raw
materials used and are hence more desirable to consumers.
 Comminuted meat products may be further classified as coarsely ground or finely
ground meat products (emulsion based meat products).
 The different technologies utilized in comminution of meat include Mincing, Milling
Chopping, and Flaking.

Mincing

Mincing or grinding, the first step in development

of comminuted meat products usually, is
undertaken in a mincer, which consist of screw
conveyor housed in a chamber, and a rotating inner
plate of knives at one end of the conveyor.

Schematic drawing of grinder/ mincer

Considerable pressure is put on the meat in the screw feed chamber and tearing occurs
between the screw flights and the chamber. Final comminution occurs when portions of the
meat extruded through the rotating inner pate of knives are either passed on through holes in
the fixed outer plate or sheared off as the holes pass out of register. Thus, there is great
tearing, pressure and great shearing and the meat is not cut cleanly or finely. Connective tissue
is fairly well divided in a sharp mincer, but may be troublesome in a blunt one. Minced meat
can be used for development of coarse ground meat products, or may be further chopped in a
bowl chopper to produce emulsion based meat products.

Chopping

Chopping is undertaken in chopper, which are of two types – Rotary Bowl Chopper and
Stationary Chopper.
 A rotary bowl chopper consists of three or more curved knives rotating at high speed in
vertical plane close to the surface of a curved bowl which itself rotates slowly in a
horizontal plane.
 In addition to the vigorous cutting action of the knives, the
massaging effect of the side of the knives on the mass of
chopped meat may be important. Satisfactory chopping
temperatures range from -1 ° C to + 22 ° C. Colder
temperatures lead to damage to knives; while warmer

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 temperatures lead to over chopping of fatty tissue and release of free fat. Advanced
designs possess the property of chopping under vacuum. Chopping is undertaken to
produce the emulsion to manufacture emulsion based meat products.
Bowl cutter, schematic
Flaking

Flaking is undertaken either in an impeller flaker or a block flaker, and flaking is carried out cut
slivers of meat of constant thickness and parallel sides. An impeller flaker consists of an
impeller which propels the motion of the meat fed into the machine, to the sharp edges of
knives arranged in a static ring. The thickness of the slivers can be adjusted by adjusting the ring
of knives. Connective tissue is also cut clean. A block flaker is used to cut slivers of meat from
frozen blocks. The flakes produced are coarse than that of an impeller flaker.

The various technologies involved in hastening the curing of meat by brine cure application is
massaging, tumbling and mixing.

Massaging

Massaging involves frictional energy resulting from meat pieces rubbing together. Meat
massagers are vats that contain a mechanism for the slow stirring of meat pieces. The stirring
arms or paddles are made to set at various configurations. This process is a gentler form of
mechanical energy output and is very suitable for the production of whole muscled cured
products.

Tumbling

Tumbling is a more severe type of physical treatment. Tumbling

involves the use of impact energy resulting from meat pieces
falling and striking baffles or paddles contained in a rotating drum.
Tumbling aids the extraction of proteins as in massaging, and thus
enhances tenderness and juiciness.

Tumbler, schematic

Brine injection

Brine is water containing dissolved salt and curing substances (nitrite) as well as additives such
as phosphates, spices, sugar, carrageenan and/or soy proteins. The injection is done by
introducing pointed needles into the muscle tissue. Brine injection is mainly used for the
various types of ham, bacon and other whole muscle products. Brine injectors are available in

86
different sizes from manually operated single-needle devices for small-scale operations to semi-
automated brine injectors with up to 32 needles and more. In large machines the quantity of
brine injected into the fresh meat can be determined by pre-setting of pressure and speed.

Multi-needle brine injection (principle)

PACKAGING OF MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS

Packaging is the scientific method of containing food products against physical damage,
chemical damage, further microbial contamination and to display the products in the most
attractive manner for consumer preference.

Packaging has an important and significant role to play in the successful marketing of
modern food products. The packages have an eye appeal and can markedly influence the
consumer preferences. It must be emphasized that packaging does not in any way improve the
existing quality of the product, whereas it just helps in maintaining its keeping quality during
storage, transport and provides a convenient means for easy and safe handling by consumers.

Basic functions of food packages are:

1. It contains the food product for ease and safety during transport.
2. Protects product from spillage, evaporation or pilferage losses
3. Protects product from contamination by microbes.
4. Protects products from degradation due to exposure to environmental factors such as light,
heat, moisture and oxygen.
5. Decoration on the exterior serves to attract and persuades the consumer to purchase the
product.
6. Instructions on the packages serve to inform or educate the consumer on the usage of the
product.
7. Labeling on the packages serves to identify the manufacturers brand, quality and quantity
and type of the product.

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The selection of a particular material may be based up on

(1) Cost,
(2) Storage-life requirements,
(3) The desired temperature of storage or
(4) The specific product requirement or characteristics.

Depending upon the meat product, specific packaging properties are necessary for adequate
protection and preservation.

Food packaging material and forms:

Packaging materials used for packing food are broadly classified into two groups:

1. Rigid Packaging material:

a) Cans: Metal cans are primarily used for heat sterilized food products. These are made up
of tin plate or aluminum or tin free steel. Tin cans- made of base sheet of steel with very
thin coating of tin on either side. Tin free steel cans are prepared with base sheet of
steel with a thin coating of chromium metal. The advantages of cans are excellent
strength, excellent machinability, and commercially sterile product preparation. The
disadvantages being more weight and problems of disposal.

b) Glass containers: Bottles, jars, Vials and ampoules.

c) Rigid plastic packages: Thermoformed trays (Foam trays) have many food applications
ranging from meat to egg. Materials used for the preparation include High Density
polyethylene (HDPE), Poly Vinyldene Chloride (PVC), Polystyrene (PS), Polypropylene
(PP) and cellulose acetate.

d) Wooden boxes and crates.

e) Fiberboard and Cardboard boxes.

2. Flexible Packaging materials:

a) Aluminum Foil: Plain aluminum foil in thickness of 0.025 mm to 0.15 mm is used for
packaging food products requiring protection against light, water vapour and gases.

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 b) Plastics:

1. Polyethylene (PE) - obtained by polymerization of ethylene. They are classified as

Low-Density polyethylene (LDPE) and High-Density polyethylene (HDPE). They have
good heat sealability and hence form the inner most layer of most packages. They
have low water vapour permeability at low temperature.
2. Polypropylene (PP) - obtained by polymerization of propylene at low temperature in
the presence of catalyst.
3. Polyamides- Nylon –Excellent Gas barrier.
4. Polyester- Condensation product of polyalchol with diacids or its derivatives- PET
(Polyethylene terepthalate)
5. Cellophane
6. Ethyl Vinyl Acetate- Co-polymerization of LDPE and Vinyl acetate
7. Polystyrene
8. Vinyl films- Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC- Polymerization of Vinyl Chloride), Vinylidene
Chloride (13-20% Vinyl Chloride) and Poly Vinyl acetate.
9. Ionomers: Unique thermoplastic with ionic bonds. Serves as an ideal bonding agent
between two films and has better seal strength.
10. Rubber Hydrochloride (Pliofilms).

Composite Films:

1. Laminates: It is a combination of different flexible packaging material such as paper, plastics

or foil bounded together by heat/ adhesive, forming a composite structure of uniform
thickness and flexibility. Eg: Polyester/ PE, Nylon/ PE, Paper/ Aluminum foil/ PE.

2. Co-extruded films: It is obtained by simultaneous extrusion of two or more polymers in the

molten state and forms a common die to emerge out as a single layer.

Eg: LDPE/HDPE/LDPE
LDPE/Nylon/HDPE

Properties of films used for specific purpose:

1. Properties of films necessary for packaging processed meats (oxygen-impermeable)

a) Preserves the pink colour of the cured product.

b) Deters the growth of microorganisms.
c) Prevents the development of rancidity in fat.
d) Prevents the loss of moisture from the product.
e) Conveniently forms the hermetically sealed product.
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 f) Possesses excellent optical properties.
g) Retains package integrity during shipping and handling.
h) Can be thermoformed into cups, trays or containers.

2. Properties of films necessary for quality retention in fresh retail meats (oxygen-permeable)
a) Allows for the development and retention of the red, oxygenated colour of
retail cuts.
b) Prevents dehydration and moisture loss.
c) Possesses excellent optical properties (especially clarity)
d) Retains package integrity up to handling. (Note that microbial specification is
not included because microbial growth on retail cuts is primarily a handling,
sanitation and temperature control problem, not one of packaging).
3. Properties of films necessary for preserving quality of fresh primal cuts (oxygen-
impermeable)
a) Deters the growth of microorganisms.
b) Preserves the colour of fresh meat.
c) Prevents the loss of moisture from the product.
d) Retain package integrity during shipping and handling.

The use of packaging films for preserving fresh meats:

The most important single factor in the appeal of packaged fresh meats for retail, since it is the
primary factor influencing the consumers selection, is colour of the meat. Colour of muscle is
primarily due to the presence and chemical state of the pigment myoglobin. The normal colour
of fresh muscle in the presence of air is bright red due to the predominance of oxymyoglobin at
the surface, thus the best way to maintain the bright red colour of fresh muscle is to have a
high partial pressure of oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere. In packaging fresh meat, a
package material must be chosen which will allow the passage of oxygen through the film since
oxygen is essential for the development of oxymyoglobin or the “blooming” of the meat.

Fresh meat should be wrapped in transparent films that have a high oxygen
transmission rate and a low moisture vapour transmission rate. As a result of the high oxygen
requirement and lack of any type of preservation other than refrigeration, fresh meat is highly
perishable and for this reason is almost always packaged at the point of sale rather than at the
packing or after cutting in the processing plant. Exposure of the meat to air at 0 oC for a short
period of time (preblooming) and before packaging is believed to be beneficial to colour
preservation and maintenance of desired shelf life.

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Moisture permeability: Control of moisture (and moisture vapour) is one of the most important
factors in meat packaging. In most instances, the moisture-protective barrier is designed to
prevent product desiccation, though occasionally its function is to prevent the absorption of
additional moisture. Surface moisture may result from condensation caused by fluctuations in
temperature and/or excessive moisture to the product. Condensation commonly occurs on
products brought from a holding cooler and held at packaging room temperatures. Moisture
loss turns meat dark if the meat is allowed to dehydrate on open air because of concentrations
of muscle colour pigment. Most films minimize evaporative weight loss. Even in properly sealed
bags, some weight loss will occur, but this is usually less than 0.2% in 2 weeks and is not
detectable on the common retail meat counter scales. It is usual to select a film that is
sufficiently permeable to moisture vapour to prevent unsightly condensation within the
package, but not so permeable as to lead to excess weight loss. Shrink and stretch films that
cling tightly to the meat largely eliminate the condensation problem.

Gas permeability: The importance of gas permeability depends upon the specific requirements
of the product. Fresh retail meats should bloom, those stored for future use need not be bright
in colour. Film materials vary widely in permeability properties. A general classification of films
of compatible thickness can be made according to their oxygen permeabilities at high relative
humidity levels.

If two or more films are combined by coating or laminating, the permeability of the
combination is similar to that of the least permeable membrane. The storage life of packaged
meat is directly related to the bacterial load on the meat at the time of packaging and the
temperature conditions under which the meat is held. The problems in packaging fresh meats
are those of colour stability and bacterial spoilage and the requirements for the control of each
are sometimes mutually incompatible.

High permeability Low permeability

 Polyethylene  Polyamide (nylon)
 Polyvinyl chloride  Polyester
 Polystyrene  Vinylidene chloride-vinyl chloride
 Regenerated cellulose (plain or coated  Regenerated cellulose (coated
with Nitrocellulose) with above Copolymer)
 Polypropylene  Aluminum foil
 Rubber hydrochloride  Laminates

Films with high permeability to oxygen are commonly used for short term storage where the
most important consideration is the physical appearance of the product. Satisfactory

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development of the bright red colour occurs at oxygen percentages comparable to those in air.
This means that the higher the permeability of the film to oxygen, the better will be the colour
of the meat. Storage temperatures as close as possible to 13oC are desirable for maximum case
life and optimum color characteristics.

Systems of packaging of fresh meat,

1. Overwrapping
2. Trays with overwrap
3. Skin packaging
4. Vacuum packaging
5. Modified atmosphere packaging
6. Controlled atmospheric packaging

1. Overwrapping: Before modified atmosphere packaging and centralised pre-packing,

overwrapping was extensively used for the retail display of meat. The film used for
overwrapping is purposely permeable to external air. The film facilitates oxygenation of
the meat, causing the production of oxymyoglobin and the red ‘fresh meat’ that
consumers tend to look for. However, the meat soon oxidises further, changing colour
to dull brown.

2. Trays with overwrap: Thermoformed polystyrene trays with PVC overwrap are generally
used. Allows for bright red color because oxygen can be transmitted across. There is
increased marketability and attractive appearance. “Weep” will occur when meat is
packed with any film and absorbent trays or papers Meat diapers are commonly used to
absorb free fluids and prevent them from detracting from the appearance of packages.

3. Skin packaging: A packaging method commonly used in larger meat industries is skin
packaging. For this method the products are placed in the packaging machine, usually
on a rigid film, which serves as the bottom layer of the final package. Another flexible
film (top layer, which is heated for increased flexibility) drapes itself from above around
the product, resembling a tight “skin” on the product surface avoiding wrinkles and
purges. The skin-like coverage of the product takes place in a sealing station in the
packaging machine, where the top and bottom film are sealed around the edges.
Individual packages are separated by cutting around the bottom seal perimeter.
The latest development in this sector is the “form-shrink” packaging technology.
Products e.g. meat cuts, chicken carcasses, entire sausages, smaller portions of meat
products, are placed between two shrinkable films, which are moulded without wrinkles
around the goods. Sealing seams can be kept extremely small. This technology is very

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 cost-effective in terms of usage of packaging films but requires high-tech equipment and
is only of relevance for large-scale industries.

4. Vacuum packaging: VP extends the shelf life of chilled meat by maintaining an oxygen
deficient environment within the pack since most potent spoilage bacteria are inhibited
in normal pH meat under optimum vaccum condition. The air within the package must
be evacuated effectively to nominal anoxic levels (less than 500 ppm) to prevent
irreversible browning due to low levels of residual oxygen.
The self life of meat is extended. However, the purplish red colour of reduced
myoglobin is not presently acceptable to the retail customer. Although the bright red
colour will return if the vaccum packaged cuts are opened, once opened the meat will
only have a very limited storage life as the oxygen/carbon dioxide levels inhibitory to
bacterial spoilage are lost. Wholesale cuts and fresh meat for the hotels, restaurants
and institution trade are vaccum packaged to gain increased shelf life. In this case,
consumers don’t see the meat before it is cooked. In the form of vaccum packaging used
most widely, the package to be sealed is completely enclosed in a chamber, which is
then evacuated and the package is heat-sealed before it is released from the chamber.
High-speed vaccum packaging machines can package upto 30 pieces of meat per min.

5. Modified atmosphere packaging: MAP is the enclosure of food products in highly gas
barrier materials in which gaseous environment has been changed or modified with the
objective of slowing down the respiration rates, reducing the microbial growth and to
retard enzymatic spoilage with the intend of extending shelf life. MAP system most
frequently uses mixture of gases, in which each gas has a specific role in extending the
shelf life and maintaining the appearance of the packaged meat. The composition of
gases in the package will determine the extent and type of spoilage that develops during
storage. In practice atmospheric mixtures of 60-80% O2 and 20-40% CO2 are commonly
used.

Meat type Gas combination

Lamb 80% O2 and 20 % Co2
Pork 67 % O2 and 33 % Co2
Beef 80 O2 and 20 % Co2

Mother bag concept in MAP: These are the simplest two-phase packaging systems, consisting
of retail-ready packs inside an outer preservative pack. The retail-ready packs may be
overwrapped trays or lidded packs. In both cases, retail films must be highly gas permeable,

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first, to allow the meat contact with the carbon dioxide preservative atmosphere and later, on
removal from the mother pack, to allow atmospheric oxygen to bloom the meat.

While a simple outer bag could be used to contain the carbon dioxide atmosphere, the
inner packs would be free to move within the pack. Such movement could damage both inner
and outer packs. Consequently, most proprietary mother pack systems employ a semi-rigid
outer container to protect and restrain the inner packs

6. Controlled atmospheric packaging: Similar to Modified atmosphere packaging except

that the atmosphere around the product is maintained throughout the storage period.

Packaging of cured meat: The role of package for cured meat is to minimize light fading
by preventing the entry of oxygen and loss of moisture.
 Short-term storage of cured meat can be achieved with trays overwrapped with plastic
films like LDPE, PVC, PVDC, rubber hydrochloride and laminates of cello/poly.
 Some of the cured meat products like ham other large uneven cuts of cured meats can
be over wrapped and shrink packed.
 Vacuum packaging and gas packaging are the right choices for long-term storage of
sliced bacon, luncheon meat etc. This technique assures a shelf life of 5 months at
4°C and 6-8 months at -18°C. The laminates used for vacuum packaging are
combinations of cellophane / PVDC / polyethylene or polyester / PVDC / polyethylene.
 MAP using 85-90% N2 and 10-15% CO2 can be used.

Packaging of frozen meat: Frozen meat needs protection against,

a) Dehydration and loss of surface texture
b) Rancidity
c) Pick up of odours / flavours
 Generally low density polyethylene (LDPE) is used as it provides adequate clarity
and is stable at low temperature and available at low cost.
 Polyamide-coated polyethylene and heat shrinkable film may also be used for
packaging frozen meats.

Packaging of cooked meat / thermo processed meat products:

 Most cooked meat is canned and has a long shelf life of two years. Generally
hermetically sealed rectangular plate containers with easy open devices are used. The
cans are lacquered internally with sulphur resistant epoxy phenolic meat lacquers.
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  Retort pouches when used in canning can extend the self life up to one year.
 For short term storage plastic pouches can be used, can be kept up to 10-12 days at
4°C.

Packaging of dehydrated meat products: The packaging material, besides being impermeable
to moisture and oxygen, must protect against light, oxidation and contamination by foreign
odours.
 Vacuum packaging by inflexible laminate pouches is common. Aluminum foil laminates,
special metalized films and clear films with multiple barrier layers are used for these
applications.
 Tin plate cans are also used.

FORMULATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF MEAT AND SEA FOODS

Processed meat as a category is a continuum of products ranging from meat products with a
minimum of 30% meat to products that are all meat flesh. The meat must have undergone a
method of processing other than boning, slicing, dicing, mincing, or freezing. It includes
manufactured meat and cured and/or dried meat flesh in whole cuts or pieces. Examples of
processed meat containing between 30% and 66% meat would include some sausages and
some frankfurts, whereas processed meats that contain more than 66% meat would include
product like ham. The definition for processed meat encompasses the processes of smoking,
drying, salting, curing, fermenting, pickling, cooking, and forming. Processed meat may contain
other ingredients but must contain no less than 300 g/kg meat, i.e. they must consist of at least
30% meat.

Sausages

Sausage derived its name from the Latin word salsas, meaning preserved (or salted). Sausages
may be defined as a meat product which is prepared from minced and seasoned meat and
formed into cylindrical shape by natural or synthetic casings. Casings are processed parts of the
alimentary tract of cattle, sheep, goat, pig and horses and urinary bladder of pigs and cattle.
Sausage manufacture uses two methods for preparing the ingredients for sausage making
complete homogenization as an emulsion prepared and coarse, medium or fine grinding is used
to make non emulsion types. Sausages are ready- to- eat meat fast foods.

Classification of sausages:

Classification Characteristics Examples

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Fresh sausages Fresh meats (chiefly pork); uncured, Fresh pork
comminuted, seasoned and usually sausage,
stuffed into casings; must be cooked Bratwurst
fully before serving
Dry and semidry Cured meats; fermented air-dried, may Genoa salami,
sausages be smoked before drying; served cold. Pepperoni,
Lebanon bologna.
Cooked sausages Cured or uncured meats; comminuted, Liver sausage,
seasoned, stuffed into casings, cooked Summer
and sometimes smoked; usually served sausage,Braunsch
cold. weiger, Liver
cheese.
Cooked, smoked Cured meats; comminuted, seasoned, Frankfurters, Bolo
sausages stuffed into casings, smoked and fully gna , Cotto
cooked; do not require further cooking, salami.
but some are heated for serving.
Uncooked, Fresh meats; cured or uncured, stuffed, Smoked, country-
smoked sausages smoked, but not cooked; must be fully style
cooked before serving. porksausage,
Mettwurst,
Kielbasa.
Cooked meat Specially prepared meat products; Loaves, Head
specialties cured or uncured meats, cooked but cheese, Scrapple
rarely smoked, often made in loaves,
but generally sold in sliced, packaged
form; usually served cold.

