energies

Review
Evaluating Performance Indices of Electrostatic Precipitators
Mohamed Badran * and Abdallah Mahmoud Mansour

Department of Mechanical Engineering, The American University in Cairo, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Utilizing electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) is an efficient particle removal method that sees
a wide usage in industrial environments. This is mainly because of the low drop of the pressure
flow, while retaining high collection efficiency, alongside being cost-effective. This paper reviewed
previous works concerning optimizing the performance of single- and multi-stage ESPs by changing
several design parameters and evaluating the effects on different performance indices, such as the
corona power ratio, current-voltage characteristics, and overall collection efficiency. The review then
goes through several modelling methodologies, showcasing their shortcomings and developments,
as well as the relationship between the electrohydrodynamic (EHD) flow and the precipitation
performance. The performance effects of using different electrode configurations and designs in
terms of the number of electrodes, relative dimensions, spacings, channel lengths, and overall design
were also reviewed.

Keywords: electrostatic precipitation; particle removal; collection efficiency; modelling; electrohydro-

dynamics; review

1. Introduction
Citation: Badran, M.; Mansour, A.M.
Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs), which cover a wide range on the spectrum of par-
Evaluating Performance Indices of
ticles (0.01–1000 µm), are commonly used in the industry, especially as the atmosphere
Electrostatic Precipitators. Energies
particle emission environmental regulations are consistently getting tighter and interest in
2022, 15, 6647. https://doi.org/
10.3390/en15186647
the filtration of fine particle removal is at all-time high.
Electrostatic precipitators are a class of particle removal devices mainly used to remove
Academic Editors: Islam Md particulate matter from a flowing gas. This process is conducted by utilizing an electrical
Rizwanul Fattah and field to ionize and transport the flow particles. This is in contrast to traditional methods
Andrea Reverberi
that use, as an example, mechanical filtration. The working concept behind ESPs, however,
Received: 21 June 2022 is not new at all.
Accepted: 5 September 2022 At around 600 B.C., the experimental fact that fibers can be attracted to a piece of
Published: 11 September 2022 amber after being rubbed was discovered by the Greeks. The characteristics of this force
was later researched by Coulomb in the 18th century [1]. During 1600, the first observation
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
directly related to ESPs was expressed by William Gilbert [2].
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
Hohlfeld experimented with precipitating fog inside with an electrified point in 1824.
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
The first industrial attempt was performed in the 1880s, and it is attributed to Professor O.
Lodge and Mr. J. Clark of Liverpool University [2].
This paper gives a brief background on the main ESP classification, alongside with
the ESP working principles. It then discusses methods of assessing their performance and
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. how each change in the geometric parameters affects this performance. Then, a summary
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. of notable works that evaluate ESP performance is presented.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and 2. ESP Background
conditions of the Creative Commons Electrostatic precipitators can be arranged based on their number of stages or by the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// geometric configuration of their collection plates. Both classifications are discussed in this
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ section. The working principle of ESPs is also introduced.
4.0/).

Energies 2022, 15, 6647. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15186647 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

 2. ESP Background
2. ESP Background
Electrostatic precipitators can be arranged based on their number of stages or by the
Electrostatic
geometric precipitators
configuration of theircan be arranged
collection plates.based
Both on their number
classifications areofdiscussed
stages orin bythis
the
geometric
section. Theconfiguration
working principle of their
ofcollection
ESPs is also plates. Both classifications are discussed in this
introduced.
Energies 2022, 15, 6647 section. The working principle of ESPs is also introduced. 2 of 20
2.1. ESP Classification: Collecting Electrodes Configuration
2.1. ESP Classification: Collecting Electrodes Configuration
Electrostatic precipitators can be classified according to different criterion, such as
the Electrostatic
2.1. configuration
ESP precipitators
Classification:
of theCollecting
collectingcan be classified
Electrodes
electrode or theaccording
number oftostages
Configuration different criterion, such
[3]. Regardless of the as
the
chosenconfiguration
classification of the collecting
method, the electrode
key or the number of stages [3]. Regardless of the
Electrostatic precipitators can beworking
classified principles
according of to
ESPs are consistent.
different criterion, such as
chosen classification method, the key working principles of ESPs are consistent.
the configuration of the collecting electrode or the number of stages [3]. from
The configuration of the collecting electrodes can vary greatly one ESP
Regardless to
of the
The
another. configuration
Perhaps the mostof the collecting
common is the electrodes
wire-plate can vary
type,
chosen classification method, the key working principles of ESPs are consistent. greatly
shown in from
Figure one1, ESP
which to
another.
consists
Theof Perhaps the
flat parallel of
configuration most common
collection is the
plateselectrodes
the collecting wire-plate
surrounding type,
the emitting
can vary shown in
electrodes
greatly from Figure 1,
one ESPresponsible which
to another.
consists
for
Perhaps of flat
initiating
the theparallel
most corona
common collection
discharge. plates
is the wire-plate surrounding
For this reason,
type, shown theinemitting
these are also
Figure 1,electrodes theresponsible
called consists
which discharge
of flat
for initiating
electrodes.
parallel Thetheradius
collection coronaof
plates discharge.
the emitting
surrounding For this reason,
the wire,
emitting andthese
the are
rw, electrodes also called
wire-to-wire
responsible the
spacing,
for discharge
s, are
initiating the
electrodes.
specified
corona Theinstance.
in this
discharge. radius
For thisofreason,
the emitting
these arewire, rw, and
also called thethe wire-to-wire
discharge electrodes.spacing, s, are
The radius
specified
of in thiswire,
the emitting instance.
rw , and the wire-to-wire spacing, s, are specified in this instance.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Single-channel
Single-channel wire-plate
wire-plate ESP.
ESP.
Figure 1. Single-channel wire-plate ESP.
For both the wire-plate and transverse
transverse plate
plate types,
types, W
Wpp and Lpp are
are the
the main
main dimensions
dimensions
used toForidentify
both the wire-plate
the
the width
width and
andand transverse
length
length of theplate
of the types,plate,
collection
collection Wp and
plate, Lp are the main
respectively,
respectively, while
while dimensions
the
the plate-
plate-
used to identify the width and length Transverse plate ESPs, shown in Figure 2, arethe
of
to-plate distance is designated by d. Transverse the collection plate, respectively, while plate-
another
to-plate distance is
common type that, similar
common designated
similar to by d. Transverse
to the aforementioned plate ESPs,
aforementioned wire-plate shown
wire-plate type in
type ESP,Figure 2, are another
ESP, rely on parallel
common plates.
collecting type that, similarthese
However,
However, to the aforementioned
plates are arranged wire-plate typeconfiguration
in aa transverse
transverse ESP, rely on relative
configuration parallel
relative
collecting
to plates.
the gas flow However, these plates are arranged in a transverse configuration relative
direction.
to the gas flow direction.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 2.
2. Schematic
Schematic of
of two
two distinct
distinct collecting
collecting electrode
electrode configurations:
configurations: (a)
(a) transverse
transverse plate
plate type
type ESP;
ESP;
Figure
(b) 2. Schematic
wire-cylinder typeofESP.
two distinct collecting electrode configurations: (a) transverse plate type ESP;
(b) wire-cylinder type ESP.
(b) wire-cylinder type ESP.
As for the wire-cylinder type ESP, defining the critical dimensions can aid with under-
standing the overall footprint of the ESP. These dimensions, also given in Figure 2, include
the radius of the cylindrical collection plate, R, as well as the length of the emitting electrode.
 As for the wire-cylinder type ESP, defining the critical dimensions can aid with
understanding the overall footprint of the ESP. These dimensions, also given in Figure 2,
Energies 2022, 15, 6647 3 of 20
include the radius of the cylindrical collection plate, R, as well as the length of the emitting
electrode.