Consumers eat sausages because of convenience, variety, economy and nutritional value.
Sausage products take little time in preparation, with some sausages being ready to serve and
others needing only to be warmed before serving. Sausages contain significant amounts of high
quality protein and are good sources of several essential minerals and vitamins. Sausages are
prepared from the cheaper meat cuts which have poor consumer demand. Thus the values of
the cheaper meat cuts are added after the preparation of sausages.

Ingredients or Raw material:

1. Meat: Lean skeletal muscles are the most desirable materials and these can be classified
as meat (tissues of skeletal origin- beef, pork, mutton, veal) and meat byproducts (non
skeletal tissues such as lips, tripe, stomach, cardiac muscles). Tissues vary in their meat-
protein ration and fat-lean ratio, the amount of pigment as well as their ability to bind
moisture and emulsify fat. These two properties are collectively known as the Binding
ability of meat. Meat can be further classified based on this characteristic into Binder

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 Meat (High Binding- Lean Skeletal tissues, Medium Binding- Cheek meat, beef shanks,
veal and Low Binding- Cardiac and smooth muscles, jowl, tongue) and Filler Meat (Very
low binding property- Snouts, lips, tripe and liver). While selecting meat for preparation
of comminuted meat product consideration shall be given to the myoglobin content,
principally because of the effect of this pigment on the color of the finished product.

2. Fat: It not only contributes greatly to palatability of the sausage but also is the source of
many processing problems. Generally beef and pork fat are used in emulsion
preparation. Pork fat being soft, melt at low temperatures and are easier to comminute.
However emulsion made from beef fat tend to be more stable because beef fat can be
comminuted to higher temperatures.

3. Salt: Salt is basic to most curing mixtures. It is the only ingredient necessary for curing.
Salt acts by dehydration and altering of the osmotic pressure so that it inhibits bacterial
growth and subsequent spoilage. Salt is used as a flavor enhancer but it is also
important to water binding ability of meat and extraction of meat proteins necessary for
the manufacture of boneless or chopped and formed meat products. When salt is added
to meat it causes swelling of the myofibrils. With the addition of salt the isoelectric
point (lowest water holding capacity) is shifted to a more acidic pH, increasing the water
binding ability of meat at its normal ultimate pH of 5.5-5.6. Salt solubilizes actin and
myosin to form the glue between muscle pieces so boneless products appear as one
piece and aids in the sliceability of the finished product. Increasing levels of salt will
extract more muscle proteins but the amount that can be used is limited by the taste of
the product.

4. Nitrate/ Nitrites: In addition to the color role nitrates and nitrites have a pronounced
effect on flavor. They further affect flavor by acting as a powerful antioxidant (prevent
the development of oxidative rancidity). The bacteriostatic properties of nitrites are also
important. Sodium nitrite is a very effective inhibitor of the growth of Clostridia,
particularly Clostridium botulinum, the bacteria that causes botulism. Nitrate in itself is
not effective in producing the curing reaction. It must be first broken down to nitrite by
microorganisms to cause color change. Hence, Nitrite is generally used in preparation of
comminuted meat products and is also referred to as immediate cure.

5. Sodium ascorbate or erythorbate: The two primary reactions that occur after the curing
ingredients are introduced into the meat are a reduction of metmyoglobin to myoglobin
and a reduction of nitrite to nitric oxide. The nitric oxide is then available to combine
with myoglobin to form nitrosyl myoglobin. To speed these reactions and shorten curing

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 times, a strong reducing agent is commonly added to the brine. The most frequently
used compounds are sodium ascorbate or sodium erythorbate. Ascorbate or
erythorbate accelerate the conversion of metmyoglobin to myoglobin and nitrite to
nitric oxide; respectively and also suppress the reverse reaction. This results in a more
complete conversion of the muscle pigment to the cured pigment form. Reducing
agents are allowed at 500 ppm in ham and sausage products and 550 ppm in bacon.

6. Added Water: Water is added in the form of either ice crystals or as chilled water. The
basic function is to determine compliance for added water

Added water = Total water - (4 X P)

Maximum added water = 40 - fat percent (not to exceed 30%)

7. Phosphates: Phosphates are added to the cure or brine to increase the water-binding
capacity and thereby the yield of the finished product. Polyphosphates help solubilize
muscle proteins and raise the pH of meat by increasing the number of positive charges
on the proteins. This increases the space around the proteins. Therefore the proteins
hold more water. With increased water binding capacity, product yields increases,
product surfaces are drier and firmer, and emulsions are more stable at higher
temperatures. Only alkaline phosphates are effective for improving water binding since
acid phosphates may lower the pH causing greater shrinkage. The emulsion stabilizing
action of alkaline phosphates is due to a number of functional properties of phosphates.
First, as expected, alkaline phosphates raise the pH of meat products. These
phosphates exhibit a high pH in water , but since meat is a buffer itself, phosphates’
effect on meat pH is considerably less. Even the limited increase in pH appears to
increase water-holding capacity and protein solubility. On the negative side, this
increase on pH will reduce cured color development.
Secondly, phosphate anions act as poly-electrolytes and increase ionic strength.
This addition of electrolytes will cause an increase in water-holding capacity by direct
binding of water to the phosphate anions and by the repulsion of protein groups due to
the increase in and predominance of negative charges on the protein groups. This
repulsing effect opens up protein structures to allow for more water to be contained in
the meat system. Phosphates are not easily soluble in most brine, particularly once in
which salt has been added. It is the recommended practice to dissolve the phosphates
first. If levels of phosphate in the brine are too high, or if salt concentrations are too
high, the phosphates may precipitate out of solution lowering its effectiveness.
Excessive levels have been accused of causing a "soapy" taste, especially at levels above
0.5%.

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 8. Spices and flavourings: Spices are dried aromatic vegetable substances. The term may
be applied to all dried plant products, which include herbs, aromatic seeds and
dehydrated vegetables. Spices are used either whole or in one of the following
processed forms: (1) ground, (2) essential oils, or (3) oleoresins. The latter two must be
classified as flavourings. Herbs are leaves of plants grown in both temperate and
tropical zones and are relatively low in total oil content while true spices are relatively
high. Seasonings and flavourings are included in sausage emulsions or batters to add
flavour to the product. Examples of seasonings and flavourings are
 Monosodium glutamate (MSG) and nucleotides – enhance flavour.
 Hydrolyzed plant proteins contribute a characteristic meaty flavour

9. Extenders and binders: These are called as nonmeat materials and also are less
frequently referred to as fillers, emulsifiers or stabilizers. These are widely used in meat
formulations for one or more of the following reasons:
a) To reduce formulation cost
b) To improve cooking yield
c) To improve slicing characteristics
d) To improve flavor
e) To improve emulsion stability
f) To increase the protein content

The use level is generally restricted to 3.5% with exception of soy protein isolate, which carries
a 2% limit. The extenders and binders commonly used in meat products are,

Gums: Carageenan is a water soluble polysaccharide in the group of hydrocolloids.

Hydrocolloids are water soluble polymers with the ability to thicken or gel water systems. It is
extracted from red seaweed and is found in three basic types. These types are kappa, iota and
lambda. Carageenans and xanthan gum are thickening and gelling agents. Carageenan can be
used in cured pork products at a level of 1.5% but if used in combination with xanthan gum or
locust bean gum then the amount cannot exceed 0.5% of the product formulation. If gums are
used no other binding agent is allowed in the product.

The ability of carageenan to form a gel in meat products has a range of advantages by
increasing yield, consistency, sliceability, spreadability, cohesiveness and decreasing purge, fat
content and slicing loss. During processing of meat, water is often added as pure water or as a
brine. This, to a certain extent, influences juiciness and consistency of the end product.
However, during heat treatment water will often escape from the meat, resulting in cook loss.
Furthermore, the diffused water and extracted meat proteins may appear on the surface as an

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objectionable jelly-like substance. This is where carageenan helps the producer by reducing
cook loss. Carageenan can be incorporated into the meat as part of a marinade, or it can be
added directly to meat as a dry powder. Salt makes carageenan insoluble in water and
therefore causes carageenan to be dispersed in the system only (not thickening the solution
only dispersed). Carageenan should therefore be added after addition of salt so it doesn’t bind
water (swell) before it is incorporated in the meat product. In some cases it is necessary to
disperse carageenan without salt. Immediately after incorporation carageenan has no function,
but as the temperature rises, and the carageenan starts to swell, the viscosity increases and the
water is retained in the meat. Cooking to 68-72° C in the center ensures complete dissolution of
carageenan. During the subsequent cooling process the carageenan at a temperature of
approximately 50-60° C, will set to a firm and cohesive gel. Therefore, it is of the utmost
importance that the product is cooled as quickly as possible.

Starches: Starches are long chains of glucose molecules that hold water. Most unmodified
starches need heat to thicken, however, some modified and natural starches will thicken at
room temperature. These products work well in marinates to help coat he product. Starches
aren’t, however, allowed in hams or roast beef but can be used in non-standard products.
Starches are allowed in cured pork products at a level not to exceed 2%.

Proteins: Soy proteins and deheated mustard flour are used as protein sources to allow for
further extension and as binders for added water. The typical usage level is between 0.5% and
5.0%. Levels used depend on the protein used and whether or not it is an isolate or flour. For
example soy isolate can bind between seven and ten times its weight in water while soy
concentrate will bind less water (approximately five times its weight) while imparting a more
beany flavor.

Soy Proteins

Utilization of soy proteins often enables processors to lower their costs while maintaining
traditional product characteristics. The term "soy protein" covers a wide range of products
derived from the soybean. These products are classified as: soy flours, soy protein
concentrates, or isolated soy proteins.

Item Protein (%) Carbohydrates (%)

Soy Flour 50 38
Soy Protein Concentrate 70 24
Isolated Soy Protein 90 Less Than 3

A frequent complaint relative to the use of soy proteins in processed meat products is
that they give the products a "beany" taste. This off flavor is a result of the carbohydrate

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fraction of the soy product. To avoid this undesirable flavor, either a low level of the soy
product should be used or a soy product with a low level of carbohydrate should be utilized in
manufacturing the product. Soy proteins are available in many different sizes and shapes. Some
of the more common forms are: powdered, granular, flake, chunk, fibrous and hydrated. There
is a suitable soy protein for virtually any processed meat. Powdered soy proteins work best in
products where no visible soy protein is desired in the finished product. When using soy
proteins, it is very important that the formulation contain sufficient moisture for complete
hydration of the soy protein. Under hydration can result in loss of texture, emulsion breakdown
and waste of some of the binding capacity of the soy protein. Over hydration will lessen the gel
strength of the finished product. It is important to note that soy proteins have the ability to gel
upon heating in the same manner as meat proteins. Often, when adding soy protein to a
formulation, it is calculated that one fourth of the water needed for hydration will come from
the formulation itself.

The formula for a sausage

 Ratio of Lean meat to Offal Meat 7: 3

 The other ingredients are to be added in terms of % wt of meat (i.e 2% means - 2% of
the weight of meat added)
 Fat-10%
 Salt-2.5%
 Sodium or Potassium nitrite- 200 ppm
 Pyrophosphates -0.3%
 Spice mix -2%
 Condiments - 4% (3% onions and 1% garlic)
 Binder or extender - 10%
 Added water, preferably as crushed ice. - 10%

Development of Sausage: In case of coarse ground products mincing alone will do, but for
emulsion based products, chopping has to be undertaken.

The same will not be repeated in the section on patties and meat balls, both of which are either
emulsion or coarse ground products and hence can be formed into their respective shapes after
grinding, prior to cooking.

Production of emulsion:

An emulsion is a two-phase system consisting of a fairly coarse dispersion of two immisible

liquids, one being dispersed in the other. The two phases of an emulsion are referred to as
Continuous and the Dispersed phase. The liquid that forms the small droplets is called the

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dispersed phase and the liquid in which the droplets are dispersed is called the continuous
phase. The size of the dispersed phase droplets ranges from 0.1 to 5.0 m in diameter. Two
typical emulsions are mayonnaise and homogenized milk, in both of these the fat droplets are
dispersed in an aqueous phase.

Meat emulsions are a two phase system, with the dispersed phase consisting of either
solid or liquid fat particles or the continuous phase being the water containing salts and
dissolved, gelled and suspended proteins. Thus they can be classified as oil-in-water emulsion.
Meat emulsion is not a true emulsion since the two phases involved are not liquids and the fat
droplets in a commercial emulsion are larger than 50 m in diameter and thus do not conform
to one of the requirement of a classical emulsion.

Emulsifier or stabilizing agents:

Emulsions are usually unstable unless another component known as emulsifying agent is
present. When fat is in contact with water, there is a high interfacial tension between the two
phases. An emulsifying agent functions to reduce this interfacial tension, thus permitting the
formation of an emulsion with less energy inputs as well as increasing its overall stability. A
distinguishing characteristic of an emulsifying agent is that their molecules have affinity for
both water and fat. The hydrophilic (water-loving) portion have affinity for water and the
hydrophobic (water hating) portion have affinity for fat. These affinities are best satisfied when
both the hydrophilic and phobic portion of the emulsifying agent can align themselves between
both the lipid and aqueous phase.

Emulsification: Meat emulsion or batter are formed by extraction or solubilization of salt

soluble (especially myosin) in the lean muscle tissue by addition of salt and water. Grinding,
blending, addition of phosphates and pre-blending all help in the solubilization of the proteins.

Factors affecting protein extraction from meat:

1. Properties of raw meat

 Rigor state: Myofibrillar proteins are more easily extracted in the pre-rigor state
 Muscle type: Poor quality meats have low salt soluble extractable protein
content
2. Processing conditions
 Particle size: Reducing particle size improves protein extraction
 Extraction time: longer the extraction period better the extraction
 Addition of Salt: causes depolymerization of myosin and disassociation of
actomyosin at appropriate concentration.

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  Addition of phosphates: causes depolymerization and disassociation, after
enzymatic hydrolysis of polyphosphates to diphosphates, the active form.
Hydrolysis at 0º C is slow.

Pre-blending: It consists of grinding and mixing of separate meat ingredients with the part of or
all cure in proportion to the amount of meat. This permits sampling and chemical analysis
before the final blending or mixing of all ingredients.

Advantages:

1. It permits control of composition by adjusting the final blend to a known fat content
2. Can be used in hot boned meat, which results in maximum extraction of salt soluble
proteins.
3. Retards oxidation of raw materials since curing begins earlier

The presence of sodium, chloride and phosphate ions open up the structure of the proteins due
to their electric charges, so that they are more easily dissolved in the aqueous phase. This
exposes segments of the proteins, which are hydrophilic, to a new environment. Ground fat is a
part liquid (oil) and part solid (fat). When it is added to lean, which has been solubulized, there
is a tendency for fat to become the disperse phase and the protein and water to become the
continuous phase, which surrounds the aft particles. The presence of fat allows the lipophilic
portion of the proteins to unfold and associate with fat whereas the hydrophilic portion
remains associated with the aqueous phase.

Temperature: It is important to maintain the temperature of the meat batter from rising too
high during chopping (below 60°F- 15°C) and emulsification (below 70°F- 21°C) to prevent fat
caps. During chopping the fat droplets are broken down to smaller droplets, the volume
remaining the constant, whereas the surface area of the fat increases. As chopping continues
the fat particles become smaller and smaller thereby constituting to enormous increase in the
surface area of the fat droplets. Eventually the fat surface becomes of such magnitude that the
protein solution cannot adequately coat all the fat particles. These uncoated fat droplets upon
cooking escapes out of the emulsion causing fat pocketing or greasing out of emulsion. To
prevent such undue rise in temperature during processing part of water can be added in the
beginning and the remainder is added later in the form of ice to control the temperature. This
procedure also allows a high salt concentration during the initial chopping of the lean, which is
known to enhance solubulization of the salt soluble proteins.

Comminuted Meat Products

Comminution plays an obvious role in reducing the particle size of meat pieces, in addition it is
important for extracting salt soluble proteins and thus enabling the meat mixtures to be bound

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together. A number of different principles may be applied to Comminution. The nature of
comminuted meat varies with the method used and different methods may be employed for
different end products.

a) Mincing: It is relatively a simple process and is widely used in retail level for producing
fresh mince as well as Comminuted meat products. The most commonly used type of
mincer is screw auger operating in a horizontal chamber. Meat pieces are fed in from a
hopper mounted at one end of the chamber. As the meat passes through the chamber
the meat is placed under considerable pressure and also undergoes tearing between the
auger and the chamber wall. The outer part of the exit consists of a stationery
perforated plate, which is mounted adjacent to a rotating knife. Final Comminution
takes place as the meat leaves the chamber. Mincer produces a relatively coarse
comminute, which is of an irregular nature due to the tearing action.

b) Milling: Similar process to mincing, the main difference being the absence of auger and
the higher speed of operation. The equipment is of vertical configuration and meat is
being fed to the comminuting knife and plates under its own weight. Materials are more
finely comminuted than in case of mincing.

c) Chopping: It takes place in a circular, slowly rotating curved bowl. The most commonly
used equipment is the Bowl Chopper. A set of 3-12 knives rotate at high speed in a
vertical plane close to the surface of one side of the bowl. The meat can be chopped
very finely, the degree largely depending on the residence time in the bowl. The
temperature during chopping is important. The final temperature should not exceed 21
C and ideally should be in the range of 18-20 C. Lower initial temperature of the meat
may lead to damage of the knives and higher temperature during processing may lead
to fat pockets.

Processing steps:

The various steps in preparation of sausages are:

1. Grinding or Mincing: Lean meat and fat are minced separately in a meat mincer.
Partially thawed meats are minced first through 8 mm plate and then through 4 mm
plate to get a fine mince.

2. Mixing: Meat and fat to be used for preparation of coarse ground sausages are mixed
uniformly in a mixer. Extenders, condiments and spices should be added during mixing
for even distribution.

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 3. Chopping and Emulsification: For emulsion or batter preparation, the lean minced meat
is placed in a bowl chopper. The meat is chopped for around 30 seconds with addition of
a part of cold water. Then salt, phosphates, sugar, nitrite are mixed along with the meat
and again chopped for 1.5 minutes. Then fat is added gradually to the mix and blended
for 2 minutes, till the fat is uniformly mixed and forms a uniform emulsion. The batter is
then taken from the chopper and if not used immediately, it is stored in refrigerator.
The entire operation is performed at low temperature by addition of flaked ice.

4. Stuffing: Sausage emulsion or batter is transferred into a sausage filler or stuffer.

Natural or artificial casings are washed and sleeved on to the nozzle of the filler or
stuffing horn. Stuffing should be done with great care to prevent formation of air
pockets (in case of loose stuffing) as well as to prevent breakage of casing due to over
stuffing.

5. Linking and tying: In small sausages, the encased mass is twisted to produce links either
manually or mechanically, whereas in large sausages the encased mass is tied with a
thread at regular interval.

6. Smoking and Cooking: Sausage links are hung inside the smoking chamber. During
cooking the temperature rises to 68 to 72°C. The sausage links are smoked which causes
coagulation of sausage emulsion, cooking and drying. Otherwise, sausage links are
cooked in a water bath for 30 minutes until an internal temperature of 70-72oC is
obtained.

7. Chilling: The cooked sausages are showered with chilled water to an internal
temperature of about 4oC.

8. Peeling and Packaging: In sausages where synthetic casings are utilized the skin is
peeled off before packaging, whereas in natural casings the casings need not be
removed.

Meat balls/patties

Meat patty is one of the most popular products among the ground meat items and is generally
used as filling for burger roll or sandwich. Some people prefer to consume it separately with
tomato sauce or chutney. Meat patties have a very good demand in big towns and cities in
India. Patties are coarse ground products, contain less than 30% fat and are moulded manually
or mechanically.