2.2.ESP
2.2. ESPClassification:
Classification:Number
NumberofofStages
Stages
Themain
The mainadvantage
advantageof ofsingle-stage
single-stageESPsESPsisisthat
thatthey
theyare
areless
lesssusceptible
susceptibleto toparticle
particle
re-entrainment compared to muti-stage ESPs. However, multi-stage
re-entrainment compared to muti-stage ESPs. However, multi-stage ESPs generally have ESPs generally havea
a larger
larger collecting
collecting electrode
electrode surface
surface area
area for thefor the collection
collection stage as stage
a resultasofa space
resultreduction
of space
reduction
between thebetween
collectingtheelectrodes,
collecting aselectrodes, as well asadedicating
well as dedicating a separate
separate section section
for the for
particle
the particle
collection [3]collection [3] withoutthe
without sacrificing sacrificing the more-compact
more-compact footprint when footprint whentocompared
compared a single-
to a ESP.
stage single-stage ESP. The
The separation separation
of charging of charging
and collection andhas
stages collection stages has
other advantages other
in terms
of improvinginthe
advantages precipitation
terms of improving efficiency and the resiliency
the precipitation efficiencyagainst
and the variable inlet
resiliency flow
against
velocity
variable[4,5],
inlet as
flowwell as aiding
velocity with
[4,5], corrosion
as well resistance
as aiding [6]. An HVDC
with corrosion resistancepower supply
[6]. An HVDC is
used
powerto supply
power both thetocharging
is used stagethe
power both as charging
well as the collection
stage as wellstage
as the(with a polarity
collection stagethat is
(with
opposite
a polarityto that
the charging stage),
is opposite as shown
to the chargingin Figure
stage),3,aswhere
shown flueingas flows3,by
Figure the charging
where flue gas
stage
flowsfirst,
by thefollowed
charging by stage
the collection stage. by the collection stage.
first, followed

Figure3.3. AAtypical
Figure typicaltwo-stage
two-stageESP
ESPseparates
separatesthe
thecharging
chargingand
andcollection
collectionstages,
stages,which
whichallows
allowsfor
for
increased collection efficiency and more compact packaging.
increased collection efficiency and more compact packaging.