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 Meat balls also called as meat kofta is a traditional Indian product made from ground meat.
Meat balls are coarse ground products, contain less than 30% fat and are made into balls
manually. An optimum formulation is presented below,

 Ratio of Lean meat to Offal Meat 7: 3

 The other ingredients are to be added in terms of % wt of meat (i.e 2% means -
2% of the weight of meat added)
 Fat-10%
 Salt-2.5%
 Sodium or Potassium nitrite- 200 ppm
 Pyrophosphates -0.3%
 Spice mix -2%
 Condiments - 4% (3% onions and 1% garlic)
 Binder or extender - 10%
 Added water, preferably as crushed ice. - 10%

Lean meat is minced twice through 6mm plate and fat through 4 mm plate of a meat grinder.
These are mixed thoroughly with all other ingredients manually. The batter may be made into
balls manually to prepare meat balls. The batter weighing 80-100 g is moulded into 70-80 mm
diameter and 15-20 mm thick patties. Meat Balls or raw patties may be frozen for future use or
broiled in a preheated oven at 190oC for 20 minutes. The internal temperature must reach
72oC. These are deep fat fried in many commercial establishments. The meat balls /patties are
cooled and consumer packed.

Meat Pickle: Pickles are a preserved product usually based on vinegar or oil preservation.

Formulation, Method of preparation:

1. 1 kg Meat pieces
 Dice the meat into medium sized pieces (about I” cubes)
2. 150g Ginger paste
and add to it 25g of red chilli powder, 20 g of salt and the
3. 150g Garlic paste
entire turmeric powder and marinade for an hour.
4. 80g Green chilli
 Heat oil in a pan and fry meat pieces till golden brown.
5. 25g Cumin
 Drain the meat and keep aside.
6. 25g Mustard
 Put in the same oil all the green condiments (items 2-4)
7. 10g Asafoetida
and cook well.
8. 5g Fenugreek seed
 Add the cumin, mustard, asafoetida and fenugreek and
9. 100g Red chilli powder
stir it well.
10. 15g Turmeric powder
 Add the vinegar and continue to stir cook it.
11. 70g Salt
 Then add the remaining salt, chilli powder and the spice
mix one after the other and simmer it.
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 Finally add citric acid and sodium benzoate and continue
to cook.
 Add the meat pieces again and simmer for 10 minutes.
 12. 300ml Vinegar
13. 400 ml Sesame oil
14. 10g Spice mix
15. 10g Curry leaves
16. 10g Citric acid
17. 5g Sodium Benzoate

Meat soup

Soup is a food that is made by combining ingredients such as meat and vegetables with stock,
(Stock is made by simmering various ingredients such as leftover meat or bones) water or
another liquid. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling solid ingredients in liquids in
a pot until the flavors are extracted, forming a broth.

Formulation Method

1. 1 kg Bones  Saute onions, tomatoes, ginger, garlic and cumin seeds

2. 800G Onions in a frying pan.
3. 200g Tomatoes  Transfer this to a tall vessel and add the bones in this.
 Add four litres of water, salt, pepper and chilli
4. 200g Finely ground pepper
powders and allow it to cook for an hour.
5. 100g Ginger
 Garnish with coriander leaves before serving.
6. 100g Garlic
7. 100g Coriander leaves
8. 60g Red chilli powder
9. 40g Cumin seeds
10. 15g Turmeric Powder
11. Salt to taste.

Meat kabab

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Kabab includes grilled, roasted, and stewed dishes of large or small cuts of meat, or even
ground meat; it may be served on plates, in sandwiches, or in bowls.

Ingredients Method

 450 g (1 lb) Finely minced meat  Mix the lightly beaten egg and minced
 1 Egg lightly beaten meat in a bowl.
 5 g Coriander seeds, ground  Add the spices, salt and grated onion to
 2.5 g) Chilli powder the beef and use breadcrumbs to stiffen
 2.5 g Cumin and bind the mixture if necessary.
 2.5 g Garam masala  Oil your fingers and the skewers.
 2 Cloves garlic, crushed  Wrap the meat around the skewers in
 Salt to taste cigar shapes.
 1 Onion, grated or liquidized  Brush the meat with oil and cook under a
 Breadcrumbs (optional) moderate grill until evenly browned.
 30 ml Oil
 Serve garnished with lemon, onion and
Tandoori chicken tomato slices.

Tandoori chicken is a dry type cooking preparation without oil and with minimum spices,
cooked in conserved heat using a conventional type mud tandoori pot. Young cockerels (white
leghorn) of the age group of 8 to 12 weeks and 5-6 weeks old broilers are ideal for this
preparation.

Formulation Method

1. 5 litres Curd  Skin less dressed chicken is used.

 Leg and breast muscles are incised with a sharp knife
2. 150 g Chilli powder
to facilitate better penetration of spice mix during
3. 500 g Garlic paste marination.
4. 350 g Ginger paste  A minimum of 2 hours marination time is required.
 Then excess spice mix can be drained off and long iron
5. 20 g Turmeric powder
rods are inserted into the marinated chicken along the
6. Lime juice from 10 lemons long axis to facilitate better cooking and for easy
7. 250 g Salt handling in the hot tandoori pot.
 Initially cook for 10 minutes and then apply butter and
cook for 10 more minutes. Now the product is ready
for serving.

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Surimi

Surimi is an intermediate product obtained from fish mince which, because of its characteristic
ability to form gels, can be used to develop a variety of products. Surimi is the myofibrillar
protein concentrate produced by repeated washing of fish mince in order to remove water-
soluble nitrogenous matter and flavour compounds. Washing enhances the gel forming
capacity of the structural proteins. Surimi is used as a raw material for the preparation of
seafood analogues, but in Japan, where the technology originated, surimi is mainly used to
prepare the traditional kamaboko products.

Formulation and development of surimi,

Raw material: Fish having white meat and low fat content is generally used. Even fatty fish has
recently been employed after removing the fat with alkali washing.

Processing of surimi: The basic steps of production of surimi are as follows :

1. Heading and gutting: The head, viscera and most of the backbone of the fish are
removed. The kidney, intestines, parts of stomach and liver, if allowed to remain, may
severely damage the quality of protein during processing.
2. Mincing: Meat is separated from the skin and bones of the dressed fish by a mechanical
deboner. This is done by extruding the muscle through small perforations (3-5 mm dia)
in a rotating stainless steel drum.
3. Washing: he deboned mince is mixed with fresh water in a series of leaching tanks. It is
important to maintain the water/mince ratio at such a level that proper washing is
performed without leading to over hydration.
4. Refining: The refiner is a high speed rotating spiral surrounded by a screen having
perforations of 1.2 mm to 3 mm. The washed meat is forced through the perforations,
leaving behind any impurities.
5. Dehydrating: The water content of the washed and refined mince is further reduced in
a screw press. The screw press is a perforated drum of about 10 feet long, inside which
rotates a spiral screw. As the screw rotates, it pushes the meat down the length of the
drum. The dewatered material comes out through a chute at the end of the drum.
6. Mixing with cryoprotectants: The dewatered mince is mixed with cryoprotectants like
sugar, sorbitol and polyphosphates which prevent protein denaturation during frozen
storage.

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 7. Freezing: The prepared surimi is immediately frozen at -40°C in a contact plate freezer
and stored at -20°C.

Uses of surimi

 Surimi is used in preparation of various types of traditional Japanese fish products such
as Chikuwa, Kamaboko, Satsumaage, Hampen etc.
 Surimi is used in meat products as meat binders.
 Surimi is used as a protein supplement or binder in various food products such as pasta,
sausages, bakery products, restructured products health foods and pet foods.

Smoked fish

Smoked fish is fish subjected to smoking. Quality of the raw fish has significant influence on the
quality of the smoked product. Pelagic fishes (Fishes found on the surface of water) are
considered best for smoking when their fat content is the highest. However, depending on the
end product desired, fish of different fat contents are preferred. Generally fish for smoking
should be kept chilled. In certain cases, non-fatty fishes are also used. Fish may be smoked
whole or after splitting, gutting etc. It is considered desirable to keep the fish iced for two days
before smoking.

Processing of smoked fish,

1. Salting: Fish is salted either by mixing with solid salt or by immersing in strong brine.
Size of the fish, fat content, whether the fish is whole, gutted, split or cut, presence or
absence of skin and other requirements in the end product etc. are the factors
considered in determining the duration and type of salting. Depending upon the
concentration of brine there may be an uptake or loss of water in the fish. Most
common concentration of brine employed is 70-80 per cent. Fish salted in 100 per cent
saturated brine is not preferred as it is likely to make the product unattractive because
of the powdery, unattractive, crystals of salt that may be left on the surface. Salting is
adjusted that the fish takes up 2-3 per cent salt which is the optimum requirement in
many smoked fish.
2. Hanging: After salting the flesh of the fish will be moist. Surface proteins will dissolve in
the brine yielding a sticky solution. For efficient smoking fish must be dry enough with
no free water on the surface. During hanging the sticky solutions dries on the surface
and makes the skin glossy. However excessive drying will prevent the fish from acquiring
a proper smoky flavour. Drying can be done in open air or a hot air drier or even directly
in the smoke chamber by burning wood without producing smoke. Split and salted fish

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 should remain in stretched out position for uniform exposure of all parts to smoke. Fish
can be hung or even spread on wire mesh trays; however, care has to be taken to
ensure that the mesh does not leave excessive mark on the skin or flesh.
3. Smoking: Two types of smoking are popular,
o Cold smoking and
o Hot smoking

The essential difference between the two processes is the amount of heat the fish
receives during the process. Cold smoking is a mild process where temperature is not
raised enough for the fish to undergo even a partial cooking. In hot smoking the
temperature of the smoke is high and the fish flesh is cooked even to the extent of
partial sterilization.

 Cold smoking: Cold smoking is still carried out in more or less the conventional
style, mostly using traditional chimney kilns. Fish is kept hung or spread in mesh
trays in an upward draft of smoke produced in the floor by the burning fire. In
the initial stages the fish is moist and the smoke is highly humid. Under these
conditions use of high temperature will invariably result in cooking of the fish
flesh. To avoid this, the temperature inside the chamber should not be raised to
the maximum employed in the process. In the second stage, when the surface of
the fish is considerably dry, the temperature inside the chamber could be raised
to a level that the fish species concerned will tolerate. During smoking the fish
dries as also absorbs the aromatic substances from the smoke. RH above 70-80
per cent will considerably slow down the drying and smoking process. Cold
smoking is generally carried out at temperature not exceeding 40 oC. Duration of
smoking extends to several hours, say 36-72 hr.
 Hot smoking: Several designs of kilns tunnels are available for hot smoking fish.
The fuel is burnt either directly inside the kiln on movable trolleys or in external
hearths located near the tunnel. In contrast to cold smoking where cooking of
the flesh is neither the aim nor is attained in any case, in hot smoking fish is
dried and cooked in the kiln before it is smoked. Drying is done in an intense
draught of hot air at 75 to 80oC produced by burning fire. The skin of the fish
becomes dry while flesh becomes cooked as well. At this stage the fish is
considered ready for smoking. Smoke is produced by covering the burning logs
with saw dust and the temperature in the chamber is maintained at or above
100oC. A schedule of operation in hot smoking can be considered as drying at 75
to 80oC for an hour followed by smoking at 95 to 100 oC for another one hour.
The requirements will vary with the size and species of fish.

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 4. Post process handling: On removing from the kiln the smoked fish is warm and is
generally allowed to cool before grading and packing. Smoked fish can also be frozen
and cold store which will minimize the chances of spoilage before consumption

MICROBIOLOGICAL QUALITY OF MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS

The microorganisms, which are found in meat mainly, consist of bacteria and fungi. The fungi
include moulds and yeasts. Moulds are multi-cellular organisms with mycelial morphology,
which gives variety of colour with mildewy or fizzy cotton like appearance. Moulds develop
numerous tiny spores that are spread by air currents and other means. These spores germinate
if they alight at a location favorable for germination. In contrast to moulds, yeast is unicellular
which can spread through air or by other means and will contaminate meat surfaces wherever
they settle. Yeast colonies are moist and appear creamy white in colour. Whereas, bacteria
have varying morphology from elongated rods to spherical or ovoid forms.

Some bacteria produce colored pigments ranging from orange, red, pink, blue, green to purple.
These bacteria cause discoloration of meat surfaces and greening in sausages. The bacterial
growth on meat surface is characterized by slime formation.

The growth of bacteria occurs in phases as shown below,

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The bacterial spores or inactive forms present initially, increase in size during lag phase. This is
followed by a marked increase in the number of organism in log phase until some or one
environmental factor becomes limiting.

Bacteria generally grow faster than yeast and yeast outgrows moulds. Hence growth of
moulds can only exceed bacterial growth, only if initial mould arrest is high or condition is more
suitable for mould.

The rate of growth then slows down and reaches an equilibrium point, which is
relatively constant, resulting in the stationery phase. The preservation processes cause
destruction of microorganism leading to the death phase. From the growth curve it is apparent
that a prolonged lag phase can retard microbial proliferation. This basic principle is applied in
the use of refrigeration for the control of deteriorative changes or spoilage of meat.

The type and number of each type of organism present are important factors that
contribute to rate of spoilage. However, a number of environmental factors affect the kind, rate
and degree of spoilage. The organisms that eventually grow enough to cause spoilage will be
those that have found the existing conditions favorable. Though several kinds exist, usually one
or more than three multiply rapidly to cause spoilage.

Factors affecting Microbial activity in Meat:

Among the factors that affect microbial growth in meat are intrinsic factors such as moisture,
pH, oxidation – reduction potential, nutritive value and presence of inhibitors. In addition
extrinsic factors such as temperature, humidity, presence of oxygen and physical form of meat
(carcass, wholesale or retail cuts etc.) affect the growth of microorganisms. However, factors

113
having greatest influence on the growth of microorganism in meat and meat products are
storage temperature, moisture and oxygen availability.

Intrinsic factors:

1. Water: All microorganisms require Water and a reduction in its availability constitutes a
method of preservation. It is not the total amount of moisture present that determines
the limit of microbial growth, but the amount of moisture, which is readily available.

2. Water activity (aw ) is defined as ratio of water vapour pressure of food substrate to
that of vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature. In general, bacteria
have the highest water activity requirement and mould the lowest, with yeast being
intermediate. Most spoilage bacteria do not grow at an aw below 0.91, but spoilage
moulds and yeast can grow at an aw of 0.50 or lower. Thus, moulds and yeast are the
most probable organism to grow on the surface of meat products that are partially
dehydrated where bacterial growth is prevented.

aw of fresh meat: 0.99 . Gram negative bacteria are highly sensitive to aw than Gram
positive bacteria.

Favorable aw Organisms
level
0.96 Pseudomonas.
0.95 Clostridium and Enterobacteriaceae (Enterobacter, Escherechia, Salmonella)
0.93 Lactobacillus, Streptococcus.
0.91 Staphylococcal growth.
0.90 Pediococcus, Micrococcus.
0.87 Yeast
0.85 Penicillium (Mould)
0.65 Aspergillus (Mould)

3. pH:
Micro organisms have a pH range for optimum growth that is generally near neutrality (pH =
7.0), where as moulds have a widest range of tolerance of pH. In fact, they can thrive in a
medium that is too acidic for either bacteria or yeast.

Moulds: 2.0 – 8. pH of different meats: Beef: 5.4- 6.2

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 Yeast : 4.0 – 4.5 Ham: 5.9 – 6.1
Bacteria: 6.2 – 6.8 Veal: 6.0
Chicken: 6.2 – 6.4

At normal ultimate pH of 5.4 –5.6 in meat, the conditions favour the growth of yeast and
acidophilic bacteria. In meat with low pH values (5.2 and lower), microbial growth is reduced
markedly from that of the normal pH range. Meat with high ultimate pH is highly susceptible to
growth of micro organism, even under the best managemental conditions

4. Oxidation - reduction potential:

The oxidation – reduction potential of meat is an indication of its oxidizing and reducing power
and is defined as the ratio of total oxidizing (electron accepting) power to the total reducing
(electron donating) power of the substance.

Aerobic organisms are strongly favored by a high oxidation – reduction potential. A low
oxidation reduction potential largely favours anaerobic bacterial growth. Facultative organism
are capable of growing in either conditions. Microorganisms are capable of altering the
oxidation – reduction potential of meat to the extent that the activity of other organisms is
restricted. Anaerobes for instance can decrease the oxidation-reduction potential level so that
the growth of aerobic organism can be inhibited.

Following exsanguination, the oxygen supply is eliminated and during the subsequent
period of the conversion of muscle to meat the oxidation – reduction falls considerably.
Generally reduced potential is observed in postmortem muscle where in oxygen penetration
into the tissues is inhibited and many reducing groups are available. Hence, surface of meat has
high oxidation – reduction potential compared to interior of meat. Grinding and other
comminution of meat markedly increases the oxidation – reduction potential favoring the
growth of aerobic bacteria.

Type of microorganism/meat OR potential

Aerobes +500 to +300 mV,
Anaerobes +100 to –250 mV,
Facultative organisms +300 to –100 mV
Minced fresh meat +225 mV,
Post rigor meat -60 to –150 mV,
Canned meat -20 to –60 mV.

5. Nutrient requirement:

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In addition to water and oxygen, aerobes require other nutrients for optimal growth. Most
organisms need external sources of nitrogen, minerals, and B Vitamins to support their growth.
Nitrogen is generally obtained from amino acids and non-protein nitrogen sources. However,
some microorganisms utilize peptides and proteins. Carbohydrates are the main source of
energy for bacteria. Since meat is low in these nutrients, proteolytic bacteria use protein as an
energy source and other bacteria use lipids for the purpose. Of the three groups moulds are
best equipped for utilization of proteins, complex carbohydrates and lipids, as they contain
enzymes capable of hydrolyzing these molecules. Many bacteria also contain such enzymes, but
yeasts require simpler forms of these compounds. All types of organisms require minerals
whereas requirements of Vitamins vary with each type of organism. Moulds can synthesize
enough B – Vitamin to meet their needs, while other microorganisms require a ready-made
supply, even though some are needed only in very small amounts. Meat has in abundance each
of these nutrients and hence it is an excellent medium for microbial growth.

6. Presence of inhibitors and biological membranes

The final intrinsic factor affecting the growth of microorganism in meat is the presence or
absence of inhibitory substances such as bactericidal or bacteriostatic compounds. Some of the
substances are part of normal ingredients added to meat products during processing. These
substances are aldehydes, ketones, phenols, organic acids, species (garlic, mustard) etc.
Essentially no bacteriostatic substance is present in meat. Animal derived foods in raw state
have biological membranes that may prevent the entry of the microbes. Fat when and where
present on wholesale / retail cuts provides lean tissues with a protective surface against
microbial contamination. Similarly, a considerable amount of protection against microbial
contamination of the muscles and associated tissue is given by the skin in poultry and pork
carcasses the scales and skin for the fish. Physical damage caused during handling, storage,
processing causes destruction of these membranes.

Inter relation between intrinsic factors:

The effects of temperature, oxygen, pH and water activity are not entirely independent of each
other. At temperature near minimum or maximum growth, microorganisms become more
sensitive for oxygen availability, water activity and pH. Under anaerobic conditions bacteria
may require a higher pH, aw and minimum temperature for growth than when aerobic
conditions prevail. The microorganisms that grow at low temperature are usually aerobic and
they generally have a high minimum aw requirement. Consequently lowering aw by adding salt
or excluding oxygen from meat held at low temperature markedly reduces the rate of microbial
spoilage. Logically if salt is added to meat held at low temperatures, it follows, the preservative
effect would be even higher. Usually some microbial growth occurs, when any one of the

116
factors that controls the growth rate is at a limiting level. However, if two or more factors
become limiting, growth is drastically curtailed or is even entirely prevented.

Extrinsic factors:

1. Temperature: Each organism has an optimum temperature with a minimum and

maximum range for growth. Consequent to this, the temperature at which meat is
stored markedly influences the kind, rate and extent of microbial activity. A few degree
change in temperature may favour the growth of entirely different organisms and
resulting in a different type of spoilage. This character is at use to control microbial
activity.

The optimum temperature for growth of most of the microorganisms is between 15 to 40oC.

Organism Minimum temp.(oC) Optimum temp.( oC)

Thermophiles 40-45 55-75
Mesophiles 5-15 30-45
Psychrophiles -5 to +5 12-15

Moulds generally are the most psychrophilic, followed by yeast and bacteria. Moulds and yeast
are least thermophilic. Thus, although bacteria, yeast and mould might all be present in meat
stored at –1 to 3oC, if other conditions are favourable mould and yeast growth would be more
than the bacteria. As the temperature approaches 0oC, only fewer organisms can grow or
proliferate. Temperature below 5oC greatly retards the growth of the most important spoilage
bacteria and also prevents the growth of all pathogens. Consequently 5oC is considered as
critical temperature during meat storage is exceeded for a short duration.

Following slaughter, surfaces of meat usually have a high amount of bacteria of fecal
and soil origin. During refrigerated storage these bacteria usually give way to the more
psychrophilic bacteria. Among the important genera of bacteria found on meat during
refrigeration storage are:

 Pseudomonas,
 Achromobacter,
 Micrococcus, Lactobacillus,
 Streptococcus,
 Flavobacterium,
 Proteus etc.,
The particular species of these bacteria will differ between fresh and stored meat. Though
some of these organisms can grow slowly, they are killed or damaged during freezing and the

117
number of bacteria continues to decrease with subsequent freezer storage. However, these
species can survive and will resume growth upon thawing.

2. Relative humidity:
This is another extrinsic factor that affects microbial growth as it contributes to the chilling and
storage environment. The relative humidity level for maintaining optimal storage conditions
varies with the temperature. In general, higher the storage temperature lower the relative
humidity be. Thus, for the usual meat refrigeration temperature of –1 to 3oC the relative
humidity should range between 88 – 92%. When relative humidity is very high, moisture
condenses on the meat (cold sweating) and if relative humidity is too low moisture will be lost
from the meat into the environment, causing shrinkage. If sweating occurs, the surfaces will be
moist and very conducive for microbial growth and spoilage. On the contrary, microbial growth
is inhibited by the dehydration and darkening of meat surfaces, but this result in economic
losses due to shrinkage and a loss of eye appeal.

Of all the organisms, bacteria require the highest relative humidity, usually in excess of
92 per cent, for optimum growth, yeast are intermediate (90 – 94%) and mould have the lowest
relative humidity requirement (85 – 90%). All microorganisms have high moisture requirement
for water to support their growth and activity. However, the moisture present in the meat itself
meets majority of moisture required by the microbes.

3. Oxygen availability:

The availability of oxygen is also an important factor, which determines what type of
microorganism will be active. Some of microorganisms have an absolute requirement for
oxygen. Others grow in the complete absence of oxygen, and still, others can grow with or
without available oxygen. These microorganisms are called aerobic, anaerobic and facultative
organisms respectively. All moulds that grow on meat are aerobic and yeast also do best in
aerobic conditions.

Aerobic conditions prevail in meat stored in air, but only on or near the surfaces because
oxygen diffusion into the tissues is strongly resisted. Thus, the microbial growth occurs on the
surface of meat is largely of aerobes perhaps with some facultative organisms, and the interior
portion of meat contain primarily anaerobic and facultative bacteria. It is readily apparent that
the atmosphere surrounding the meat will markedly affect the microbial population and their
activity. The use of casings, package material, vaccum package and sealed containers, hence
reduces or entirely prevents the activity of aerobic microorganisms.

4. Physical state of meat:

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This is determined by whether the meat is in the form of carcass, wholesale cut, retail cut or
comminuted form and on the processing treatment that is applied. Comminution results in a
greater microbial load because of the larger amount of exposed surface area, more readily
available water and nutrients and greater oxygen penetration and availability. Hence small cuts
(or ground meat are conducive to the growth of microorganisms and more readily susceptible
to spoilage).

Several factors do contribute to the increased microbial load, they are greater exposed
surface area, additional time required for achieving size reduction and contact with more
source of contamination such as saws, grinders and choppers. In addition, the contaminating
microorganisms are distributed throughout the meat produced during comminution. Thus rigid
measures must be taken to minimize contamination by microorganisms, followed by steps to
curtail their growth, in order to avoid spoilage.

ASSESSMENT of Microbial number, growth and activity in Meat:

Several methods are available for assessment of microbial quality of meat and meat products.
The method of choice is dependent upon information needed. The specific product in question,
and the nature of the microorganism. Special emphasis is to be given in obtaining
representative sample of the product in question which is probably the most important factor
affecting the results. Additionally results of microbiological results are less objective than the
chemical methods of analysis. A good amount of experience, knowledge and specific problems
encountered in meat production are essential for selection of most appropriate method and
the eventual usefulness of the results that have been obtained.

Irrespective of these limitations, the application of microbiological analysis can provide the
meat processor and handlers much useful information. It can provide an indication of sanitary
conditions, microbiological load, spoilage problems, and give an estimate of expected shelf life.
For these assessments usually, total viable count, Coliform count, Enterococci count and dye
reduction methods are employed. Estimation of specific microorganisms such as E.coli,
Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella, Listeria, Clostridium perfringens etc, is also performed.

Total Viable count

This method provides an indication of the total population of microorganisms. It can be used to
assess the load on or in a meat product in the air and water, as well as on equipment, related
surfaces etc. A swab of the equipment, walls or product to be analyzed is applied to a culture
media that non selectively supports growth of micro organisms. The swab is applied to the
media in a sterile covered plate or a diluted sample of comminuted products can be added to
the medium. After incubation for 48 hours to 72 hours number of colonies grow giving an
indication of total microbial numbers, but provides little clue as to the specific organisms that
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are present. However, special methods are present which permit the selective growth of
specific organisms their presence and numbers. For estimation of bacteria in fresh meat or
products generally either pour plate or spread plate methods are used.

Coliforms

These consist of E. coli and Aerobactor aerogenes. Their presence indicates faecal
contamination due to unhygienic handling during or after processing of meat products.
Coliforms can be distinguished because of their property to produce gas from lactose at 44°C.
However, out of two organisms in this category, E. coli is a better indicator of faecal
contamination.

Enterococci

These are members of faecal streptococci (group D), which consist of:

 S. faecalis (and its varieties)

 S. faecium (var durans)
 S. bovis
 S. equines
These organisms indicate poor hygienic quality of frozen meats and inadequate heat treatment
of canned meats.
Dye reduction method: Several organisms secrete enzymes as a normal metabolic function of
their growth, and these enzymes are capable of inducing reduction reaction. Certain dye
substances are used as basis of these tests, and the rate of their reduction is proportional to the
number of organisms present. The length of time required for the complete reduction of a
standard amount of the indicators is used to assess microbial numbers in meat or in an extract
of meat. This method is easier, quicker than plate count test and thus, have become quite
useful in rapid microbiological assays in meat processing and handling operation. Among the
modification of these methods is the application of a dye impregnated filter paper directly on to
meat or a piece of equipment. The time required for the color changes to occur is used to
evaluate the number of organisms that are present.

Other indicators
Besides above indicators, specific organisms like Staph. aureus, Salmonella, yeast and mould
counts are also important. Heat-treated meats should also be screened for the presence or
absence of B. cereus and Clostridia. Canned meat products are generally subjected to sterility
test. For this purpose, cans are incubated at 30° C and 55° C for 15 days. Swollen or disfigured
cans show the product spoilage.

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Microbial standards:
Microbiological quality standards vary from country to country and with in a country from state
to state as in USA with regards to total microbial load and indicator bacteria.

USA (FDC Act) Total viable count (TVC) 5million/gram in fresh meat and
1million/gram in cooked meat
Switzerland (1979) Aerobic plate count (ACP)- 10million/gram
Enterobacteriaceae- 1000/gram
Staphylococci- 1000/gram
Israel (1983) ACP- 5x106/gram
Staphylococcus aureus- 100/gram
Streptococcus faecalis- 100/gram
Salmonella- 0/gram in 20g of sample

Microbial standards for water used in meat plants (UK)

Indicators: (1) E-coli- absent in 100ml
(2) Coliforms- 0 to 3 in 100ml
(3) Salmonella- 0 to 3 in 40ml
(4) Total count- less than 200/ml at 22oC
less than 100/ml at 37oC

Microbial standards prescribed by Government of India

{Export of raw meat (chilled/frozen) quality control and inspection rule, 1990 and raw meat
(chilled/frozen) grading and marketing rules, 1991}
(Note: Microbial standards are same for the products and grades)

Products Grades Microbial standard

(Minimum 5 samples should be drawn and tested)
1) Buffalo meat Choice, 1) Total plate count- out of 5 samples, 3
Good samples should have TPC not exceeding
Commercial 106/g and remaining two can have up to 107/g
2) Veal Choice 2) E-coli- out of 5 samples, 3 samples
Standard should have E-coli counts not exceeding
10/g and remaining two samples can have
E-coli count up to 100/g
3) Mutton Choice 3) Salmonella should be absent in all the
Standard samples
4) Minced meat Grade-I

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 (Kheema)

Undesirable changes caused by microorganisms in meat,

Spoilage due to bacteria,
1. Bone taint: Bone taint is that spoilage that takes place in the deep musculature of
carcasses that are heavy, well endowed with fat and also cooled very slowly, and
putrefactive bacteria, of anaerobic spore forming type is responsible for this condition.
The most commonly affected joint is hip joint and putrefaction is evident both in the
femur and its surrounding musculature. Stress at slaughter predisposes those animals to
this condition. Taint in hams are also encountered and Clostridium putrifaciens and
Cl. putrificum are the most common bacteria incriminated. Rapid cooling can prevent
these conditions.
2. Phosphorescence: Phosphorescence is a condition caused by Pseudomonas
phosphorescens , in which meat contaminated in the cold stores, which became
originally contaminated by sea fishes stored therein ( organism is found in the sea
water) shows luminous areas scattered over the surface of carcasses and it appears as
though stars were studded on them.
3. Miscellaneous colour changes on meat surfaces caused by bacteria
 Serratia marccescens – Red colour similar to beet root juice
 Pseudomonas cyanagenus- Blue colour

Spoilage due to yeast and moulds

1. Black Spot: A condition caused by Cladosporium herbarum in which black spots appear
on carcass surfaces stored above -8 ⁰ C. Rhizopus and Pullaria may also be involved. This
is not a mere surface phenomenon and may extend into the muscle even necessitating
condemnation of entire quarter.
2. White spot: A condition caused by Sporotrichum and Chrysosporium in which white
woolly spots appear on carcass surfaces stored above -8⁰C and plentifully at -2.5⁰C and
profuse if above 0⁰C. This is an entirely superficial condition.
3. Whiskers: Whiskers is a condition caused by Thamnidium and Mucor and their hyphae
project about 2.5 cm beyond the surface of meat. They cease to grow at temperatures
below -7.5⁰C, but retain viability and proliferate, if exposed above freezing point. Hence
whiskers is an indication of temperature abuse.
4. Bluish green moulds such as Penicillium spp also cause surface discolouration in meat
which is also superficial.

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 SENSORY EVALUATION OF MEAT PRODUCTS

Sensory attributes of a food provide a number of stimuli, which involve the senses of eye, ear
and tongue. Sight, smell and taste senses assess the colour, size and shape, aroma and flavour
of a food respectively, where as the feel, hardness, crunchiness of the outer covering of the
coated product can be assessed with the tactile and hearing senses. All of these qualities can
have a significant influence on the quality of a food and can be assessed by sensory panels. The
sensory evaluation involves many techniques applicable to foods utilizing the people in place in
parallel with instruments to assess the characteristics of a food.

The sensory evaluation can be used for development of new products, identifying problems
with a product, grading, quality assurance, optimize a number of desirable features of a
prototype product and in re-formulation of products due to short supply of certain ingredients.

Eating quality of meat

The value of meat is based on its degree of acceptability to consumers. Satisfaction derived
from meat consumption depends on psychological and sensory responses unique among
individuals. The quality of raw meat can be defined as the suitability of meat for use in a
specified product. If the meat is well suited for the product it is intended for, then the meat
quality is defined as good.

The attributes of the meat that determine the quality thus depend on the use for which the
meat is intended. Quality can be defined as technological quality, describing the suitability of
meat for further processing like salting, curing etc or as fresh eating quality that describes the
meat for fresh meat consumption and which involves all traits registered with our senses like
the appearance, flavour, texture, tenderness and juiciness. Characteristics of meat that
contribute to palatability are those that are agreeable to the eye, nose and palate.

Palatability of meat is defined in terms of

1. Appearance
2. Tenderness and Texture
3. Juiciness
4. Flavour and Aroma
5. Accepted Nutritive Value

1. Appearance: The appearance of raw meat influences the consumers’ willingness to buy
the meat and can therefore be regarded as an important quality factor. However after
cooking tenderness, juiciness, flavour and appearance of cooked meat together
determines the eating quality.

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  Consumers expect the meat to have attractive colour (Refer Properties of fresh
meat for fresh meat Colour)
 Dark colour is often associated with lack of freshness even though it may be due
to old age or one that was slaughtered under stress.
 Most desired fat colour is white/ creamy white. Yellow fat, as found in grass fed
animals are less appealing to the consumers.

Cooked meat Colour has an impact on the consumer’s enjoyment of a particular product.
Brown surfaces on meat cooked with dry heat are often associated with crispiness and unique
flavour. Golden brown roasts / steaks are considered desirable. The degree of doneness during
cooking determines the colour of cooked meat.

1. Rare Done 58-60o C Meat appears pink

2. Medium rare 66-68 o C Pinkish ( Pink to Gray)
3. Medium Done 73-75 o C Brownish/ Grayish
4. Well Done 80-82 o C Brown/ Gray.

Cured meat colour is pink because of nirosylhemochrome developed due to addition of Sodium
nitrite.

2. Tenderness and Texture: Tenderness is the most important palatability factor in the
acceptance of meat. The sensation of tenderness has several components of varying
importance and perception of tenderness by human is very difficult to duplicate by
scientific instrumentation.

Perception of tenderness:

1. Softness to tongue and cheek- it is a tactile sensation resulting from contact of meat
with tongue and cheek. Wide variation in softness is observed varying from mushy to
woody consistency.
2. Resistance to tooth pressure- relates to the force required to sink the teeth into the
meat.
3. Ease of fragmentation- is an expression of the ability of the teeth to cut across meat
fibers.
4. Mealiness- is an exaggerated type of fragmentation. Small particles of meat cling to the
tongue, gum and cheek and give the sensation of dryness.
5. Adhesion- degree to which fibers are held together.

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 6. Residues after chewing- is detected as that amount of connective tissue remaining after
most of the sample have been masticated.

The major components that contribute to tenderness are:

1. Connective tissue: This depends on the age, location of muscle and sex. Collagen is the
major connective tissue responsible for meat toughness. The degree of cross-linkages of
collagen determines the toughness, which increases with age of animals. The types of
collagen fibers do have an influence on toughness. Muscles of the Psoas major have thin
fibers compared to other muscles especially of the neck where the collagen fibers are thick
leading to toughness.

2. Muscle Fiber structure: Degree of tenderness of muscles is determined partially by the post
rigor contraction state, a condition that is controlled in part by the amount of tension on
muscles during the onset of rigor. The muscle fiber diameter varies with species. The size of
muscle bundles is positively associated with the visible coarseness of the muscle and
increases with the age of the animal. Higher the muscle fiber diameter and bundle size
coarser the texture.

3. Adipose Tissue (Fat): Intramascular fat located in the perimysium acts as lubricant during
mastication, thus improving the apparent tenderness and easing the process of swallowing.

Development of tenderness:

1. Natural Tenderization:

Conditioning/ Ageing/ Ripening/ Tenderization: It is the process of holding the meat just above
its freezing point for a period of time during which, the muscle enzymes remain active and bring
about desirable changes in the quality characteristics such as tenderness, juiciness and flavour
of meat in the absence of microbial spoilage. This can be achieved by holding the meat at -0.5°C
to 0C for 1-2 days or at 2-3C for 10-12 days or at 4.5-7C for 24 hours. The period of ageing is
2-6 weeks. The changes that occur during ageing are proteolysis and increased osmotic
pressure within the muscle structures which have synergistic effect on tenderness.

Muscle Proteinases and Tenderization: The mechanism involved in muscle tenderization is

considered to be enzymatic and physico-chemical reactions. The natural proteolytic enzymes
related to tenderization process include Calpain - Calpastatin, Cathepsin - Cystatin and the
Proteosome or macropin.

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 For a Proteinase to be actively involved in post-mortem tenderization it should posses
the following characteristics:

1. Endogenous to Skeletal tissue

2. Ability to reproduce PM changes in myofibril invitro.
3. Must have access to myofibrils in the tissue.

Calpains are of two types -  and m calpains and are responsible for causing tenderization
during first 24-48 hours, where there is favorable pH and Calcium ion concentration for its
activity. The other factor, which influences the activity of Calpain, is the presence of inhibitor
Calpastatin. Calpastatin has inhibitory effect on both  and m calpain but m- calpains are highly
inhibited and it takes twice its amount to inhibit - calpain. The ratio of calpastatin: - Calpain
in beef, lamb, and pork are 2:1, 1.25:1 and 0.75:1 respectively.

Cathepsins: The cathepsins are present in the lysosomes and a fall in pH during PM glycolysis
weakens the walls of the organelle such as lysosome, which inturn causes the release of
lysosomal proteinase Cathepsin B, D and L and have a pH optima around 5.5-6.5. Myosin heavy
chain, Myosin light chain, Troponin-C and actin appears to be sensitive to the action of
cathepsins. In meat the normal osmotic pressure is 300 milli osmoles but during conditioning it
increases to 500-600 milli osmoles and hence initiating proteolysis.

Muscle Proteinase and their characteristics

Location Proteinase M.W pH range Action

Sarcoplasm - Calpain 110,000 6.5-7.5 Releases -actinin (Links actin to Z-
(Micromolar line), Z-actinin
Concentration of ( forms lattice of Z-line)
Calcium)
m- Calpain 110,000 6.5-7.5 Degrades desmin (present in the
(Millimolar periphery of Z-line), connectin
concentration of (connects myosin to Z disc), Nebulin,
Calcium) filamin (connects actin to Z disc)
Troponin T and I, tropomyosin, C-
and M- proteins
Lysosome Cathepsin B 25,000 3.5-6.5 Degrades myosin, actin,
Troponin T and collagen

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 Cathepsin L 28,000 3.0-6.5 Degrades myosin, actin,
Troponin T & I, tropomyosin,
-Actinin, and collagen.

Cathepsin D 42,000 3.0-6.0 Degrades myosin, actin,

tropomyosin, Troponin T & I, -
actinin, and collagen

Artificial Tenderization:

1. Tender stretch method: Normally the carcasses are hung on the Achilles tendon. But,
when hung from the obturator foramen, the muscle stretches properly and hence
stiffness is being prevented. Older method not commercially used.
2. Application of tenderizing enzymes: Proteolytic enzymes of plant origin such as Papain
(papaya), Ficin (Fig) and Bromelin (Pineapple) have been either injected into animals
before slaughter or applied or injected into the meat directly to cause tenderization.
Such enzymes have greater activity at high temperature and tenderization takes place
during early stages of cooking (60-71 C) and the enzymes subsequently being
inactivated.

Dose of Live animal Injection: 300-500 ml of 5-10 % solution. After injection the animals must
be slaughtered within 10-15 minutes, this being the optimum time range for maximum
tenderness of meat. The major disadvantage of this method of live animal injection is that
tongue, liver and kidney becomes over tenderized and sometimes anaphylactic reactions may
be produced in animals that are non-tolerant. Crude ginger rhizome extract of 0.5-1 % in
marination mixture has been found to have beneficial effect on tenderization.

3. Calcium Chloride: Calpain proteolytic system in PM tenderization revealed that elevated

levels of Ca of muscle either by infusion of injection results in accelerated process of
ageing.
Dose: Injection: 100 mM CaCl2 solution @ 10% (w/w) in sheep
250 mM CaCl2 solution @ 10 % (w/w) in buffaloes (or) 200 mM
CaCl2 marination for 24 hours.
FDA has approved use of injection of 3 % (w/w) 0.8 M CaCl 2. The use of CaCl2 has two fold
effects, one it helps in tenderization and secondly meat is a poor source of calcium and hence it
serves as a mode of calcium fortification.

4. Electrical Stimulation: ES following slaughter is the new commercial method of meat

tenderization. ES involves the application of sufficient voltage of current to cause rapid

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 glycolysis of muscles, which produces both physical and biochemical effects in the
muscle tissues. A current of 110 V, 50 cycles/ second, 5 ampere current within 30
minutes of slaughter for 15 seconds. Application of Es for longer duration of 1 minute at
80 V and 14 pounds/ second current causes breakdown of collagen linkage and the
tissues.