2.3.Working
2.3. WorkingPrinciple
Principle
Thesetup
The setupof ofan
anESP
ESPconsists
consistsof
ofone
oneorormore
moredischarge
dischargeelectrodes
electrodes(thin
(thinwires)
wires)and
andaa
collecting electrode
collecting electrode(cylindrical/flat
(cylindrical/flat plate). Its working principle
principle can
can be
be understood
understood by
by
looking
lookingatatthe
thebasic
basicphenomena
phenomenahappening
happeningduring
duringparticle
particlecollection:
collection: corona
corona discharge,
discharge,
particle
particleionization,
ionization,and
andparticle
particletransport.
transport.These
Thesesteps
stepsare
areshown
shownininFigure
Figure4.4.
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Figure 4. The main stages of particle collection of an ESP, starting with the corona discharge and gas
Figure 4. The main stages of particle collection of an ESP, starting with the corona discharge and
ionization, to particle transport.
gas ionization, to particle transport.
At the beginning, a high-voltage DC source, usually of a negative polarity, supplies
At the beginning, a high-voltage DC source, usually of a negative polarity, supplies
discharge wires with power until a specific electric field value (threshold value) is achieved.
discharge wires with power until a specific electric field value (threshold value) is
As a result, corona discharge occurs (Figure 4b). The gas in regions close to discharge
achieved. As a result, corona discharge occurs (Figure 4b). The gas in regions close to
electrodes is then ionized as a result. The resulting ions are then attached to the flow
discharge electrodes is then ionized as a result. The resulting ions are then attached to the
particles (Figure 4c). The charging process consists of a diffusion charging region for
flow particles
particles (Figure
<0.1 µm and 4c). Thecharging
a field chargingregion
processfor
consists of a>1
particles diffusion
µm. In charging
practice, region
however,for
particles <0.1 μm and a field charging
particles experience both simultaneously [2]. region for particles >1 μm. In practice, however,
particles experience
Finally, both simultaneously
these particles migrate to the[2].collecting electrodes of an opposite polarity
Finally, these particles
(Figure 4d). When the charged migrate to land
particles the collecting electrodes
on the collecting of an opposite
electrodes, ions mustpolarity
flow
(Figure 4d). When the charged particles land on the collecting electrodes,
into them, passing through the dust layer and contributing to the importance of particle ions must flow
into them, passing through the dust layer and contributing to the importance
resistivity in ESP operation. The collected particles are then collected by either vibrating of particle
resistivity
the in plates,
collection ESP operation. The collected
or ‘rapping’, particles
or by washing are then
the plates offcollected
with water.by either vibrating
Dislodging the
the collection plates, or ‘rapping’, or by washing the plates off with water.
particles can also be performed by scraping the collection place. The collection process Dislodging the
particles can also be performed by scraping the collection place. The collection
is necessary as already-collected particles can be re-entrained into the gas flow again, process is
necessary impacting
negatively as already-collected
the collection particles can[2].
efficiency be re-entrained into the gas flow again,
negatively impacting the collection efficiency [2].
3. Collection Efficiency and Performance Assessment Methods of an ESP
3. Collection Efficiency
The performance of and Performance
an ESP Assessment
can be evaluated Methodsseveral
by assessing of an ESP
parameters. Eco-
nomically, a corona power
The performance of ratio can give
an ESP can abegeneral idea of
evaluated bythe power consumption
assessing relative
several parameters.
to the overall capacity
Economically, a coronaof an ESP. ratio
power An assessment
can give aofgeneral
the current-voltage characteristics
idea of the power and
consumption
the collection
relative efficiency
to the overallcan also be used
capacity of anto determine the ESP performance.
ESP. An assessment of the current-voltage
characteristics and the collection efficiency can also be used to determine the ESP
3.1. Current-Voltage Characteristics
performance.
Another method of assessing the ESP performance is comparing the effect of changing
geometric parameters
3.1. Current-Voltage on the resulting corona current-voltage (I–V) characteristics of an
Characteristics
ESP [7–13].
Another method ofinvolves
This method assessingmeasuring
the ESP the value of the
performance is corona discharge
comparing at each
the effect of
voltage
changing geometric parameters on the resulting corona current-voltagecorona
value, where higher corona current values imply more deposition. The (I–V)
discharge, however,
characteristics is not
of an ESP linearly
[7–13]. Thisdependent on themeasuring
method involves applied voltage alone,
the value with
of the ion
corona
mobility playing an important role in affecting the amount of corona discharge [10,14].
discharge at each voltage value, where higher corona current values imply more
Other parameters, including electrode designs and their respective layout, can also affect
deposition. The corona discharge, however, is not linearly dependent on the applied
the corona discharge. Verifying numerical ESP models is another common use case for I–V
voltage alone, with ion mobility playing an important role in affecting the amount of
characteristics through direct comparison at different geometries, as shown in Figure 5
corona discharge [10,14]. Other parameters, including electrode designs and their
both numerically [11] and experimentally [9]. It can also be seen that varying the number
respective layout, can also affect the corona discharge. Verifying numerical ESP models is
of discharge electrodes has a pronounced effect on I–V characteristics. The same holds true
another common use case for I–V characteristics through direct comparison at different
for other geometric parameters as well.
geometries, as shown in Figure 5 both numerically [11] and experimentally [9]. It can also
be seen that varying the number of discharge electrodes has a pronounced effect on I–V
characteristics. The same holds true for other geometric parameters as well.
Energies 2022,15,
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Figure 5. Corona
Figure 5. Corona current-voltage
current-voltage characteristics
characteristics of
of various
various ESPs
ESPs with
with 33 and
and 55 discharge
discharge electrodes
electrodes
per
per channel.
channel.
3.2. Corona Power Ratio
3.2. Corona Power Ratio
Power consumption can give a better understanding of an electrostatic precipitator
Power consumption can give a better understanding of an electrostatic precipitator
from an economical point of view [15]. The corona power ratio, Pc (W·s/m33), is commonly
from an economical point of view [15]. The corona power ratio, Pc (W⋅s/m ), is commonly
used when evaluating the power consumption in a practical environment. It can be defined
used when evaluating the power consumption in a practical environment. It can be
as the ratio of the total power consumed (P = I ·V) to the overall gas flow rate, Q [16].
defined as the ratio of the total power consumed (P = I⋅V) to the overall gas flow rate, Q
[16]. Pc = P/Q (1)
𝑃 = 𝑃/𝑄 (1)
3.3. Modelling Approaches of Collection Efficiency
The precipitation performance for a gas cleaning device can be evaluated simply by
3.3. Modelling
comparing theApproaches of precipitated
ratio of the Collection Efficiency
dust mass concentration to the input dust mass
concentration (general performance
The precipitation method) [7,17]. forThis
a gasratio is known
cleaning as the
device cancollection simply(ηby
efficiency
be evaluated ),
and can be evaluated as follows:
comparing the ratio of the precipitated dust mass mout concentration to the input dust mass
concentration (general method) [7,17].ηThis − is known as the collection efficiency (𝜂),
= 1 ratio (2)
min
and can be evaluated as follows:
where mout is the mass concentration of the precipitated dust, and min is the mass concen-
tration of the input dust. It can also be expressed 𝑚
𝜂 = 1 − with the ratio between precipitated dust (2)
concentration Co and the input dust concentration𝑚Ci [18,19].
where mout is the mass concentration of the co precipitated dust, and min is the mass
concentration of the input dust. It can η =also be expressed with the ratio between (3)
ci
precipitated dust concentration Co and the input dust concentration Ci [18,19].
3.3.1. Deutsch Method 𝑐
𝜂 = (3)
A more-common method for assessing ESP efficiency 𝑐 is the Deutsch-Anderson model [7,20],
expressed by:
A
3.3.1. Deutsch Method η = 1 − exp(− ωd ) (4)
Q
A more-common method for assessing ESP efficiency is the Deutsch-Anderson
where Q is the total processed gases flow rate, and A is the precipitator’s collection area.
model [7,20], expressed by:
ω d is the effective particle drift velocity, and it can be estimated with [21]:
𝐴
𝜂 = 1 −q 𝑒𝑥𝑝(− 𝜔 ) (4)
p |E|Cu 𝑄
ωd = (5)
3πµd p
where Q is the total processed gases flow rate, and A is the precipitator’s collection area.
ωd is the effective particle drift velocity, and it can be estimated with [21]:
Energies 2022, 15, 6647 6 of 20

where qp is the charge of the particle, |E| is the magnitude of the electric field, Cu is the
Cunningham slip factor, µ is the gas viscosity, and dp is the particle diameter. The drift
velocity constant, ω d , can also be estimated with:

rE0 E p
ωd = (6)
2πµ

where r is the particle radius, and E0 and Ep are charging and precipitating fields, respec-
tively. The main source of discrepancies between the Deutsch method and experimental
results exists mainly due to allowing for complete mixing in planer slices transverse to the
main direction flow, as proposed by this model, neglecting axial diffusion. The result is
that the calculated effective migration velocity is 10% to 50% of the theoretical value [22].