5. Vitamin D supplementation: Animals fed or injected with Vitamin D (7.5 million IU of

vitamin D3) 7 days before slaughter caused an increase in tenderness. This may be due
to the fact that vitamin D increases the calcium level (both absorption and retention),
which inturn assists naturally occurring endogenous enzyme system of the muscle tissue
which causes breakdown of muscle fibers when meat is aged after death.

6. Hydrodyne process: Placing of carcass in water and then setting off a controlled
explosion in water instantly tenderizes the meat. The supersonic shock waves instantly
fracture the muscle fibers.

Factors affecting tenderness:

1.Ante-mortem factors:
 Genetic characteristics,
 Physiological factors,
 Feeding and Managemental practices.
2.Post-mortem factors:
 Time and temperature of storage: When held at 0-5 C after slaughter tenderness
decreases during first 24 hours and then gradually decreases.
 Use of artificial tenderizers.
 Muscle variation
 Cooking: Heat may cause both tenderization and toughening of meat. When proteins of
muscles are exposed to heat, they lose their native structure and undergo several
changes in configuration i.e. denaturation followed by aggregation or clumping of
protein molecules (coagulation). This phenomenon progressively increases with
temperature rise and is called as protein hardening. This does not occur at temperature
below 63 C. These heat induced changes in proteins reduces tenderness. On the other
hand, when collagen surrounding the CT is heated it undergoes physical changes that
cause increased solubility. The first change taking place is physical shortening of
collagen to one-third of its original length. This may occur at temperature as low as 56 
C but normally at 61-62 C called as collagen shrinkage. On heating for extended time in
presence of moisture, collagen further gets hydrated and hydrolyzed to form gelatin.
Thus collagen becomes tendered with heating.

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Temperature- Tenderness relationship:

Low meat temperature 56-58 C Relatively low tenderization

Medium temperature 62-64 C Collagen shrinkage occurs rapidly.
High temperature 72-74 C Rapid collagen shrinkage and protein hardening.

However continued heating at this temperature results in substantial hydrolysis of collagen and
eventually causes meat tenderization.

3. Juiciness: Juiciness is the feeling of moisture in the mouth during chewing. It is a

dynamic attribute changing during the chewing process. The juiciness of cooked meat
may be separated into two effects:
 The impression of wetness during the first few chews produced by rapid release of
meat fluids.
 Sustained juiciness apparently because of slow release of serum and the stimulatory
effect of fat on salivary flow.

The principal sources of meat juiciness as detected by the consumers are the Intramuscular fat
and water. The Intramascular are seen on the perimysial connective tissue and during cooking,
these fats are translocated and form a broth in combination with the water and is retained in
meat and released on chewing. The uniform distribution of Intramascular fat also prevents
moisture loss and hence meat with good marbling has less shrink loss.

Factors affecting juiciness:

1. Marbling: In young animals marbling is poor and hence such meat gives watery effect on
first few chews but a final impression of dryness.
2. Ageing of meat: Aged meats are much juicier than the un-aged meat.
3. Cooking method: The amount of loss during cooking is inversely proportional to the
juiciness of the final product. Lower cooking temperature and moisture content of the
cooking environment has greater influence on the juiciness of the meat product.
Greater the degree of doneness, the less juicy a meat cut will be. Meat cooked at
temperatures of 60, 70 and 80 C will have a final moisture content of 70, 65 and 60 %
respectively.

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4. Flavour and aroma: The psychological and many physiological responses experienced when
meat is consumed are elicited by the products flavour and aroma. These components stimulate
the release of saliva and gastric juices thus aiding in digestion.

Perception of flavour involves detection of four basic sensations like salty, sweet, sour
and bitter by the nerve endings on the surface of the tongue. Aroma is detected when
numerous volatile materials stimulate the nerve endings in the lining of nasal passage. Hence,
flavour and aroma is a combination of both gustatory (taste) and olfactory (smell) stimulus. The
flavour of raw meat is weak, salty, blood like and the true flavour develops on cooking.

Un-aged beef : Metallic and Astringent

Veal : Sweet/ sour or Flat
Pork : Bland

Development of aroma during cooking may be attributed to non-enzymatic browning (Maillard

reaction) i.e. reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars.

ATP ADP AMP IMP Inosinic acid & Hypoxanthine

Pi Pi Pi Pi

Hence animal with high-energy stores have pronounced flavour. This may be attributed to the
strong flavour observed in male, older animals and in game birds. Other compounds imparting
meat flavour include:

 Water soluble compounds of muscle tissue.

 Sulphur containing compounds.
 Volatile substances produced due to heating of fat and produce species specific
flavour.

Warmed over flavour: The most important aspect of curing of meat with nitrite and forming
nitrosylhemochrome is to immobilize the iron in the complex, which retards the catalytic
activity of Iron in formation of warmed over flavor. Iron catalyzes the breakdown of
unsaturated fatty acids leading to formation of volatile substances and off flavour.

Sensory evaluation principles

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Sensory evaluation is defined as a scientific discipline used to measure, analyze and interpret
reactions to those characteristics of food as they are perceived by the senses of sight, smell,
taste, touch and hearing.

The major factors that influence the effectiveness of sensory evaluation are,

1. Sample
2. Panelists
3. Environment
4. Presentation

Sensory panel:

Sensory panels are comprised of individuals 10 to 30 in number. It is important that the

panelists are screened for their basic taste accuracy and colour vision besides their ability to
describe the characteristics of a food product. They should be motivated, reliable and should be
readily available to attend all panel sessions. Sensory panel can be viewed as a necessary part
of the production process and employing part time sensory assessors' needs consideration.
Consumer panel usually have more than 100 individuals.

Environment:

To conduct effective sensory evaluation, the trained panelists should be kept free from
distractions and the tests should be carried out in a special enclosure which is provided with
good ventilation and controlled light facilities. They should preferable be seated at separate
booths and should not be able to communicate with each other during the test. The
international standards regarding the design of the sensory laboratory are available (BS 7183 or
ISO 8589).

Samples and their presentation:

The samples of food should be uniform in size, at the same temperature of serving. They should
be preferable be coded by a random three digit number and presented in clean odour free
containers. When more number of samples are to be evaluated, the panelists shall not receive
the samples in the same order. The panel judges shall be instructed to rinse their mouth out
with water between each sample and at times palate cleansers such as bread etc may be used
to remove the traces of the previous sample from their mouth.

SENSORY TESTS:

The three major types of test utilised in undertaking sensory evaluation are,

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  Discrimination Tests
 Descriptive Tests
 Affective Tests
For these the panelists are presented with a choice such as identify the odd sample, match the
sample with the reference, classify them in to groups etc.

Discrimination Tests

Discrimination Tests are used to determine whether a difference exists between samples. The
panelist does not allow his personnel likes and dislikes to influence his response. Laboratory
difference panels are used to determine if there is a difference among samples. Examples of
these tests include,
 Paired Comparison
 Triangle tests
 Duo-trio
 Two From Five Test
 Ranking Tests

1. Paired Comparison Test: Used to detect sample differences and directional differences
in a specific attribute. Also useful to train the panel from the consumer point of view.
Simple difference: Whether there is difference or not.
Directional difference: If there is difference, where is the difference? In texture, aroma
or flavour? In which direction the difference lies.
2. Triangle Test: Mainly used to find the differences between the samples and also for
training the panelists, to get concurrent values. Inter sample effects should be
minimum. Three coded samples, two are identical and one is test sample are given. The
test sample has to be identified. There should be minimum differences between the
samples.
3. Duo-trio Test: Mainly used to detect differences between samples with orientation
towards samples. It is used mainly in situations where different products or flavours are
tested at the same session for the same attribute. Used where there is a reference
sample. Used to evaluate all the quality attributes. The test should have three samples,
two identical and one different. Any one of the samples including the reference sample
can be duplicated. First reference sample is given, and then the other two samples are
given to match with the reference sample.
4. Two From Five Test: This is a difference test which is statistically more efficient than the
triangle test as the probability of correctly guessing the two odd samples is 1/10

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 compared to the triangle test and paired test which are 1/3 and 1/2, respectively. The
disadvantage is that it is affected by sensory fatigue.
5. Ranking: Objective is to rank several samples for identification of a single attribute.
There are two types, namely:
a) Intensity Ranking
b) Preference Ranking

This is very much used when lot of samples are available. All coded samples are simultaneously
given and asked to rank according to the intensity of one attribute or preference (overall view
about the product). Ranking tests can be used to put samples in order of some predetermined
sensory stimulus. Here more than two samples can be compared in different tests. However the
disadvantage is that the results will not be reliable if the differences among the samples are
very small. Here the samples presented in a random order are asked to place in rank based on
specific criteria.

Descriptive Tests

Descriptive tests are used to determine the nature and intensity of the differences. It requires
trained panels. Examples of these tests include,

 Rating or Scoring
 Texture and Flavour Profile Analysis
 Quantitative Descriptive Analysis
1. Rating Test: Used in foods, which have pronounced after effects or have a carryover
taste which comes in the way of tasting a second sample at the same time. Hence
one sample at a time can be rated, using suitable scales or scores.
2. Texture and Flavour Profile Analysis: These are descriptive evaluation of food. In
the fixed choice, the panelist can develop a list of vocabulary to describe the food.
The leader of the panelists shall discuss the words with other members to develop
an agreeable consensus. In the free choice method the panelist are provided with
likely range of samples during the training sessions to derive a unique profile.
3. Quantitative Descriptive Analysis: Descriptive analysis methods involve the
detection (discrimination), the description of the sensory attributes in a product
(qualitative aspect), and the scaling of the intensity of these attributes (quantitative
aspect) by a trained panel of 5 to 20 judges.

Affective Tests

Preference tests are affective tests based on a measure of preference from which relative
preference can be determined Examples of these tests include,
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  Hedonic Rating: Seven or five or nine point scale is used. Here hedonicity is known
and there is a wide range to express the response to the product. They measure the
degree of pleasurable and unpleasurable experience of food that is overall quality of
food. This is used to measure food preferences and not useful for individual quality
attributes.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF EGG

The main products of poultry farming are egg and meat. Poultry include hens, turkeys, geese,
ducks, and quails commercially. Table eggs are the infertile eggs from the hens and the ducks
that are used for consumption.

Eggs: Main purpose is to produce a chick and hence has all the nutritional and other
infrastructure facilities to hatch an egg. Egg is a highly nutritious food ranked along with milk as
an important and essential element required by human for growth and maintenance. It is highly
digestible and absorbable food with high biological value and hence called as FAO reference
protein. The average weight of an egg in case of hens is 58-60 grams, ducks: 60-62 g, quail: 10 g,
Geese: 135-215 g, Guinea fowl: 40 g and pheasants: 30 g. The main components of the egg
include the edible albumen and yolk and the inedible shell and shell membrane.

Chemical composition of egg:

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Component Total (%) Water (%) Protein (%) Fat (%) Ash (%)
Whole egg 100 65.5 11.8 11.0 11.7
Albumin 58 88.0 11.0 0.2 0.8
Yolk 31 48.0 17.5 32.5 2.0
Shell 11 Calcium Calcium Magnesium Organic
carbonate (%) phosphate (%) phosphate (%) matter (%)
94.0 1.0 1.0 4.0

Shell: The outer protective covering of an egg is shell comprised of 11% of its total weight. The
extreme outer covering of an egg shell is an invisible mucous coating deposited on the surface
of the shell, while the hen is in the process of laying and is called as the cuticle or bloom. The
eggshell is made up of a matrix consisting of protein fibers and spherical masses and interstitial
calcite crystals. Under the cuticle is the middle spongy or calcareous layer, which surrounds the
inner mammary layer of the shell, which consists of knobs of calcium perpendicular to the
surface of the shell. Underneath and attached to the calcium part are the outer and the inner
shell membranes (SM) made up of protein: keratin. The outer SM is 3 times thicker than the
inner SM and the total thickness of SM is about 0.01-0.02 mm. The outer SM has six layers and
is attached firmly to the shell where as the inner membrane has three layers.

There are numerous pores (2000-20000) on its entire surface, partially covered by the cuticle,
made up of keratin, which facilitates interchange of Carbon dioxide and moisture from between
the egg contents and the environment. The number of pores per unit area at the broad end is
much higher that at the pointed end.

Air Cell: This forms soon after the egg is laid. The temperature of the laid egg is about 40 C and
when it comes to the room temperature which is less than the temperature of the egg. There is
severe contraction of the internal contents leading to the separation of the inner and outer SM
at the broad end of the egg leading to formation of air cell.

Albumen: The watery gelatinous substance around the yolk is called the egg white or albumen.
This is made up of four layers viz.,

1. Chalaziferous layer (Immediate thick layer surrounding the yolk and has two whitish
cords on either side of the yolk called the chalazae cords, which helps in holding the egg
in central position)
2. Inner thin white
3. Thick white
4. Outer thin white

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The proportion of these layers is dependent on breed, environment, size of the egg and the rate
of production.

The dry matter content and the protein content of the albumen are dependent on the breed
and age of the hen. It is estimated that each gram increase in the weight of the egg accounts for
an increase of 0.09g of protein in the albumen. The lipid content of the yolk free albumen is
negligible. The carbohydrate content in the albumen exists in both free form as glucose (4%)
and in conjugation with protein as glucoprotein (0.5%). The surface activity of albumen and yolk
is below 75 dynes/cm, the surface tension of water because the proteins and phospholipids are
capable of reducing the surface and interfacial tension.

The pH of albumen of newly laid hen is about 7.6-8.5 and during storage the pH increases at a
temperature dependent rate to a maximum value of about 9.7. This rise in pH is caused by loss
of carbon dioxide from the egg through the shell pores. The pH is dependent on the equilibrium
between proteins, dissolved carbon dioxide, bicarbonate ions, and carbonate ions. Albumen is a
protein complex consisting of ovomucin fibers in an aqueous solution of a number of globular
proteins. The difference between the thick and the thin layers of the albumen is due to the
variation in the ovomucin content.

The major proteins of the albumen are:

a) Ova albumin (54%) – phospho-glycoproteins- denatured at 84 C

b) Conalbumin (ovotransferrin) (12%) –binds metallic ions
c) Ovomucoid (11%) –inhibits trypsin
d) Lysozymes (3.4%) –kill some bacteria
e) Ovoglobulins – excellent foaming agent
f) Ovomucin (3.5%) – contributes to viscosity- it is a glyco protein, which contributes to the
gel like structure of thick white. The amount of ovomucin in the thick white is 4 times
greater than thin white. The carbohydrate content of this fraction is about 33%. It has
the ability to inhibit viral haemagglutinin.
g) Avidin (0.5%)– glyco protein that combines with biotin to form a stable complex
incapable of absorption by the intestinal tract.
h) Ovoinhibitor (1.5%): Homogenous protein capable of inhibiting trypsin, chymotrypsin as
well as fungal and bacterial proteases.
i) Flavoprotein (0.8%)– all the riboflavin in the albumen is bound to the flavoprotein in the
ratio 1:1. The major function of this protein fraction is to ensure the transfer of
riboflavin from blood serum of the hen to the albumen of the egg.

Yolk: The yolk consists of concentric layers of light and dark yolk enclosed by the vitteline
membrane. The small white disc found on the surface of the yolk is the germinal disc or the

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blastoderm and is the spot where the germinal development begins if the egg is fertile.
However, the germinal disc is always present, irrespective of whether the egg is fertile or
infertile. The vitteline membrane holds the yolk together and gives the yolk its shape. The high
concentration of yolk fluid causes the yolk to absorb water from the egg white over time and in
doing so yolk becomes larger and flabby.

The dry matter content in the yolk is about 50 percent and the major constituents are proteins
(14-16 %) consisting of 4-10% Livetin, 4-15 % phosphoprotein and 16-18 % lipoprotein and lipids
(32-36%). The variability in the lipid content has been attributed to breed/strain characteristics
rather than the diet. The yolk lipids constitute around 65.5% triglycerides (60 % Linoleic and
oleic acid, 30 % palmitic and stearic acid), 28.3% phospholipids (49 % Lecithin and 51 %
cephalin) and 5.2% cholesterol. The type of fat in the diet influences the fatty acid composition
of yolk lipid. Major alteration in the dietary fat composition does not contribute to a change in
the total saturated fatty acid content in the eggs. Whereas, an increase in the dietary
polyunsaturated fatty acids results in the increase of Linoleic acid (18:2) content of the yolk in
addition to a concurrent decrease in oleic acid (18:1). The total share of the palmitic (16:0) and
stearic (18:0) acids in the trigyceride fraction is about 30% whereas, the oleic (18:1) and Linoleic
acid (18:2) content in the triglycerides are much higher at more than 60%.

The cholesterol content in the egg has been reported to be 30-36 mg per gram of dry
yolk there by one yolk would contain cholesterol in the range of 230 mg; however this is
variable depending on the genotype of the hen. The pH of yolk is about 6.0 but during storage it
increases to about 6.4-6.9.

Carotenoids in yolk: The yellow orange colour of yolk has been attributed to the fat-soluble
carotenoids in the lipid portions of lipoproteins. The majority of carotenoids are hydroxyl
compounds called Xanthophylls with minor amounts of carotene. The type and amount of
carotenoids in yolk is diet dependent since yolk involves intestinal absorption and
biotransformation of feed carotenoids to the ovary. The major xanthophylls are lutein,
zeaxanthin, and cryptoxanthin.

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF EGGS

Eggs provide unique balance source of nutrients to persons of all ages. Egg is an excellent food
for young children. Due to low calories, high nutrient content and ease of digestibility egg is
valuable for therapeutic diets for adults. (ICMR recommendation - ½ egg per day that is 180
eggs per year. But the present per capita availability is 57 eggs per year in India.

Energy: Each egg provides energy at 0.660 MJ/100g, which is 2.75 to 5% of RDA of energy with
a carbohydrate content of 0.60 percent. Inspite of low calories there is misconception that eggs

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produce lot of heat. Actually during heat stress, eggs are valuable due to less CHO and more of
proteins and vitamins.

Protein: An egg contains 12 to 14% of protein. Egg protein supplies 10 to 12% of RDA of an
adult (Protein requirement of human is 6 gm/ MJ of energy recommended) Egg protein is
highly digestible and easily absorbable. Biological of egg is considered as 96%. For children yolk
can be fed at 3 months of age and albumen only after a year, because proteins in albumen can
directly be absorbed in case of infants (less than 6 months of age) and may cause allergy. Egg
proteins contain all essential aminoacids.

Amino acid Mg/egg RDA

Isoleucine 380 54.00
Leucine 533 49.50
Lysine 480 46.50
Methionine 196 17.53
Phenyl alanine 343 31.50
Threonine 298 60.50
Tryptophan 97 28.00

Eggs do not have fiber. Dietary fiber is supposed to eliminate carcinogens from intestines. Thus,
some people say eggs are responsible for colon cancer, but it is not proved that eggs alone can
cause colon cancer.

Lipids: An adult requires 50g of fat per day and an egg supplies 11% of it. Egg contains 11 to 15
percent of lipids in it. Unsaturated fatty acids of egg twice that of saturated fatty acid, which is
highly recommend.

Saturated fatty acids (1.67g) Monounsaturated fatty acids (2.23g)

Myristic- 0.02 Palmitoleic- 0.19
Palmitic- 1.23 Oleic- 2.04
Stearic- 0.43

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (0.75g)

Linoleic 0.62
Linolenic 0.02

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Arachidonic 0.04

Cholesterol: Cholesterol content has been reported to be 274 mg/egg, recent studies 210 to
220 mg/egg and 90% of cholesterol is in non esterified form. Cholesterol is an important
metabolite required for growth of the embryo, it is integral part of cell membranes, and has an
important role in nervous tissue development, besides synthesis of steroid hormones.

Egg cholesterol and chronic heart disease:

An egg supplies about 0.72 g of (PUFA) polyunsaturated fatty acids, which includes 0.62 g of
linolic acid. Yolk fat is predominantly of concentrated type. The recommended
polyunsaturated/saturated ratio in any foodstuff 0.32 to 0.4 and in yolk, the ratio is 0.59, which
is highly desirable. Mixed diets contain 450 mg of cholesterol per day. There will be no
significant increase in cholesterol at the rate of 1or 2 eggs in diet.