3.3.2. Matts-Ohnfeldt Method

Another method is the Matts-Ohnfeldt formula, which is a modification of Deutsch’s
general formula. This version allows the effective migration velocity (ω k ) to become
constant in relation to the total precipitation area [19]:
k
A
η = 1 − exp(− ωk ) (7)
Q

where k is dependent on the material collected from the flue gas. Finally, Peterson’s formula
is based on the Stearn Catalytic model, where b is a collected material-dependent parameter,
such as k. In the case of coal ash, for instance, k and b take values of 0.5 and 0.24, respectively.
Here, ω b is the migration velocity as well [19]:
  −1
A b
η = 1 − 1 − b ωb (8)
Q

3.3.3. Cooperman Method

The Cooperman efficiency can be given by:

A
η = 1 − exp(− ω ) (9)
Q d

Compared to the Deutsch method, the main change is that Cooperman’s method
correlates the precipitation efficiency with flow turbulence [23]. This method also takes
into account the effective migration velocity without any special assumptions [23].

3.3.4. Zhibin and Guoquan Method

Precipitation efficiency in the Zhibin and Guoquan method is given by:
√ d
2 !
v v y − wv L
Z
2
η = 1− p exp − dy (10)
π Ey L 0 4 Ey L

where v is the gas velocity, d2 is the discharge electrode-to-plate spacing, L is the channel
length, Ey is the diffusion coefficient, and w is the theoretical migration velocity. The main
advantage that this model has is that, when evaluating the particle transport, it considers
the effects of electrostatic force [22]. It also takes turbulent diffusion into account, denoted
with the coefficient Ey , which can be indirectly determined from a detailed measurement of
the flow with:
1 vd
Ey = C f (11)
8 Sc
Energies 2022, 15, 6647 7 of 20

where v is the gas velocity, d is the plate-to-plate distance, and Sc is turbulent Schmidt
number. Sc is given by [24], where RE is Reynolds number:

Sc = 0.74 R0.04
E (12)

3.3.5. Considerations for Transverse-Plate Type ESP

Note that the collection efficiency only applies to a certain particle diameter [8]. This
is apparent when evaluating efficiency using the following method:
cd,outlet
η = 1− (13)
cd,inlet

where cd,outlet and cd,inlet are the outlet and inlet particles’ concentrations, respectively, with
diameter d. This term is known as grade efficiency, which is a key parameter for evaluating
the performance of an ESP [21].
In the case of transverse-plate type ESPs, the inertial forces need to be taken into
consideration. If that is the case, the total combined efficiency, ηt , is given by [25]:

ηt = 1 − (1 − ηe )(1 − ηi ) (14)

where η e is concerned with the current and voltage effect on the overall collection efficiency,
and it is given by:
ηe = V n I (15)
Here, n is an empirical constant. V and I are the applied voltage and current, respectively.
η i is the inertial particle classifier’s collection efficiency, where SSt is Stoke’s num-
ber [25]:
ηt = f (SSt ) (16)
The methods discussed so far focus on particle collection efficiency, or effective con-
sumption of electrical power [15]. Other parameters can be considered when assessing
the performance of an ESP, depending on the specific needs of each application. Notable
examples include electrical characteristics [7–10,26], electrohydrodynamic (EHD) flow char-
acteristics [27–31], re-entrainment minimization [4,32], initial installation cost [33], and
size constraints.

3.4. Material Considerations

In addition to power consumption, which is evaluated using the corona power ratio,
industrial applications require special consideration for parameters such as discharge and
collecting electrode materials [6,34,35]. Exploring alternative materials can be beneficial
for corrosion-resistance by either using non-metallic materials or by applying special
coatings. The electrical characteristics and precipitation performance of such precipitators
are often compared with traditional precipitators. Such materials are usually polymeric,
such as carbon-coated plastic (CPC), plastic-coated carbon (PCP) [6], and polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) films [36].

4. Factors That Impact the Precipitation Performance

The performance of an electrostatic precipitator basically depends on several factors
that can be categorized into geometry-dependent, flue gas-dependent, or power-dependent.
This section starts by discussing the optimization of geometrical parameters, then moves to
the effects of gas-flow velocity, and finally, the applied power variation is discussed both
directly and by altering the number of emitting electrodes. A summary of works evaluating
ESP designs is presented as a table at the end of this section. The summary shows the
general layout and the design parameters of both numerical models and experimental ESPs.
 Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 20

discussed both directly and by altering the number of emitting electrodes. A summary of
works evaluating ESP designs is presented as a table at the end of this section. The
Energies 2022, 15, 6647 8 of 20
summary shows the general layout and the design parameters of both numerical models
and experimental ESPs.

4.1.
4.1.Optmization
Optmization of of Geometrical
Geometrical Parameters
Parameters
Optimizing
Optimizing the the design
design and
and layout
layout ofof both emitting and
both emitting and collection
collection electrodes
electrodesinside
inside
an
anESPESPisisthe
themain
main factor
factor affecting
affecting thethe voltage-current curve, aa major
voltage-current curve, major ESP
ESP performance
performance
determinant
determinantwhen when thethe temperature,
temperature, pressure, and dust
pressure, and dust properties
properties areareconstant
constant[37].
[37].Many
Many
of the reviewed research compared the performance of industrial plants
of the reviewed research compared the performance of industrial plants and experimental and experimental
setups
setups[6,14,34,35,38–42]
[6,14,34,35,38–42]withwithnumerical
numericalsimulations,
simulations,andandgood
goodagreements
agreementsoften
oftenexist.
exist.ItItis
worth mentioning, however, that the optimum design parameters
is worth mentioning, however, that the optimum design parameters are extremely are extremely sensitive
depending on the surrounding
sensitive depending environment
on the surrounding and the specific
environment and theapplication.
specific application.
The
Theeffects
effectsofof changing
changing thethe diameter
diameter andand the
the geometry
geometry ofofthe
thedischarge
dischargewires,
wires,as aswell
well
as
asthe
thewire-to-wire
wire-to-wire spacing,
spacing, will
will be
be discussed,
discussed, in in addition
addition toto the
the negative
negative influence
influenceofof
eccentric
eccentricdischarge
dischargewires
wiresin
in the
the wire-cylinder
wire-cylinder type ESPs. Similar
type ESPs. Similarparameters
parametersare
areofofinterest
interest
for the collecting electrodes, in the form of their geometry and spacing. Finally,
for the collecting electrodes, in the form of their geometry and spacing. Finally, changing changing
the
thepre-charger
pre-charger stage
stage length
length to to collection stage length
collection stage length ratio
ratio effects
effects will
willbe
beevaluated
evaluatedfor for
different particles.
different particles.

4.1.1.
4.1.1.Discharge
Discharge Electrode
Electrode Geometry
Geometry
Many
Many efforts in optimizing the
efforts in optimizing the performance
performance of of single-stage
single-stageESPs
ESPsfocus
focuson onoptimizing
optimizing
the geometry of critical components of an ESP. For instance, much of the
the geometry of critical components of an ESP. For instance, much of the work conducted work conducted
investigated the effect of changing the emitting electrode geometry on
investigated the effect of changing the emitting electrode geometry on performance and, performance and,
more specifically, the effects that the barbed wires
more specifically, the effects that the barbed wires have. have.
For
Forinstance,
instance, asas early
early as
as 1960,
1960, Lagarias [43] investigated
Lagarias [43] investigated different
differentemitting
emittingelectrode
electrode
shapes, including square wire, cylindrical wire with spaced disks, and barbed
shapes, including square wire, cylindrical wire with spaced disks, and barbed wire, which wire, which
were
werethen
thencompared.
compared. The The findings confirmed that
findings confirmed that using
using barbed
barbed wires
wiresfor forthe
theemitting
emitting
electrode greatly increases the ESP’s collection efficiency, compared to
electrode greatly increases the ESP’s collection efficiency, compared to that of one with that of one with
a
amore-traditional
more-traditionalsmooth smooth cylinder wire. The spacing between the barbs was found to beto
cylinder wire. The spacing between the barbs was found
be
anan important
important parameter
parameter in collection
in the the collection efficiency
efficiency as As
as well. well. Asthe
such, such,
barbedthe and
barbed and
spiked
spiked discharge electrodes are some of the most researched topics in regard
discharge electrodes are some of the most researched topics in regard to optimizing the to optimizing
the geometry
geometry forfor collection
collection efficiency
efficiency [14,19,37,43–54].
[14,19,37,43–54]. Some
Some examples
examples ofofthese
thesewires
wiresare
are
shown in Figure 6. Similar designs are often used for discharge electrodes
shown in Figure 6. Similar designs are often used for discharge electrodes instead of the instead of the
smooth
smoothwire-type
wire-typedischarge
discharge electrodes.
electrodes.

Figure 6. The cross-section view of three distinct profiles of barbed discharge electrodes with sharp
Figure 6. The cross-section view of three distinct profiles of barbed discharge electrodes with sharp
tips to aid with inducing higher current values.
tips to aid with inducing higher current values.

Other experimental works on barbed electrode wires investigated the barb length
influence on the fractional efficiency of the ESP in two cases: constant voltage and constant
electric power. It was determined that higher currents were yielded with longer barbs
in the constant voltage case, making them the better choice in this case. However, when
comparing lengths at constant electric power, the shorter barb configuration was superior.
Energies 2022, 15, 6647 9 of 20

This happens because the lower current effect is mitigated by the fact that a higher electric
field is generated because of the higher used voltage [37].
Changing the tip of the barb of a wire (or the needle geometry) can influence both the
voltage-current characteristics, as well as the distribution of the current density [49]. More
specifically, sharper tips yield a weaker onset field strength and more current compared to
another that is blunter (less sharp).
Another factor that influences the fractional efficiency is the number of barbs and the
spacing between them. It was found that, while the number of barbs increases the efficiency,
this is only true to a certain point. This is the case because the electric field will eventually
be homogenous, reducing its strength at the surface of the barb [37].
Other researchers have compared some unconventional emitting wire geometry, no-
tably for industrial applications. Examples of these include star-shaped rods, saw-tooth
spikes, and tubular spikes [38,55]. It is worth noting, however, that subtle changes of
electrode designs have no significant influence on the specific power of the ESP [56].

4.1.2. Discharge Electrode Diameter and Wire-to-Wire Spacing

As for the discharge electrode diameter effect, the collection efficiency increases with
increased radii if the current density at the collecting plate (for wire-plate ESP) is constant
on average. The opposite is true when evaluating using a constant electric field [16]. This is
the case because of the increase of the onset corona voltage and the decrease of the space
charge effect [18]. It is worth noting that some of these models neglect the effects of the
EHD flow [16]. Another aspect that should be taken into consideration is that the smaller
the discharge wire radii, the sooner the corona discharge happens [57]. This is important
for applications where low voltage levels are required.
Using the corona power ratio, however, as it is the main source of consumption within
an ESP, shows that the change in the discharge electrode has no significant effect on the
ESP performance [16]. This is further validated by cylinder-plate ESP simulations [56].
The ideal wire-to-wire spacing for the highest precipitation performance is, however,
dependent on operating conditions, and there is no clear relationship between them. Zhibin
and Guoquan’s model [22] has a close approximation for this case [58].