Minerals: Eggs are excellent source of vitamins and minerals except Calcium and Vitamin C,
which is absent. The mineral and vitamin composition of eggs is as under:

Minerals Whole egg (mg)

Ca 28
Fe 1.04
Mg 6
P 90
K 65
Na 69
Zn 0.72
(Two eggs per day supply 5.6, 18 and 10.5 percent of Ca, P and Fe of RDA)
Vitamins Content RDA(%)
A – IU 590 11.8
B – IU 25 6.3
E – Mg 1 3.3
B1 – Mg 0.047 3.2
B2 – Mg 0.170 10.0
Niacine – mg 0.047 0.3
B6 – mg 0.073 7.3
Choline – mg 437 Not required
Pantothenic acid–mg 0.729 7.2
Folic acid – mcg 16 4.0
Biotin – mcg 9.70 7.4

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B12 – mcg 0.57 9.2

Effect of cooking of egg:

During cooking protein coagulation takes place at 62 to 65 oC. All types of cooking methods lead
to 25% loss in Vitamins B1, B2 and 31% of folic acid. Of them by hard cooking 25 % loss in folic
acid is noticed. In the preparation of Omlets only moderate loss of folic acid is observed.

Raw egg and human health:

To avoid unavailability of iron, riboflavin and biotin and to inhibition of the proteolytic trypsin
etc by the albumin fractions, it is best advised to consume eggs after the coagulation of
albumen- the proteins (which happens at around 65oC)

1. Raw egg forms thick lining on in addition the gastrointestinal mucosa and inhibits
secretion of gastric and intestinal juices leading to impaired digestion and absorption.
2. Egg yolk can harbour organisms like Salmonella potentially causing gastrointestinal
disorders in humans.
3. Because of possible allergic tendency to infants, it is advisable to avoid raw egg or to
omit eggs in infant diet up to 9-12 months.

Raw eggs can be useful in cases such as,

1. Gastrointestinal diseases like typhoid – raw eggs form protective lining to mucus
membrane of Gastrointestinal allowing regeneration of epithelial tissue.
2. Raw eggs can retard the absorption of poisonous and toxic substances.

Eggs may contain certain residues,

1. Insecticides: Gain entry through feed ingredients, eggs are more prone for
contamination with insecticides than meat.
2. Heavy metals: May gain entry through feed and water. In cannot be a serious problem
as negligible amounts are impregnated into eggs.
3. Veterinary Drugs: Gain entry through feed, water and parental route. Coccidiostats are
one of the important drugs to be encountered in eggs. Chloromphenicols and
Coccidiostats may be present in yolk, where as Sulfodimidine, may be found in albumen.

Misconceptions:

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 1. Egg shell colors are indications of high quality and high nutritive value. In fact, egg shell
color is not related to the nutritive value.
2. All foods with deep yellow are considered as more nutritive than lighter shades.
Xanthophylls are responsible for color and they have no nutritive value.
3. Fertile eggs are more nutritive than non fertile eggs. There is no proof and actually it is
more expensive to produce fertile eggs and in addition they deteriorate rapidly.
4. Raw eggs are more digestible than cooked. Actually both are well digested.
5. Egg is considered as non-vegetarian. Table eggs are non fertile and hence regarded are
vegetarian.
6. Eggs generate heat and there is drop in demand in summers. Eggs contain low calories
and do not produce much heat.
7. Eggs are responsible for arteriosclerosis and colon cancer, not proved.

PACKAGING AND PRESERVATION OF EGGS

Nature has given the egg a natural package - the shell. Despite its relative strength, the egg is
an extremely fragile product and even with the best handling methods, serious losses can result
from shell damage. Economical marketing generally requires that eggs be protected by the
adoption of specialized packaging and handling procedures.

Functions of packaging:

Packaging protects the eggs from:

 Micro-organisms, such as bacteria;

 Natural predators;

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  Loss of moisture;
 Tainting;
 Temperatures that cause deterioration; and
 Possible crushing while being handled, stored or transported

Packaging of shell eggs

1. Moulded pulp filler flats: Eggs are traditionally stored & transported in India. It is
cheap, but lack strength & unattractive.
2. Plastic filler flats: Strong, attractive & washable.
3. Paper board cartons with dividers.
4. Folded paper board cartons with shrink film overwrap of PE, PVC or PVDC
5. Expanded polystyrene foam egg cartons or trays: provide excellent cushioning
& strength besides being light weight

Packaging of whole egg powder

1. Egg powder is placed inside cellophane pouch with opening in one corner. This is
placed in a laminate pouch consisting of a brown casing paper/Alu. foil/PE which is
sealed after flushing with O2.
2. Packed in plain sanitary cans which are hermetically sealed under vvacuum or 100%
N2.

Labeling: Labels are a source of important information for the wholesaler, retailer and
consumer and not just pieces of paper stuck onto cartons or boxes. The important facts on the
label contain information for buyers concerning the eggs, their size and weight and
quality/grade description - AA, A or B.

PRESERVATION OF EGGS:

From the moment egg is laid, a series of changes take place in its contents and these changes
occur irrespective of the presence or absence of extraneous organisms. But egg, like all main
foodstuffs is acceptable to other organisms and hence is susceptible to their invasion. Their
invasion of the egg (infection), the consequent production of unattractive changes (spoilage),
the factors controlling their growth and question of prophylaxis is important towards
preservation of the egg quality.

Infection: The organisms, which spoil egg may gain access through infection of the hen
(endogenous disease) or by contamination of the egg surface, followed by the discontinuity of
the egg shell or the patent shell pores (exogenous disease). The consumer is more likely to

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encounter the latter, nevertheless both aspects are important.

 Endogenous Infection: Before oviposition, chances of upward migration and or

copulation resulting in contamination of eggs are very low since these infective
organisms should pass through the oviduct, which actively secretes the anti microbial
factors. There is a significant possibility of certain infective agents being lodged in the
yolk, which seems to have a negligible effect on the frequency of egg spoilage (rotting of
eggs) due to the meager numbers.
However, the organisms of public health importance such as Salmonella species,
especially in duck eggs are of prime importance though they need not contribute
towards egg spoilage. These organisms can gain entry into the system of the layer
through water or feed and later on migrate to the follicles. The other organisms, which
can get lodged in the yolk and oviduct, are Escherichia coli, Campylobacter sp and
Enterococci sp.

 Exogenous Infection: In the post-oviposition period the egg comes across a series of
potential infective stages. To begin with the vent, which by virtue of emptying the
bowels, has a variety of micro organisms which would readily contaminate the egg
surface. Next, is the nesting material which is a potential source of contamination. Here,
since the cuticle is moist at this stage some of the microbes, both motile and non motile
can pass through the shell pores along the movement of the moisture due to capillary
action. This is facilitated by the formation of air cell. Thin shells and broken shells also
make this process very efficient. However, spoilage of eggs due to infection at this stage
is not very significant. Egg surface harbours microorganisms in the range of a few
hundreds to tens of millions. The main sources of contamination of eggs are dust, soil
and faecal matter in the order. Most of the microorganisms are gram positive in nature
(Micrococci) and interestingly the spoilage of egg is accounted by gram-negative
organisms, which are very small in number in the beginning, that is immediately after
laying. In circumstances where during storage high humid conditions prevail, mould
growth can cause problems by the hyphae from the shell membranes penetrate in to
the shells as dark or coloured patches besides causing gelling of albumen.

Protection from Infections:

Eggs are endowed with protective gear naturally to ensure nutritional supply to the developing
embryo. Mainly it is the physical protection in the form of shell and shall membranes and partly
chemicals present in the albumen and shell membranes as to offer protection to the nutrients
(viz lysozyme, conalbumin).

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Physical barriers for microbial invasion:
Shell pores, whose main function is to facilitate embryonic respiration, are sufficiently narrow
to allow a normal column of water by capillary action. Thus, the normal shell has been
endowed with water repellant property. This is further reinforced by the cuticle that plugs shell
pore canals and there by eggshell gets the water resistant property. Anything that damages the
cuticle, including washing of eggs with a forced jet of water can greatly impair the resistance of
the shell as the shell would have lost water resistance power. It is needless to say that along
with water, which can enter through capillary action, bacteria also can gain entry into the eggs.
Shell membranes are made of keratin fibers in the form of a network, which performs the role
of a filter. Those organisms, which get retained in the filter ultimately, become responsible for
adding of eggs.
Albumen has two-fold protective action. The viscosity due to the Carbondioxide-pH
dependent ovomucin-lysozyme interaction curtails the movement of microbes besides, keeping
the yolk in the center, away from the shell membranes, where the microbes are being located.
Lysozyme has a definite chemical protective action on the invaded bacteria in addition to the
conalbumin followed by avidin, ovoflavoprotein, ovomucoids and ovoinhibitor.

Spoilage of eggs:
Types of microorganisms on the shell in spoiled eggs:

Frequency On the shell Spoiled eggs

Occasional Streptococcus, Sarcina, Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Ahromobacter,
Proteus Aeromonas,Serratia. Bacillus cytophaga, Micrococcus,
Streptococcus, Arthobacter.
Infrequent Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas maltophilla, Hafnia,
(in small numbers) Arthrobacter, Bacillus Citrobacter.
Achromobacter, Pseudomonas,
Alcaligenes, Escherichia,
Aerobacter.
Frequent (common) Micrococcus Pseudomonas flouroscens, Pseudomonas
Pudida, Alcaligenes, Proteus Escherichia.

The water activity on the shell is very low and hence very few organisms can grow on it.
Unless protected by soil or fecal matter they perish due to dessicatioin. If at all they enter the
egg it is only by accompanying water which enters through capillary action, during air cell
formation or when an egg which is warm contracts on cooling. Thus washing of eggs in water
with or without anti microbial does not guarantee protection against all microbes.

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Water in foods and water activity (aw):
Water has both positive and negative charges, and hence a portion of water is strongly bound
to specific charged sites-Viz. hydroxyl group of sugars and polysaccharides, free carboxyl and
amino groups hanging in protein chain (as incase of free aspartic acid, glutamic acid and lysine)
and others in which water can be held by hydrogen bonding or by ion-dipole bonds or by other
strong interactions. There will be several concentric layers of bound water whose binding
strength is highest in the inner most layers. There is also a portion of total water located in
small capillaries and hence its vapor pressure is low. The remaining portion of water is available
as a solvent and is referred to as free water.
The bound water is not available for the microbes either as a solvent or for reactions. So
the microbes thrive and multiply utilizing the nutrients through the free water, which serves as
a medium for reactions. Water activity quantifies the relationship between moisture in foods
and ability of the microbes to grow on them. It is the index of availability of water to support
microbial growth and take part in chemical reaction.

Washing of Eggs:
Almost all the eggs are sterile at lay but the dust fecal matter and packaging material can
potentially contaminate the egg surface. In such a situation washing of eggs would definitely
facilitate the entry of the contaminants into the egg through the pores.
If eggs are washed, to prevent the shrinking of the egg contents and eventually the
penetration of microbes through the effective pores along with water, always warm water
should be used. The temperature of water should not be more than 15 oC warmer than the
temperature of the egg, especially in immersion type of washing. The iron content of the water
is more than 0.20 ppm and it would facilitate bacterial spoilage by enhancing the growth and
multiplication of spoilage bacteria. Usually after washing, the eggs are dried by cooling which
may cause shrinkage of egg contents creating a negative pressure inside. This may bring about
passage of microbes in to the egg through the medium of water by capillary action. Hence, eggs
must be dried as early as possible. The Indian standards recommend the washing of eggs on the
day they are collected and dry them before packing using a drier to hasten drying. For washing
eggs fresh detergent solution in combination with a germicide (200ppm) is recommended.

Deterioration of Shell Egg Quality:

1) Embryonic development: when fertile eggs are discarded from hatchery due to small size or
other defects they are sold as table eggs. Embryonic growth starts at 20 oC resulting in the
development of blastoderm rendering the egg unfit for consumption. Since almost all eggs
presented for sale as table eggs are infertile, it is very unlikely to encounter this problem other
than the case of country eggs and the pullet eggs from breeder stock.

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2) Shrinkage: it is defined as the evaporation of the moisture from the egg contents through
shell pores depending on the number of effective pores and temperature and humidity of the
environment where the eggs are stored. In cold storage where the temperature and humidity
are constant (10oC and 80% humidity) moisture loss is the least. The number of pores and
temperature has positive correlation and humidity and size of the egg have a negative
correlation with shrinkage.
3) Liquefaction: breaking down of thick white to thin white is a continuous process, which is
regarded as liquefaction, which is temperature dependant. Fresh eggs have 54% of thick white.
The gelatinous structure of egg white and the integrity of chalazae are believed to be due to
ovomucin, a glycoprotein with an isoelectric pH of 10.2. Thick albumen has 10 times more
ovomucin than thin albumen. Liquefaction is associated with decline in ovomucin content.
Out of the two components of the ovomucin, beta-ovomucin is supposed to be substantially
responsible for gelatinous properties of thick egg white gel than alpha-ovomucin. Interaction
between ovomucin and lysozyme, especially at higher pH, degradation of beta-ovomucin,
bonding of Carbondioxide with the microfilaments of ovomucin are some of the hypotheses put
forth to be responsible for breaking down of the gelatinous structure of thick white.
4) Entry of water into yolk: Due to osmotic pressure between the yolk which has lower water
content (48%) and the albumen (88%), particularly consequent to complete liquefaction of
albumen there is tendency for the water from albumen to enter the yolk. The entry of water
into the yolk is directly proportional to the amount of Carbondioxide in the thick white and also
to the surrounding temperature.
5) pH of the egg: The pH of the albumen shows an increase in pH due to escape of its
Carbondioxide but later gets reduced due to entry of Carbondioxide of the yolk and eventually
drops down when this Carbondioxide escapes out. Yolk pH progressively increases due to loss
of Carbondioxide. It is estimated that the fresh egg has about 0.5% Carbondioxide and due to
its loss pH increases from 7.6 to 9.5.
Preservation of Opened-Out Eggs:
Eggs are classified under most perishable commodities. When there is considerable depression
in the demand the prices will drop steeply. Due to constraints of storage places and facilities
the opened-out eggs are stored in place of shell eggs, the rate of spoilage of the former is more
rapid since it would be an optimum medium for the microbes.
Preservation aims to control one of the basic factors required for microbial growth and
multiplication. It can be considered to be achieved by means of controlling moisture-
dehydration either (a) by application of heat or (b) by application of cold or by controlling
temperature.

Dehydration: Egg contents have 74% moisture, which is most suited for microbial activity.
Reduction in moisture would ensure the probability of microbial spoilage besides reducing the

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volume of the egg contents for effective storage. Dehydration by application of heat would
slightly depreciate the quality of protein in addition to loss of a few Vitamins of the B-complex,
but has the biggest advantage of the product, the egg powder which can be stored at room
temperature after canning and reconstituted when required along the lines of milk powder.
Dehydration by application of cold is very expensive and the product, accelerated freeze dried
egg (AFD) should be transported in cold stored condition which makes it more costly. But the
biggest advantage of dehydration by application of cold is the nutritive value of the product
does not depreciate.
The eggs are refrigerated overnight, so that candling is made easy. The eggs are candled
and those with blood and meat spots are rejected. The eggs can be washed, even with cold
water as they are going to be broken soon after washing. The eggs are broken individually, the
egg contents are further assessed for flavour and presence of any other defects. Only good eggs
are taken for further processing. In case albumen and yolk have to be powdered separately,
they are separated at this stage. The next process is homogenization, where in contents are
mixed on a low speed homogenizer with care to avoid foaming/frothing during the process. The
homogenization is followed by filtration through a fine sieve to remove chalazae, vitelline
membranes, bits of shell etc. and the filtrate is called egg malange.
Egg is probably the only animal product containing free glucose. The free aldehyde
group of glucose combines with the epsilon amino group of lysine, especially at high
temperature forming a Schiffs base rendering lysine non-available. This not only affects the
nutritive value of eggs but also gives rise to browning of egg powder, bitter taste, reduced
solubility and off flavour. This is known as Maillard reaction. Glucose also reacts with cephalin,
the phospholipids in the egg yolk fraction of the stored egg powder resulting in loss of
palatability. Hence, glucose must be removed from the egg malange and the process is called
desugaring, which can be done by the use of bacteria, yeast or enzymes.
After desugaring, the egg malange is pasteurized (a process in which the commodity will be
freed of all pathogenic organisms) at 60oC for 4 to 5min. Salmonella organisms are the
reference for the pasteurization process. Recently, chemicals also have been effectively used
for pasteurization. They include -propiolactone, butadine oxidase. The pasteurized egg
malange is dried in a spray-drier. By sprinkling it as fine mist and dry-air, at temperature of 121
to 232oC is sent from other side. The egg malange will be instantaneously dried and the powder
is collected and canned in tins. The egg powder can be stored at room temperature for quite a
long time.

The BIS standards for Egg powder is:

Moisture Max 2%
Coliform count Max 100/g
Standard plate count Max 74000/g

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pH 7.9
Protein 45%
Lecithin and fat 38%

The egg powder is reconstituted with two times the quantity of water and the lid of the tin
should be kept tightly closed after use.

Accelerated Freeze drying (AFD)

Due to sudden cooling, water, which separates can be removed by means of vacuum. The
process is costly and therefore, especially meant for manufacture of food for defence personnel
supplies.
Freezing: In this process also nutritive value is not lost, but disadvantages of freezing are
1. The finished product must be stored at a low temperature throughout.
2. Transportation is costly, due to continuous cold chain.

Egg malange after desugaring is frozen to a temperature of –20oC to –30o C, and the frozen
product is stored at a temperature of –5oC or lower. Pasteurization of egg malange is not
essential because at the temperatures of freezing and storage, all the bacteria die. However,
upon thawing of the product, yolk might show clumps (coagulated masses) due to reasons not
known. Several anticoagulants are tried, the best being addition of papaine at the rate of
0.004% to the egg malange before freezing is found to be useful in preventing clumps.

Preservation of Shell Eggs:

In considering the preservation of egg quality, it is assumed that a chicken egg is its highest
quality at the time of laying. Anything done to egg later results in spoilage. It is therefore
essential that the shell-eggs be properly and adequately preserved so that their quality does
not suffer adversely in market channels. Various methods developed scientifically for
preserving shell-eggs have almost completely replaced other known traditional methods of
shell-egg preservation and the methods are:
1. Wet methods:
a) Lime-water method
b) Water-glass method
2. Dry methods:
a) Oil
b) Gas
c) Cold storage
3. Miscellaneous.

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1. Wet methods: These procedures involve treatment of eggs with a liquid medium in an
attempt to seal the shell pores from inside. The prerequisites are (a) The medium should not
impart any taste or odour (b) Should not deteriorate even after long periods of storage (c)
Should prevent gaseous exchange between egg and atmosphere (d) Preserve eating qualities of
eggs under storage (A small pinhole has to be made before boiling the eggs stored by methods
to avoid breakage of shell due to expansion of air cell)

(a) Lime-water method:

Principle: The Calcium hydroxide reacts with the carbon dioxide which escapes from the egg
and forms Calcium carbonate over the shell which seals the shell pores effectively and prevents
further escape of carbon dioxide.
Ca (OH) 2 + CO2  CaCO3 + H2O
(Lime-water) (From egg)
This reaction is completed in 16 hrs, and the quality of the stored eggs is comparable to that of
fresh eggs.
Procedure:
1. 1Kg of quicklime (CaO) + 1 Lit water; allowed to react through mixing.
2. After the reaction is over, 120 g of salt is added. This is done to increase the specific
gravity, so that none of the eggs touch the bottom of the container when immersed and
get broken due to the weight of the eggs on top of them.
3. About 5 to 6 lit of water is added further and stirred thoroughly.
4. Solution is filtered through muslin cloth and to the filtrate, a small quantity of slaked-
lime (on the muslin cloth) is added in order to maintain the concentration, since there
will be production of water replacing every molecule of Ca (OH)2 during the reaction
which results in the dilution of the lime-water.
The eggs are held in the solution for 14 to 16 hrs and later on removed and stored at room
temperature.

Efficacy:
1. Eggs may be stored up to 3-4 weeks.
2. Albumen and yolk quality is maintained even under room temperature.
Advantages:
1. Easily available, cheap and easy to prepare.
2. Solution is alkaline and hence surface bacteria are killed.
3. No residual flavour encountered.
Disadvantages:
1. Hatching eggs cannot be preserved, since embryos die due to increased Carbon dioxide
tension within the egg in the absence of a vent.

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 2. Thin-shelled eggs often crack when removed from the solution due to evaporation of
moisture from the shell surface causing a cooling effect.

(b) Water-glass method: A 10 % solution of sodium silicate (NaSiO3) is commonly called as

water-glass is used.
Principle: The colloids adsorb and block the shell-pores without any chemical reaction.
Procedure: Water is boiled thoroughly to remove the dissolved Carbon dioxide which otherwise
forms a complex with NaSiO3. Then calculated amount of the chemical is added. The eggs are
dipped in the cooled water-glass solution.
Efficacy: The solution is most effective at 25o C and eggs have to be kept immersed overnight.
Disadvantages:
1. Efficacy is less at high temperature.
2. The chemical is costly and not readily available.
3. Time consuming and requires accurate weighing.
4. At 1oC, the solution becomes a mass and will be useless.

2. Dry-methods: Under these methods eggs will not come in contact with water solutions,
hence are called dry methods.

(a) Oils: Of the vegetables oils, excepting coconut oil, all are colored and impart the same to the
egg. In addition, their unsaturated nature poses problems of rancidity and is costly. The
prerequisite of an egg coating oil is that it should not be prone for rancidity and it should not
impart any color. Thus, mineral oils are generally used. The standards of egg-coating mineral oil
are: Sp.Gr.0.830 to 0.840, viscosity: 50 poises, colorless, pour point (-) 1.11oC (30oF), flash point:
140oC(285oC) and neutral in reaction.
Methods:
1. Dip method-eggs are dipped in oil (approximately 400 cc of oil is required for every 200
eggs)
2. Spray method- oil sprayed over the broad-end of the eggs (400cc/1000 eggs is the
requirement)
Eggs are kept (broad end up) in egg flats and oil is sprayed to cover ½ to ¾ of the shell surface.
Bactericides and/or fungicides may be added to the oil to enhance efficacy.
Principle: Most of the effective pores are present towards the broad end of the egg and the oil,
when on dipping or spraying, blocks these pores and prevents Carbondioxide loss. Spraying
heated oil is still more beneficial.
Treatment: Oil treatment should be carried out preferably 5 to 6 hours in winter and 8 to 10
hours after laying.

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(b) Gas: Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) within the gas impermeable package, inert
gases are used. Eggs are kept in plastic bags or special plastic retail cartons which are filled with
the gas and sealed. Usually Nitrogen: Carbon dioxide = 94:6 is used. Higher Carbon dioxide
pressure outside the eggs precludes the Carbon dioxide loss from the eggs thus affording
protection to the egg quality.
Disadvantages:
1. Transportation is difficult
2. Costly and cumbersome
3. Causes turbidity or cloudiness of the albumen.

(c) Cold storage: Cold storage of egg is done at a temperature of 10 to 15.6 oC and at relative
humidity of 75 to 90%. An ante-room is a must to avoid the entry of air causing air pockets at
corners of the cold storage room which can subsequently trigger mould growth in humid
environment good air circulation is important to effect proper loss of heat from the eggs.
It should be borne in mind that freezing point of albumen is –0.42o C, that of yolk is –0.65o C and
that of albumin + yolk is –2.22o C. Thus, cold storage temperature should not be less than –2o C.
Eggs can be kept for a long time, up to 8 to 10 months in cold storage.
Disadvantages:
1. After 7 to 8 months of cold storage eggs develop a metallic taste referred to as
storage taste stale flavour.
2. Mould growth, if not controlled, causes whitish marks on the shell (mucous growth),
referred to as old man’s beard.
3. Sweating: When the eggs are taken out of the cold-store, due to lower temperature
of the egg, the atmospheric moisture condenses on the shell surface resulting in
sweating. Thus, eggs are to be brought through graded temperature cabins viz., 10,
15.6, 21.1oC and then to room temperature.
4. Costly, since proper maintenance of the cold-storage is a must.
3. Miscellaneous methods:
Several methods are advocated/ attempted:
a) 21.1o C for 5 to 6 days, but fertile eggs may still show embryo development.
b) 100o C (boiling water)- eggs rotated to have even coagulation of albumen. But
embryo growth may still occur.
c) Thermostabilisation (at 54.4o C for 30 min)- This is stabilization of albumen
quality by application of heat. Several combinations of temperature and duration
are tried to ensure a 100% death of embryos and also to have uniform
coagulation of albumen under the egg shell.
Principle: To effect peripheral coagulation of albumen and hence to inhibit Carbon dioxide loss
by possibly blocking the pores from inside of the shell.

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Thermostabilisation influences only albumen quality and yolk quality is unaffected. Effects of
thermostabilisation are:
1. Only stabilization of the existing egg quality is possible.
2. pH of albumen increases.
3. Stabilize albumen quality.
4. Many of the bacteria on the shell surface are killed.
5. Loss of Carbon dioxide is reduced.
6. Even in hottest summer, eggs can be held for 10 to 12 days at room
temperature.
7. Under village conditions, boiling water and cold water may be mixed (in such a
way that the candle just melts, melting point of paraffin candle is approximately
54.4C) and eggs can be dipped for 30 min to get best results.
8. Oiling of thermostabilised eggs increases the shelf life to 4 to 6 weeks at room
temperature
Disadvantage:
1. Cake-volume is reduced.

Keeping these different methods in view, lime water method appears to be the most
practicable one for village conditions, followed by oiling and thermostabilisation. When large
number of eggs are to be preserved at a centralized place, cold storage is the method of choice.

LAWS GOVERNING NATIONAL/INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN MEAT AND MEAT

PRODUCTS

Regulation of the quality of meat placed in trade is essential to ensure uniformity in quality; and
pricing of meat and meat products based on their quality. Microbial standards are necessary to
ensure safe meat is made available to consumers. The various terms in vogue to address this
concern of the meat industry are microbial standard, specification and guideline.

A microbial standard is a microbiological criterion that is part of a law, or regulation, mandatory

and enforceable by the regulatory agency involved.

A microbial specification is a microbiological criterion that is applied as a condition of

acceptance for a food or ingredient by a food manufacturer. Microbiological specifications are

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generally contractual agreements between a manufacturer and purchaser to check whether the
foods are of required quality. The major law involved in governing meat trade in India is Meat
Food Products Order, 1973 and the most recent development governing Food Safety in India is
the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 over and above standards set out with respect to
Meat by Bureau of Indian Standards. The major standards governing international food trade is
ISO 22000 standard and microbial standards are set by International Committee on Microbial
Specification on Foods (ICMSF), and European Economic Community.

Meat food product order

In 1973, Government of India promulgated an Order to enforce strict quality control on the
production and processing of meat food products under Essential Commodities Act 1955. The
responsibility to enforce this order was entrusted to Directorate of Marketing and Inspection,
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Reconstruction. The Order aims at maintenance of sanitary
conditions in the slaughterhouses, ensuring proper ante mortem examination, postmortem
inspection of carcasses, in-process inspection and final product checking. No person could carry
on business as a manufacturer except under and in accordance with the terms and conditions
of licence granted to him under this Order. All meat-processing units, which produce meat food
products for, sale within the country, come under its preview. Restaurants and hotels that
prepare meat food products for consumption within their premises are exempted. The Order
does not apply on raw (chilled or frozen) meat. No dealer, agent, broker or vendor can sell or
expose for sale or despatch or deliver any meat food products unless the same arte
manufactured by a MFPO licencee.

Powers of MFPO Officers

The Veterinarian inspecting officers of the Directorate are issued necessary authority cards to
seek compliance of MFPO. These officers are authorized:

1. To enter and inspect the premises of meat food products manufacturers with a view to
satisfy themselves that the requirements of this Order are being complied with.
2. To seize or detain on giving proper receipt of raw materials, documents, account books
or evidence connected with the manufacture of meat food products in respect of which
they have reasons to believe that contravention of the Order has taken place.
3. To dispose of all meat food products and raw materials so seized or detained as they
deem fit.

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Categories

MFPO, 1973 initially categorizes the meat food manufacturers into the following three broad
heads on the basis of source of raw meat:

 Category A: Includes those manufacturers or licensees of meat food products who

possess their own slaughterhouse.
 Category B: Includes those manufacturers of meat food products who purchase meat
from approved slaughterhouse.
 Category C: Includes those manufacturers of meat food products, who purchase raw
meat from any other source.

The license fee for each category differs and is collected every year at the time of renewal of
license.

Schedules

Meat Food Products Order, 1973 contains four schedules:

1. The First Schedule: Deals with application for license or renewal of license under MFPO.
The information related to applicant, address of factory, source of raw material,
description of meat food products which the applicants proposes to manufacture,
installed capacity, a plan of factory and a list of equipments has to be provided.
Application for renewal of license should invariably contain the statements pertaining to
the quality and value of meat food products manufactured in the previous year.
2. The Second Schedule: Deals with the minimum sanitary requirements to be complied
with by a licensee. It contains detailed instructions regarding factory premises,
construction, doors, windows and ceiling, plumbing and drainage system, equipment
and manufacturing area, cold storage facilities, precautions against flies, rats and mice,
water supply, personnel hygiene and vaccination of factory workers, provision of proper
aprons and head gears, etc.
3. The Third Schedule: Deals with hygienic requirements to be complied with by a licensee
who also slaughters animals in his factory. It contains detailed instructions regarding
separation between clean and dirty sections within the slaughterhouse, provision of
lairage, slaughter hall and refrigeration facilities, ante mortem examination, humane
slaughter, postmortem inspection and disposal of condemned carcasses or organs, etc.
4. The Fourth Schedule: Deals with the requirements to be complied with as regards to
packaging, marking and labeling the containers of meat food products. It contains
detailed instruction with respect to proper packing and sealing of flexible containers,
use of internal lacquers and hermetic sealing in tin plate cans, use of internal lacquers
and hermetic sealing in tin plate cans, use of bottles and jars.
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As per MFPO standards, canned meat food products should not contain poisonous elements
viz. lead, copper, arsenic, tin, zinc in excess of 2.5, 20, 2, 250 and 50 ppm respectively by
weight. In the process MFPO officers conduct inspection of meat food product factories and
premises regularly. They conduct frequent surprise visits to licensed units so as to enforce the
implementation of MFPO regulations.

Samples of meat food products are collected and sent to regional and central Agmark
laboratories for specified testing. At present there are more than 220 licensed meat food
products units under MFPO, 1973 throughout India. These units manufacture as many as 185
different types of meat food products. Thus, MFPO is playing a major role in safeguarding the
interest of meat food products consumers.

BIS standards for meat industry

Established in 1947 as Indian Standard Institution (ISI); as a joint venture of Government of

India and Industry took up the responsibility of preparing and promoting the general adoption
of standards in the country. The erstwhile ISI constituted the Meat and Meat products Sectional
Committee, AFDC 18 under the Agricultural and Food Products Division Council in 1958 to
prepare Indian Standards for meat industry. This committee represents the scientists,
technologists, manufacturers, government agencies and consumers. The standards are
prepared keeping in mind the needs of industry protecting the interests of both producers and
consumers and are reviewed periodically. A list of relevant standards is given below:

Various BIS standards in respect of meat and meat products published

Sr. IS No. Title Reaffirmed Amend

No. Date ment.
1 IS 1723:1973 Pork (first revision) 11 2000 1
2 IS 1743:1973 Mutton and goat meat canned in brine (first 11 2000 3
revision)
3 IS 1981:1978 Animal casings (first revision) 11 2000 2
4 IS 1982:1971 Code of practice for ante-mortem and post- 11 2000 1
mortem inspection of meat animals (first
revsion)

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5 IS 2475:1979 Smoked bacon (first revision) 11 2000 2
6 IS 2476:1963 Ham 11 2000 1
7 IS 2536:1995 Mutton and goat meat(chevon)-fresh, chilled 11 2000 1
and frozen (first revision)
8 IS 2537:1995 Beef and buffalo meat-fresh, chilled and 11 2000 1
frozen (first revision)
9 IS 3044:1973 Mutton and goat meat, curried and canned 11 2000 2
(first revision)
10 IS 3060:1979 Pork sausages, canned (first revision) 11 2000 2
11 IS 3061:2001 Pork sausages, fresh (first revision) 11 2000 1
12 IS 3100(Part Meat and meat products - Method of 01 2001
1):1996 Sampling
/ ISO 3100-
1:1991
13 IS 4352:1967 Pork luncheon meat, canned 11 2000
14 IS 4393:1979 Basic requirements for an abattoir (first 03 2005
revision)
15 IS 4674:1975 Dressed chicken (first revision) 11 2000 1
16 IS 4723:1978 Egg powder (first revision) 11 2000 1
17 IS 4950:1968 Bacon rashers, canned 11 2000 2
18 IS 4951:1975 Ham, canned (first revision) 11 2000 1
19 IS 5558:1970 Chichen essence 11 2000 1
20 IS 5960(Part Methods of test for meat and meat products: 01 2001
1):1996 Part 1 Determination of nitrogen content
/ ISO 937:1978 (first revision)
21 IS 5960(Part Methods of test for meat and meat products:
2):2000 Part 2 Determination of total ash (first
/ ISO 936:1998 revision)
22 IS 5960(Part Methods of test for meat and meat products: 03 2005
3):1970 Part 3 Determination of total fat content
23 IS 5960(Part Meat and meat products - Method of test : 09 2003
4):1997 Part 4 Determination of free fat content (first
/ ISO 1444:1996 revision)
24 IS 5960(Part Meat and meat products - method of test:
5):2001 Part 5 Determination of moisture content
/ ISO 1442:1997 [reference method (first revision)]
25 IS 5960(Part Meat and meat products - Method of test 09 2003

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 6/Sec 1):1997 Part 6 Determination of chloride content
/ ISO 1841- Section 1 Volhard method (first revision)
1:1996
26 IS 5960(Part Meat and meat products - Method of Test 09 2003
6/Sec 2):1997 Part 6 Determination of Chloride content
/ ISO 1841- Section 2 Potentiometric method (first
2:1996 revision)
27 IS 5960(Part Methods of test for meat and meat products 01 2001
7):1996 : Part 7 Determination of nitrite content (first
revision)
28 IS 5960(Part Methods of test for meat and meat products: 01 2001
8):1996 Part 8 Determination of nitrate content (first
/ ISO 3091:1975 revision)
29 IS 5960(Part Method of test for meat and meat products: 11 2000
9):1988 Part 9 Determination of total phosphors
/ ISO 2294:1974 content
30 IS 5960(Part Meat and meat products - Methods of test: 11 2000
10):2001 Part 10 Measurements of pH (Reference
/ ISO 2917:1999 method) (first revision)
31 IS 5960(Part Method of test for meat and meat products : 11 2000
11):1988 Part 11 Determination of glucone-delta-
/ ISO 4133:1979 lactone content
32 IS 5960(Part Meat and meat products - Methods of test:
12):2001 Part 12 Determination of L-(+)-glutamic acid
/ ISO 4134:1999 content (Reference method) (first revision)
33 IS 5960(Part Methods of test for meat and meat products 11 2000
13):1988 : Part 13 Determination of polyphosphates
/ ISO 5553:1980
34 IS 5960(Part Methods of test for meat and meat products 11 2000
14):1988 : Part 14 Determination of starch content
/ ISO 5554:1978
35 IS 5960(Part Meat and meat products - Methods of test:
15):2000 Part 15 Determination of L(-)-hydroxyproline
/ ISO 3496:1994 content (first revision)
36 IS 5960(Part Meat and meat products - Method of test :
16):2004 Part 16 Determination of total phosphorus
/ ISO content - Spectrophotometric method
13730:1996

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37 IS 5960(Part Meat and meat products - Method of test :
17):2004 Part 17 Determination of starch and glucose
/ ISO content - Enzymatic method
13965:1998
38 IS 6557:1972 Albumen flakes, non-edible quality 11 2000 1
39 IS 6558:1972 Code of practice for cold storage of shell eggs 11 2000
40 IS 6559:1972 Code of practice for ante-mortem and post- 11 2000 1
mortem inspection for poultry
41 IS 6628:1972 Slide rails for use in abattoirs 03 2005
42 IS 6782:1972 Hog gambrels 03 2005
43 IS 6950:1973 Pig hooks 03 2005
44 IS 7049:1973 Code for handling, processing, quality 11 2000 2
evaluation and storage of poultry
45 IS 7053:1996 Basic requirements for a stall for sale of meat 01 2001
of small and large animals (first revision)
46 IS 7891:1975 Inedible offal trolleys 03 2005
47 IS 7909:1993 Slaughter house equipment - Electrical 03 2005
stunning tongs for pigs (first revision)
48 IS 8539(Part Terminology of meat products and meat 11 2000 1
1):1977 animals: Part 1 Poultry
49 IS 8895:1978 Guidelines for handling, storage and 11 2000
transport of slaughter house by-products
50 IS 9800:1993 Day-old chicks (Layer/broilers) - Basic 03 2005
requirements (first revision)
51 IS 9810:1981 Method for evaluation of quality of fresh 11 2000 1
chicken eggs
52 IS 10382:1982 Edible egg albumen-powder 11 2000
53 IS 10697:1983 Chicken, canned in brine 11 2000 2
54 IS 11533:1985 Sheep dressing hook 03 2005
55 IS 11631:1985 Gambrel for sheep and goats 03 2005
56 IS 11746:1986 Luncheon beef, canned 11 2000 1
57 IS 11747:1986 Corned beef, canned 11 2000 1
58 IS 11748:1986 Meat extract, food grade 11 2000 1
59 IS 11771:1986 Soup stock medium (beef) 11 2000 1
60 IS 12189:1987 Sheep spreader 11 2000
61 IS 12190:1987 Sheep bleeding shackle 11 2000
62 IS 12486:1988 Meat inspection table 11 2000

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63 IS 12487:1988 Offal handling table for small animals 11 2000
64 IS 12541:1988 Chicken curry, canned 11 2000 1
65 IS 12542:1988 Canned ham, minced 11 2000 1
66 IS 12543:1988 Canned egg curry 11 2000 1
67 IS 12561:1988 Pickled quail eggs 11 2000 1
68 IS 13165:1991 Mutton biryani, canned 11 2000 1
69 IS 13400:1992 Chicken sausages 09 2003 1
70 IS 13401:1992 Determination of Thiobarbituric acid value in 09 2003
meat
71 IS 14843:2000 Meat and meat products - Enumeration of
/ ISO Pseudomonas Sp.
13720:1995
72 IS 14844:2000 Meat and meat products - Enumeration of
/ ISO lactic acid bacteria - Colony count technique
13721:1995 at 30oC
73 IS 14920:2001 Meat and meat products - Enumeration of
/ ISO yeasts and moulds - Colony count technique
13681:1995
74 IS 15463:2004 Meat and meat products - Enumeration of
/ ISO 6391:1997 Escherichia coli - Colony count technique at
44ºC using membranes
75 IS 15478(Part Meat and meat products - Sampling and
2):2004 preparation of test samples: Part 2
/ ISO 3100- Preparation of test samples for micro
2:1988 examination

These BIS specifications are voluntary but an adherence to these guidelines definitely improves
the quality of processed products. However, Meat Food Products Order, which exclusively deals
with quality control of processed meat products, is mandatory. Microbiological standards help
to improve plant sanitation, ensure safety of the products and prevent losses due to microbial
spoilage. Establishment of microbiological specifications is a very expensive and cumbersome
task. Lot of database is required in practical conditions at different locations, with a very good
degree of reproducibility.

Food safety and standards act, 2006

This act was promulgated by Government of India in 2006 to establish Food Safety and
Standards Authority of India which will be responsible for fixing the food standards and

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regulating/monitoring the manufacturing, import, processing, distribution and sale of food, so
as to ensure safe and wholesome food for the people. The main objective of this Act is to bring
out a single statute relating to food and to provide for a systematic and scientific development
of Food Processing Industries.

The Act, incorporates the salient provisions of the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954
and is based on international legislations, instrumentalities and codex Alimentarius Commission
(which is related to food safety norms). In a nutshell, the Act takes care of International
practices and envisages an over-reaching policy frame work and provision of single window to
guide and regulate persons engaged in manufacture, marketing, processing, handling,
transportation, import and sale of food.

The main features of the Act are:

 Movement from multi-level and multi-departmental control to integrated line of

command.
 Integrated response to strategic issues like novel/genetically modified foods,
international line of command.
 Licensing for manufacture of food products, which is presently granted by the Central
Agencies under various Acts and Orders, would stand decentralized to the
Commissioner of Food Safety and his officers.
 Single reference point for all matters relating to Food Safety and Standards, regulations
and enforcement.
 Responsibility on food business operators to ensure that food processed, manufactured,
imported or distributed is in compliance with the domestic food laws.
 Provision for graded penalties depending on the gravity of offence and accordingly, civil
penalties for minor offences and punishment for serious violations.