4.1.3. Collecting Electrode Geometry

Changing the collecting electrode geometry can alter the performance of an ESP
significantly. This is because bending the collecting plate creates a region with a high-
intensity electric field near the collecting plate [4,11,27,54]. Another benefit is that changing
the design of the collection electrode improves the capturing process of the precipitated
particles [4,27] in the case of C- and W-type collection plates, which is especially prevalent
for two-stage ESPs.
Examples of different collecting plate designs are shown in Figure 7. The location
of the collecting plates within an industrial ESP is shown in Figure 8 for a wire-plate
ESP. The arrangement of opzel-type plates is parallel to the direction of the gas flow. In
industrial plants, collection hoppers are often located below the collecting plates, while
the transformers of the high-voltage power supplies are located at the top, alongside the
control systems.
Evaluating this property is quite important for the optimization of the overall ESP
geometry, as different plate geometries differ in their respective characteristics, such as
electrical properties (I–V characteristics, current density uniformity, and electric field
distribution) and gas flow disturbances. However, the formed ionic wind is usually very
similar when neglecting the effects of the main flow [54].
In addition to the aforementioned geometries, the overall precipitation performance
can also be influenced by other geometric parameters, such as the width of the collecting
plates (channel length) [9]. Other variables, such as the existence of uneven collection
plates, can affect the flow suppression in regions close to these plates [59].
 Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20
Energies 2022, 15, 6647 10 of 20

Figure7.7.Various
Figure Variouscollecting
collectingplate
platedesigns
designsfor
foraawire-plate
wire-platetype
typeESP.
ESP.
Figure 7. Various collecting plate designs for a wire-plate type ESP.

Figure8.8.Opzel-type
Opzel-type collectingplate
plate layoutofofaasingle-stage
single-stage ESPininaacross-sectional
cross-sectional view.
Figure 8. Opzel-typecollecting
Figure collecting platelayout
layout of a single-stageESP
ESP in a cross-sectionalview.
view.
Energies 2022, 15, 6647 11 of 20

4.1.4. Collecting Electrode Spacing

Unlike the effect that the discharge wire spacing has on collection efficiency, the
effect of plate-to plate spacing is much more prominent [18,19], making it one of the more
important criteria when evaluating the performance of an ESP. Generally, the collection
efficiency is higher for narrower channel widths (less spacing) between subsequent plates
(assuming constant current density) [5,11,16,18]. The effect is especially apparent in wire-
plate type and transverse plate ESPs (Figures 1 and 2, respectively).

4.1.5. Pre-Charger Length to Collection Stage Length Ratio (Multi-Stage ESP)

Some studies evaluated the effects that changing the length of pre-chargers (in case of
multi-stage ESPs, Figure 4) has on the collection efficiency. Increasing the pre-charge stage
length while shrinking the length of the collection stage increased the overall collection
efficiency of sub-micron particles [5]. In the case of particles ≥0.1 µm, this had the opposite
effect, as extending the collection stage allowed these particles an increased approaching
time, allowing the collection efficiency to increase [5].

4.1.6. Discharge Electrode Eccentricity (Wire-Cylinder Type)

Some parameters are unique to the cylindrical-type ESP, such as the effect of emitting
wire eccentricity from the center of the cylinder [56,60]. While smaller eccentricities do not
really affect the overall behavior of the cylindrical ESP, more extreme shifts of the wire can
cause vortices, as they severely disturb the radial movement of the dust particles [61].
Refer to Table 1 for a summary of works regarding ESP geometry optimization. Major
design parameters such as ESP type, and emitting and collecting electrode geometries and
dimensions are specified, as well as the flow speed and the properties and concentration of
the collected particles. Barbed wires and different collecting electrode geometries are some
of the well-researched areas.

4.2. Electrohydrodynamic Flow

Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) flow is a fluidic flow given rise to by the coupling of the
primary flow and the “ionic wind”, which is the result of the collision between ions and
neutral particles, resulting in a momentum transfer to neutral particles. The ionic wind
takes place within the electrode gap of an ESP and, thus, has a prominent effect on particle
transport within an ESP. Many works used the EHD flow characteristics as a performance
parameter for ESPs [15,27–31]. Experimental models that use Particle Image Velocimetry
(PIV) [62–65] and numerical models were developed to study these effects [28,66], where a
classification system based on the number of vortexes and their structure was proposed [66].

4.2.1. EHD Flow Effects on Flow Profile Collection Efficiency

Neglecting the effect of EHD flow of the ESP fluid flow will result in a constant flow
velocity close to the precipitator boundary [29]. When considering it, however, the flow
velocity becomes unstable close to the plate, and high-velocity vortexes are formed [29]
because of the ionic wind effect that drives the gas particle from the discharge electrode to
the collection plates.
The aforementioned effects contribute to a lower collection efficiency when EHD
is considered; this is because the increased flow near the collection electrode can cause
particles to escape. These negative effects are especially detrimental for the collection
efficiency of smaller particles with lower mass, as their reduced inertia makes them more
susceptible to the variation of flow [29].

4.2.2. EHD Flow Effects on Particle Deposition Rate

EHD flow can negatively impact the deposition rate of particles, regardless of the flow
velocity [29]. This effect, however, is more prominent when the flow velocity is lower [29,67].
Expanding on the effects on flow velocity, it can be deduced that disregarding EHD effect
will lead to a less-turbulent flow.
Energies 2022, 15, 6647 12 of 20

A special case that can be considered is that of barbed discharge electrodes with a
needle tip pointing in the collecting plate direction, as the discharge ions cannot reach
the base of the barb, where it is considered an ion-free region [29]. More particles are
charged when passing near the discharge electrode if we considered EHD flow, as it makes
the particles circulate near the non-ionic region at the base of the barb [29]. This leads to
an increase of the overall collection efficiency, an effect that is more prominent at lower
velocities [29].

4.3. The Effect of Gas-Flow Velocity

Gas flow velocities can also affect the precipitation efficiency [5,18,68]. It is generally
accepted that a reduced gas inlet velocity increases the overall precipitation efficiency [18].
This is the case because any increase in the flow velocity will lead to a reduction of the
particle charging time [69]. Gas-flow velocities over the current limit of about 1.5 m/s will
lead to substantially reduced precipitation performance [70]. If the effect of gas velocity is
of interest, it is preferable to use the model of Zhibin and Guoquan [22], as it is the closest
to experimental data in this regard [58].

4.4. The Effect of Power Consumption and Number of Emitting Electrodes

There is a direct relation between ESP collection efficiency and its power input. A
greater input power yields a higher efficiency, which is initially apparent when a small
increase in power input results in a great improvement in the collection efficiency. However,
when a larger amount of input power is used, the improvement in the collection efficiency
is not as prominent due to the back-corona initiation [43,71]. Some works investigated
the effect of using additional emitting electrodes, and it was found that this method can
increase the precipitation efficiency, while consuming less power [15].
Energies 2022, 15, 6647 13 of 20

Table 1. Summary of papers evaluating ESP performance based on specific geometric parameters.

Author, Reference Emitting Electrode, Diameter, Collecting Electrode Particle Type, Size, Collection Efficiency,
ESP Type Flow Speed
Number Spacing/Length Geometry, Spacing Concentration Equation Number
Square profile/spaced disks/
Deutsch-White model,
Lagarias [43] Wire-plate type barbed, variable diameter, Flat plate, 152.4 mm N/A N/A, 10 µm, N/A
Equation (3)
203.2 mm
Fujishima [72] Wire-plate type Barbed wires, 0.2 mm, 50 mm Flat plate, 80 mm 0.1, 0.5, 1 m/s Dust, 11–11.5 µm, variable N/A
Flat plate, rod-curtain,
Heng [27] Wire-plate type Smooth cylinder, 5 mm, 24 0 mm W-, C-, and opzel types, 0.5–1 m/s N/A N/A
250 mm
0.254 mm, 0.2 m, unity Spherical, N/A, constant General method,
Abdel-Sattar [18] Wire-plate type Flat plate, 200 mm 10 m/s
surface factor concentration Equation (2)
Limestone dust, 6 µm, 0.1
Miller [37] Wire-plate type Barbed, 10 mm, 75–175 mm Flat plate, N/A N/A Fractional efficiency
g/m3
Smooth cylinder, N/A, single Spherical, 0.3–90 µm, General method,
Farnoosh [73] Wire-plate type Flat plate, 100 mm 1 m/s
wire/100 mm 998.2 kg/m3 Equation (2)
Spiked wire (single- and double-
N/A, 0.25–1.5 µm, General method,
Farnoosh [46] Wire-plate type sided spikes), 10 mm, single Flat plate, 100 mm 0.6 m/s
998.2 kg/m3 Equation (2)
wire/200 mm
Smooth cylinder, 0.09 mm, Spherical, 20 nm to General method,
Ning [15] Wire-plate type Flat plate, 200–400 mm 0.2 m/s
0.1–0.2 m 6.35 µm, variable Equation (2)
Smooth cylinder, 1 mm, Variable, 2.5–10 µm, variable Experimental (DRX-1,
He [74] Wire-plate type Flat plate, variable Static, 1–3.37 m/s
40–60–80 mm (100–200–300 µg/m3 ) DRX-2)
0.2–1.6, 2.2–3.5 mm,
Hao [55] Wire-plate type Flat plate, 300 mm 0.25 m/s N/A N/A
300–333 mm
General method,
Navarrete [19] Wire-plate type Barbed, N/A Flat plate, 300–400 mm 0.8–1.8 m/s Ash, variable, variable
Equation (2)
Smooth cylinder, Variable, 0.2–200 µm,
Kim [58] Wire-plate type Flat plate, 300 mm 1 m/s N/A
1 mm, 37.5 mm variable
Smooth cylinder, 0.4–0.8 mm,
Kasdi [9] Wire-plate type Flat plate, 100 mm N/A N/A N/A
40–60–80 mm
Energies 2022, 15, 6647 14 of 20

Table 1. Cont.

Author, Reference Emitting Electrode, Diameter, Collecting Electrode Particle Type, Size, Collection Efficiency,
ESP Type Flow Speed
Number Spacing/Length Geometry, Spacing Concentration Equation Number
C-, tri-, w-, corrugated,
Smooth cylinder, 0.25 mm, General method,
Chibane [75] Wire-plate type crenelated and flat types, 0–1 m/s 1–10 µm, 3900 kg/m3
40–60–80 mm Equation (2)
200 mm
Smooth cylinder, 0.1 mm, Several wavy types, flat General method,
Choi [76] Wire-plate type 2 m/s N/A
100 mm type, 50 mm Equation (2)
N/A, 0.68 µm, variable Deutsch-Anderson model,
Ruttanachot [77] Wire-plate type N/A, 64, 85 mm Flat plate, 50–75 mm 0.063 m/s
(average 498.1 mg/m3 ) Equation (3)
C-, tri-, w-, corrugated,
General method,
Zhu [59] Wire-plate type Smooth cylinder, 1 mm, 200 mm crenelated and flat types, 0–1 m/s 1–10 µm, 3900 kg/m3
Equation (2)
200 mm
Flat plate, w-type, General method,
Pal [70] Wire-plate type Cup-type, 5 mm, 240 mm 1 m/s N/A
200 mm Equation (2)
General method,
Yan [14] Wire-plate type Barbed, 20 mm, 480 mm C-type plate, 400 mm 0.4–0.8 m/s N/A
Equation (2)
Pipe-and-spike electrode, N/A, General method,
Lee [38] Wire-plate type Flat plate, 50 mm 0–1 m/s N/A
20 mm Equation (2)
Plate-plate type, Spiked edge-type electrode, General method,
Lee [6] Flat plate, 10 mm 1 m/s Oil mist, 2.5 µm, N/A
2-stage N/A Equation (2)
Smooth cylinder, square
Wire-plate type, Flat plate, BE-type plate, General method,
Gao [67] (90◦ /45◦ config.), needle wire, 1 m/s 0.05–10 µm, N/A
2-stage 400 mm Equation (2)
3.5 mm
Wire-plate type, Smooth cylinder, 0.22 mm, General method,
Gao [5] Flat plate, 10–50 mm 0.5–2 m/s 0.4–4 µm, 2200 kg/m3
2-stage single wire Equation (2)
Wire-plate type, Smooth cylinder, 0.1 mm, General method,
Zhu [4] W-type plate, 6 mm 0–2.5 m/s 0.3–1 µm, 1.225 kg/m3
2-stage single wire Equation (2)
Transverse-plate Curved transverse, General method,
Shen [69] Smooth cylinder, N/A ~0.2–1.7 m/s 16 nm–10 µm, 1000 kg/m3
type 100 mm Equation (2)
Energies 2022, 15, 6647 15 of 20

Table 1. Cont.