Following rules/acts are repealed under FSSAI,

1. The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 (37 of 1954)

2. The Fruit Products Order, 1955
3. The Meat Food Products Order, 1973
4. The Vegetable Oil Products (Control) Order, 1947
5. The Edible Oils Packaging (Regulation) Order, 1998.
6. The Solvent Extracted Oil, De oiled Meal, and Edible Flour (Control) Order, 1967
7. The Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992.

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 8. Any other order issued under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (10 of 1955) relating
to food.

Offences and penalties: penalties are graded according to the gravity of offence but are
stringent than the existing.
Offence Punishment
Selling substandard food Fine up to 5 lakh
Misbranded Fine up to 3 lakh
Misleading advertisement Fine up to 10 lakh
Unsafe Fine + Imprisonment

Sampling plans and recommended microbiological limits for raw meat (ICMSF,
Microorganisms in Foods.Vol.2, 1986).

S.No Product Test n c m M

1. Carcase meat, before chilling APC 5 3 105 106
2. Carcase meat. chilled APC 5 3 106 107
3. Edible offal, chilled APC 5 3 106 107
4. Carcase meat, frozen APC 5 3 5x105 107
5. Boneless meat, frozen (beef, pork, mutton) APC 5 3 5x105 107
6. Comminuted meat, frozen APC 5 3 106 107
7. Edible offal, frozen APC 5 3 5x105 107
8. Raw chicken, fresh or frozen APC 5 3 5x107 107

 n = number of samples to be taken from the lot,

 c = number of samples permitted to fail,
 m = microbial count below which the sample is considered to be satisfactory
 M = microbial count above which the sample is considered unsatisfactory.

Provisions of Directive 88/657/EEC (with reference to fresh meat)

S.No Organism n c m M
5
1. Aerobic mesophile (total viable count) bacteria 5 2 5x10 5x106
2. E.Coli 5 2 5x102 5x103
3. Cl. Perfringens (sulphite-reducing anaerobes) 5 1 102 104
4. Staphylococci 5 1 5x102 5x103
5. Salmonella 5 0 Absence in 25g

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ISO standards
The ISO 22000 international standard specifies the requirements for a food safety management
system that involves the following elements:
 Interactive communication
 System management
 Prerequisite programs
 HACCP principles

Interactive communication: Communication along the food chain is essential to ensure that all
relevant food safety hazards are identified and adequately controlled at each step within the
food chain. This implies communication between organizations both upstream and
downstream in the food chain. Communication with customers and supplies about identified
hazards and control measures will assist in clarifying customer and supplier requirements.
Recognition of the organization's role and position within the food chain is essential to ensure
effective interactive communication throughout the chain in order to deliver safe food products
to the final consumer.

System management: The most effective food safety systems are established, operated and
updated within the framework of a structured management system and incorporated into the
overall management activities of the organization.

Prerequisite programs: This provides maximum benefit for the organization and interested
parties. ISO 22000 has been aligned with ISO 9001 in order to enhance the compatibility of the
two standards. ISO 22000 can be applied independently of other management system
standards or integrated with existing management system requirements. ISO 22000 integrates
the principles of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system and application
steps developed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission.

HACCP principles:
HACCP is a comprehensive food safety system right from the point of production to the point of
consumption. This system analyses the hazards of raw materials, identifies the points of
potential contamination, monitors the processing operation and checks the risks arising from
consumer abuse. It is comprised of the following steps:
1. Identification and Assessment of hazards and risks associated with raw materials,
ingredients, processing, packing and distribution on consumption of meat products are
the basics of flow chart.
2. Determination of critical control points to control and minimize a hazard.

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 3. Establishment of critical limits or tolerance levels (standards) at each control point to
ensure the product is safe and of acceptable quality.
4. Outlining the procedure to monitor critical control points.
5. Defining the corrective action if a deviation is noticed during monitoring.
6. Maintenance of proper records of HACCP plan – deviations, corrective actions and SSOP
(Standard Sanitary Operations Procedure).
7. Verification of methods, procedures and tests to oversee the compliance of the plan.

HACCP system has proved very effective in identifying and preventing contamination.

ISO-9000 STANDARDS:
International organization of standardization (ISO), Geneva has issued ISO-9000 series of quality
standards towards quality management.
 ISO-9000- Provides guidance on the choice of specific model to be adopted for quality
assurance in an organization.
 ISO-9001- It is meant for manufacturers having their own product research and
development (R&D) facilities.
 ISO-9002- It is for contract manufacturers without any product R & D.
 ISO-9003- It is meant for commodity supplies, having only final product inspection and
testing.

ORGANIC MEAT FOOD PRODUCTS

Organic farming is a holistic production management system that does not use the synthetic
inputs such as synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, veterinary drugs, genetically modified seeds or
breeds, preservatives, additives, irradiation etc. It is a system that promote and enhances
ecosystem health.
Organic farming has been one of the most important priorities right from the tenth five year
plan. Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) under
ministry of commerce is making concerted efforts to boost organic production in India. One of

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the major steps has been launching of the National Program of Organic Production (NPOP) in
2001 and development of Indian standards for organic production. Organic foods have gained
the importance with the increasing awareness of the residual pesticides and insecticides in
foods of animal origin. Increasing awareness and knowledge of the quality conscious peoples
will pave the way for willing people to pay more for organic products. The demand for organic
products is growing nationally as well as globally. It has created new export opportunities for
the developing world. Since, the organic farming is labour intensive, developing nations have
better chance to boost their export of organic food products, provided international quality
standards are achieved.

National standards for organic animal husbandry

Animal management
Management techniques should be governed by the physiological and ethological needs of the
farm animals in question. This means that farm animals should be allowed to live by their basic
behavioral habits and that all management techniques, including those where production levels
and speed of growth are concerned, should be directed for good health and welfare of the
animals.

Standards:
The accredited certification program shall ensure that the management of the animal
environment takes into account the behavioral needs of the animals and provides for:
 Sufficient free movement
 Sufficient fresh air and natural day light
 Enough lying and/or resting area according to the need of the animal
 Ample access to the fresh water and feed
 All animals shall have the access to the open air and/or grazing appropriate to the type
of animal and season taking into account the age and condition, to be specified be
specified by the accredited certification program.
 Poultry and rabbits shall not be kept in cages.
 When natural day length is prolonged by the artificial lighting, the accredited
certification program shall prescribe maximum hours respective to the species,
geographical considerations and general health of animals. Herd animals shall not be
kept individually.
 The accredited certification program may allow exceptions in, e.g. male animals, small
holdings, sick animals and those about to give birth.

Length of the conversion period

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The establishment of organic animal husbandry requires an interim period, the conversion
period.

Standards
 Animal products may be sold as "product of organic agriculture" only after the farm or
relevant part of it has been under conversion for at least twelve months and provided
the organic animal production standards have been met for the appropriate time.
 The certification programme shall specify the length of time by which the animal
production standards shall be met. With regard to dairy and egg production, this period
shall not be less than 30 days.
 Animals present on the farm at the time of conversion may be sold for organic meat if
the organic standards have been followed for 12 months.

Brought in animals
When organic livestock is not available, the certification programme shall allow brought-in
conventional animals according to the following age limits:
 Day old chickens for meat production
 18 week old hens for egg production
 2 week old for any other poultry
 Piglets up to six weeks and after weaning
 Calves up to 4 weeks old which have received colostrum and are fed a diet consisting
mainly of full milk.
Certification programmes shall set time limits (not exceeding 5 years) for implementation of
certified organic animals from conception for each type of animal.

Breeds and breeding

 Breed should be chosen which are adapted to the local conditions. Breeding goals
should not be in opposition to animal's natural behavior and be directed towards good
health.
 Artificial insemination is allowed.
 Embryo transfer techniques are not allowed.
 Hormonal heat treatment and induced births are not allowed unless applied for medical
reasons. Use of genetically engineered species or breeds is not allowed.

Mutilations
Mutilations of animals in any form are not allowed. Certification programme may allow
following exceptions – Castration, tail docking of lambs, dehorning, ringing and mulesing etc.

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Animal nutrition
 The livestock should be fed 100% organically grown feed of good quality.
 All feed should come from the farm itself or be procured from the region. The
certification programme shall draw up standards for feed and feed ingredients.
 Where it proves impossible to obtain certain feeds from organic farming sources, the
certification programme shall allow a percentage of feed consumed by farm animals to
be sourced from conventional farms subject to a maximum prescribed limit.
 Synthetic growth promoters or stimulants, synthetic appetizers, preservatives, artificial
colouring agents, urea, farm animal by products to ruminants, droppings, dung or other
manure, feed subjected to solvent extraction (soy and rapeseed meal), pure amino acids
and genetically engineered organisms or their products are strictly prohibited in the
feeds.
 Vitamins, trace elements and supplements shall be used from natural origin.
Certification programme can define conditions for use of vitamins and minerals from
synthesized or unnatural sources.
 For fodder preservation bacteria, fungi and enzymes, by products of food industry (such
as molasses) and plant based products can be used.

Veterinary medicines
 Management practices should be directed to the well being of animals, achieving
maximum disease resistance.
 Natural medicines and methods including homeopathy, ayurvedic, unani medicines and
acupuncture shall be emphasized.
 Conventional veterinary medicines are allowed when no other justifiable alternative is
available, but in all such cases the withholding period should be double the legal period.
 Use of synthetic growth promoters, substances of synthetic origin for production,
stimulation or suppression of natural growth and hormones for heat induction is
prohibited.
 Vaccinations shall be used only when diseases are known and are expected to be a
problem. Legally required vaccinations are allowed. Genetically engineered vaccines are
not allowed.

Transport and slaughter

 Transport and slaughter should minimize stress to the animal.
 Transport medium should be appropriate for each animal and the animals are fed and
watered during transport.
 No chemical synthesized tranquilizers or stimulants shall be given prior to or during
transport.

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  Stress to the animal shall be minimised, especially taking into consideration:
 Contact (by eye, ear or smell) of each animal with dead animals or animals in the
killing process
 Existing group ties
 Resting time to release stress
 Each animal shall be stunned before being bled to death. The equipment used for
stunning should be in good working order. Exceptions can be made according to cultural
practice. Where animals are bled without prior stunning this should take place in a calm
environment.

Standards
 Throughout the different steps of the process there shall be a person responsible for the
well- being of the animal.
 Handling during transport and slaughter shall be calm and gentle. The use of electric
sticks and such instruments are prohibited
 The certification programme shall set slaughter and transportation standards that will
take into consideration:
 Stress caused to the animal and person in charge
 Fitness of the animal
 Loading and unloading
 Mixing different groups of animals or animals of different sex
 Quality and suitability of mode of transport and handling equipment
 Temperatures and relative humidity
 Hunger and thirst
 Specific needs of each animal
 Each animal or group of animals shall be identifiable during all steps.
 Where the transport is by axle, the journey time to the slaughterhouse shall not exceed
eight hours. Certification programmes may grant exceptions on a case to case basis.
Organic certification
There are several certifying bodied at international, national and regional level:
 Codex Alimentarius commission
 International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)
 UK Register of Organic Food Standards (UKROFS)
 SKAL-Netherland
 USDA's National Organic Program (NOP)- It has four classifications
 100 percent organic- come from animals fed only 100% organic feed.
 Organic- feed ingredients have to be at least 95% organic.
 Made with organic ingredients- between 70-75% organic ingredients
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  Less than 70% organic ingredients
Indian certification has been prepared by APEDA and released as national standards for organic
produce by Ministry of Commerce.

Besides, international agencies are also active in India to offer

certification services. The standards for organic production are
not static. These are being revised periodically at international
level and needs to be revised at regional and national level too.

Indian Organic certification logo

Scenario for developing countries

In developing countries food security is the main goal rather than food safety. In this situation
some development has already taken place in the organic crop sector and Asian countries are
exporting substantial quantity of organic crops but the export as well as the production of
organic meat in most of these countries is still utopia.
Most of the animal husbandry practices followed in our country have close resemblance to the
prescribed organic practices but we failed significantly to convert our advantages into fruitful
gain. Small land holdings, low level of literacy, lack of information, high stocking density,
inadequate production of feed and fodder, high cost of certification, absence of marketing
facilities are some hindrances in the conversion from traditional to organic.
In India, some pockets where the conditions are favourable for organic production need
to be developed as organic production zones. Ideally the plan of action for Indian Animal
Husbandry with an eye on organic animal products should be drawn on the following lines:

 Promotion of indigenous breeds with improved selection and breeding.

 Construction of animal sheds with sufficient movement of animals.
 Emphasizing the importance of grazing and forage feeding
 Promotion of mixed farming systems integrating dairy or poultry as important
components.
 Promotion of cow milk as a brand to market it for young children, old persons, patients
with terminal diseases etc. and organic ghee for religious ceremonies.
 Promotion free range poultry system for egg and meat.
 Strict management of slaughter practices to make them humane and observing all
animal welfare measures.

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  Promotion of mechanical or at least semi modern slaughter houses.
 Making full use of the Ayurvedic and Homeopathic products in animal husbandry.

Some potential areas of country (hilly areas, forest areas, rain fed areas), where agriculture is
not so well developed, should be identified and some nodal agencies should be established.
These agencies will provide technical support to the farmers, make arrangement for the
certification and help in marketing. The success in the areas will be a model to the rest of
country.

FOOD PRODUCTS OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ANIMALS AND MARINE ORIGIN

A prominent area of contemporary animal biotechnology research is the development of

transgenic animals through genetic engineering (GE) technology. Transgenic animals are
produced by introducing an isolated DNA fragment into an embryo so that the resulting animal
will express a desired trait. Transgenic animals may be generated by the introduction of foreign
DNA obtained through animals of the same species, animals of different species, microbes,
humans, cells, and in vitro nucleic acid synthesis.

Potential applications for such genetic engineering in the food industry include,
 Improved feed use and faster growth
 More resistance to disease
 Increased tolerance of environmental conditions such as low temperature
 Meat that is leaner or that has more of some other desirable quality
 Synthesis of milk with pharmaceutical agents
 Approaches could also be used to adapt carnivorous fishes to the plant based diet
 Removal of allergens from food

Techniques

Several techniques can be utilized for transferring genes into animals depending on their
suitability for different species, efficiency of transformation and risk involved. The underlying
principle in the production of transgenic animals is the introduction of a foreign gene or genes
into an animal (the inserted genes are called transgenes). The foreign genes "must be
transmitted through the germ line, so that every cell, including germ cells, of the animal
contains the same modified genetic material.

There are three basic methods of producing transgenic animals,

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 1. DNA microinjection
2. Retrovirus-mediated gene transfer
3. Embryonic stem cell-mediated gene transfer

Gene transfer by microinjection is the predominant method used to produce transgenic farm
animals. Since the insertion of DNA results in a random process, transgenic animals are mated
to ensure that their offspring acquire the desired transgene. However, the success rate of
producing transgenic animals individually by these methods is very low and it may be more
efficient to use cloning techniques to increase their numbers. For example, gene transfer
studies revealed that only 0.6% of transgenic pigs were born with a desired gene after 7,000
eggs were injected with a specific transgene.

1. DNA Microinjection: The mouse was the first animal to undergo successful gene
transfer using DNA microinjection. This method involves:
 Transfer of a desired gene construct (of a single gene or a combination of genes
that are recombined and then cloned) from another member of the same
species or from a different species into the pronucleus of a reproductive cell.
 The manipulated cell, which first must be cultured in vitro (in a lab, not in a live
animal) to develop to a specific embryonic phase, is then transferred to the
recipient female.

2. Retrovirus-Mediated Gene Transfer

A retrovirus is a virus that carries its genetic material in the form of RNA rather than
DNA. This method involves:
 Retroviruses used as vectors to transfer genetic material into the host cell,
resulting in a chimera, an organism consisting of tissues or parts of diverse
genetic constitution.
 Chimeras are inbred for as many as 20 generations until homozygous (carrying
the desired transgene in every cell) transgenic offspring are born.

3. Embryonic Stem Cell-Mediated Gene Transfer

This method involves:
 Isolation of totipotent stem cells (stem cells that can develop into any type of
specialized cell) from embryos
 The desired gene is inserted into these cells
 Cells containing the desired DNA are incorporated into the host's embryo,
resulting in a chimeric animal.

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  Unlike the other two methods, which require live transgenic offspring to test for
the presence of the desired transgene, this method allows testing for transgenes
at the cell stage.

Examples of animal biotechnology involving genetic modification applicable to the food

industry,

Purpose Animal Model Transgenic Source

Faster Growth or leaner Cattle, Swine, Growth hormones/factors: Human, Bovine,
meat Rabbits, Sheep Porcine, Rat, Chicken

Altered milk composition Cattle Extra copies of casein genes; disruption of

(higher protein) lactoglobulin gene

Anti-clotting drug Goat Human anti-thrombin gene

production in milk

Faster Growth Atlantic Salmon Growth hormone regulating gene from Pacific
Chinook Salmon and a promoter from an ocean
pout

ATryn: ATryn is the brand name of the anticoagulant antithrombin manufactured by the
Massachusetts -based U.S. company GTC Biotherapeutics. It is made from the milk of goats that
have been genetically modified to produce human antithrombin, a plasma protein with
anticoagulant properties. ATryn is the first medicine produced using genetically engineered
animals. GTC states that one genetically modified goat can produce the same amount of
antithrombin in a year as 90,000 blood donations. On February 6, 2009, ATryn was approved by
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of patients with hereditary
antithrombin deficiency, who are undergoing surgical or childbirth procedures.

Aqua-advantage Salmon: Aqua-advantage Atlantic salmon is a genetically modified salmon,

which is an Atlantic salmon, modified by adding a growth hormone regulating gene from a
Pacific Chinook Salmon and a promoter from an ocean pout to the Atlantic's 40,000 genes.
These genes enable it to eat year-round, instead of only during spring and summer. The
purpose of the modifications is to increase the speed at which the fish grows, without affecting
its ultimate size or other qualities. The fish grows to market size in 16 to 18 months rather than
three years.

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Concerns: Concerns raised about the release of genetically modified animals include potential
negative human health and environmental effects.

 There are concerns that the genetically modified salmon could have an adverse effect
on wild salmon populations should they escape from the farms.
 Ocean-cultured fish can escape and compete with native (non-Atlantic) stocks. By some
estimates, 400,000 to 1 million Atlantic salmon have escaped from the 75 or so
operations in British Columbia.

The fish's developer has allayed these fears by publicly announcing the adoption of the
following measures:
 Cultivating only (99 %+) sterile females at inland farms.
 Any escapees will not be able to reproduce, either natively or by interbreeding with wild
stocks, because they are all triploid, with three sets of chromosomes.
 They are to provide farmers with eggs rather than fish.

Labeling of GM products

 Food labels must be designed to accurately convey the accurate information about the
product in simple language.
 The FDA contends that GM foods are substantially equivalent to non GM foods, and
therefore not subjected to more stringent labeling.
 Consumer interest groups are demanding mandatory labeling as the consumers have
right to know what they are eating.
 In the EU it has been made mandatory since 1997 to label all GM food products.
 In India it is mandatory for packaged foods using genetically modified products as
ingredients to carry such labels from January 1, 2013.

In India, the regulation of all activities related to GMOs and products derived from GMOs is
governed by “Rules for the Manufacture/Use/Import/Export and Storage of Hazardous
Microorganisms, Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, 1989” (commonly referred to as
Rules, 1989) under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 through the
Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF).

Other issues

 Safety issuues (toxicity, allergenicity and other unintended effects of GM foods)

 Economic issues: Bringing a GM food to market is a lengthy process and many new
genetic engineering technologies are patented, it will raise the price of the product and

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 many of the third world countries will not be able to afford these products thus
widening the gap between the rich and poor.
 Ethical and animal welfare issues

Governments around the world are working hard to establish a regulatory process to monitor
the effects and approval of new verities of GM animals and marine products. However different
governments are responding in different ways depending on the political, social and economical
climate within a region or country.

Lastly, the production of GM animals and derived products raise a variety of ethical and animal
welfare issues. It may serve the interest of the producer and consumer but it will disturb the
natural genetic make-up of animals and may derive them to unintended deformities. A proper
set of ethical principles need to be established for dignity, fairness and welfare considerations
comprising the elimination of genetic welfare and increasing the positive welfare.

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