Author, Reference Emitting Electrode, Diameter, Collecting Electrode Particle Type, Size, Collection Efficiency,
ESP Type Flow Speed
Number Spacing/Length Geometry, Spacing Concentration Equation Number
Transverse-plate
Yi [78] Smooth cylinder, N/A Double C-plate, 40 mm 3.5 m/s Ash, ≤60 µm N/A
type
Transverse-plate Simple transverse, Dust, 25.405 µm, 500–1300 General method,
Xiang [25] Smooth cylinder, 2 mm, 400 mm 1–1.5 m/s
type 200 mm mg/m3 Equation (2)
Transverse-plate Talcum powder, 11.6 µm,
Chang [7] Barbed, 20 mm, 480 mm C-plate, 480 mm 0.8 m/s Combined, Equation (13)
type variable
Cylindrical, 15 mm General method,
Zhuang [79] Wire-cylinder type 0.3–0.5 mm, N/A 0.35–0.7 m/s Various, 0.5–50 µm, variable
radius, 150 mm long Equation (2)
Cylindrical, 25 mm Diesel emissions, 0.2–2.5 µm, General method, Equation
Yamamoto [42] Wire-cylinder type 6.35 mm, 416 mm long 1.9–2.1 m/s
radius, 416 mm long N/A (2)
Cylindrical, 12.75 mm
Niewulis [61] Wire-cylinder type 0.23 mm, 100 mm long 0.9 m/s N/A N/A
radius, 200 mm long
Cylindrical/barbed, Cylindrical, 125 mm Mass-related separation
Bacher [56] Wire-cylinder type 1.36 m/s 0.082 µm (mean), N/A
0.2 mm, N/A radius, 5000 mm long method
“Sawtooth”, 35–75 mm, Cylindrical, 100 mm General method,
Hwang [39] Wire-cylinder type 1 m/s Variable
20–100 mm radius, 555 mm long Equation (2)
Energies 2022, 15, 6647 16 of 20

5. Discussion and Conclusions

This review presented the main elements of single-stage electrostatic precipitators,
along with different methods used to assess the performance of the ESP. Starting with the
collection efficiency, this can be evaluated using several approaches. The majority of the
models are based on the Deutsch model. While this model is easy to adapt, it is flawed
due to the assumption of uniform diffusion within the flow. Modifications such as the
Zhibin and Guoquan model tried to solve this by considering the effect of diffusion. More
complex models considered the type of precipitated materials or inertial forces in the case
of transverse-plate ESPs.
The geometry of discharge electrodes greatly affects the precipitator’s performance.
The design variation of discharge wires, such as sawtooth discharge plates and barbed
wires, as opposed to smooth cylindrical wires, enjoy a wide adaption in the industry.
Using barbed discharge can greatly increase the precipitation performance, with shorter
barbs/spikes being more effective in achieving better efficiency. Increasing the number
of spikes increases the collection efficiency, except when the spikes are too close, which
can result in a homogenous electric field. Smaller discharge wire radii allow for the corona
discharge to occur faster. Using more emitting electrodes increases the collection efficiency
while consuming less power. As for collecting plates, bending to them leads to an increase
in the electric field intensity, which in turn can improve the collection efficiency. Changing
the design of the collection electrode can also help with capturing and limiting the re-
entrainment of particles. Precipitation performance can increase with decreased spacing
between subsequent collection plates.
An increasingly important metric is the corona power ratio. It can measure the power
consumption with respect to the gas flow rate, which is one of the economic considerations
for industrial precipitators. Additionally, industrial precipitators can benefit from using
non-traditional materials that are more resistant to corrosive environments that are common
in the industry. Evaluating current-voltage characteristics is another method of assessing
the performance of the ESP by monitoring the change in I–V characteristics when changing
one or more element. These changes are often verified experimentally against industrial
precipitators or lab setups. The impact of changing each of the main design elements of the
discharge and collecting electrodes has been assessed through previous works.
Collisions of charged and neutral particles produce an EHD flow within the ESP
electrode gap, meaning that EHD flow can greatly influence particle transport. This
behavior was studied through several numerical models. The resulting turbulent flow
profile is unstable, with vortexes within it contributing to lower collection efficiencies.
Regarding the deposition rate of particles, EHD flow contributes to higher deposition rates
at a lower flow velocity, increasing the overall collection efficiency.
As for gas flow velocity, lower gas inlet velocities generally yield higher precipitation
efficiencies, as increasing the flow velocity will lead to a reduction of the particle charging
time. Power consumption is another factor that affects the precipitation efficiency. A
greater input power yields a higher efficiency, at least until a certain threshold, because
after this limit, larger input power values do not continue to increase the efficiency linearly.
Using additional emitting electrodes with a lower input power can aid with increasing the
precipitation efficiency.

6. Future Work
Further optimization for the geometry of both discharge electrodes and collecting
plates is needed to maximize the precipitation performance of electrostatic precipitators.
This can mainly be achieved through utilizing a numerical simulation, where new models
are still being actively developed [38,67,76]. Some progress has already been made in this
regard [38,39], but it is still yet to be applied for specific operating conditions.
More advanced numerical models will also be beneficial in further optimizing ge-
ometries of ESPs to surpass the current gas flow velocity limit of about 1.5 m/s [70].
Additionally, these models can aid with overcoming high-voltage requirements of ESPs,
Energies 2022, 15, 6647 17 of 20

lowering the operation cost and partially negating the need for special anti-corrosion
electrode materials. As most models use simplifications such as neglecting electrohydro-
dynamic flow, the diffusion effect on gas flow due to concentration variation, or particle
distribution patterns, developing more complete models will help with designing ESP
geometries with higher collection efficiencies for sub-micron particulate matter [59,76].
The optimized geometries should focus on limiting charged particle re-entrainment and
consider the interaction between the secondary EHD flow and the main flow [59].
Another area that requires further research is the selection of optimum discharge and
collecting electrode materials in terms of corrosion compliance for long-term operation.
This is especially relevant in industrial applications, where ESPs are susceptible to corrosive
materials. The use of multiple stages can partially aid with achieving this goal [6,34].

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.B. and A.M.M.; methodology, M.B. and A.M.M.; in-
vestigation, M.B. and A.M.M.; writing—original draft preparation, A.M.M.; writing—review and
editing, M.B.; visualization, M.B. and A.M.M.; supervision, M.B. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The APC is supported by The American University in Cairo (AUC) Grant no: SSE-MENG-
M.B.-MG-Type B-FY23.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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