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‘Government space exploration is rapidly making way for privately-driven space
commerce. Above and Beyond is an excellent treatise on the current state of the
space enterprise and how it affects, and is affected by, commercial globalization
trends.’
—David Alexander, PhD, Director, Rice Space Institute, USA

‘A successful attempt to harness the convergence of divergent domains with

lucidity, clarity and brevity. The analysis of the business of space is a thoughtfully
dissected treatise on globalization which may serve as a compass for imagination,
invention and innovation.’
—Dr Shoumen Datta, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
Above and Beyond

The global space sector has always been regarded as a cutting-edge field, futuristic
and at the forefront of innovation. In recent years, the sector has undergone
massive change, giving rise to a high-technology niche worth over $330 billion
in revenues worldwide and growing. That process, encompassing a greater and
more diverse set of actors, has been described as the “democratization of space.”
Above and Beyond: Exploring the Business of Space provides a comprehensive
and current overview of the business of space and its distinctive competitive
dynamics. The book explores the commercialization of space, taking the reader
on a journey from the era of the Space Race up to the present and beyond.
Focusing on both state and commercial actors, the book provides an exhaustive
panoramic view of an area of growing human endeavour and ambition that is
both informative and fascinating. As the business of space continues to develop
and grow at a remarkable pace, the book offers a thoughtful and timely analysis
of its past, present and future scenarios.
While providing a critical assessment of the business of space, this book
offers valuable insights to academics, policy makers and anyone with a keen
interest in the sector, as well as useful lessons from emerging commercial and
traditional space actors that have broader applicability to other industries and
their managers.

Louis Brennan is a Fellow of Trinity College and Professor within the Trinity
Business School at Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland. He has published extensively
in the fields of International Business, Operations and Technology Management.

Loizos Heracleous is Professor of Strategy at Warwick Business School, UK.

He received his PhD from the University of Cambridge and a DSc from the
University of Warwick for lifetime contributions to his field.

Alessandra Vecchi is Assistant Professor in the Department of Management at

the University of Bologna in Italy, where she holds a Marie Curie Fellowship,
and works as Senior Research Fellow at London College of Fashion at the
University of London Arts, UK.
Above and Beyond
Exploring the Business of Space

Louis Brennan, Loizos Heracleous

and Alessandra Vecchi
First published 2018
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2018 Louis Brennan, Loizos Heracleous and Alessandra Vecchi
The right of Louis Brennan, Loizos Heracleous and Alessandra Vecchi
to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record has been requested for this book
ISBN: 978-1-138-09818-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-09820-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-10449-2 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents

List of figures x
List of tables xi
Preface xii

SECTION I
Overview and trends 1

1 Introduction and background: the global space sector 3

Introduction 3
The conceptualization of the business of space: a globalization perspective 3
De-territorialization and re-territorialization 6
Origins of space 9
Conclusion 19

2 Globalization and the pivotal role of the space industry 22

Introduction 22
The pivotal role of the space industry in fostering globalization 22
The fraying of globalization 30
Conclusion 34

3 Industry analysis I: the upstream segment 36

Introduction 36
Industry definition 36
Current state of the upstream segment 40
The launch industry 43
Satellite manufacturing 46
Resources 51
Military sector 53
Space exploration sector 54
viii Contents
Manned space flight sector 56
Conclusion 58

4 Industry analysis II: the downstream segment 60

Introduction 60
The current state of the downstream segment 60
Satellite communication services 60
Satellite earth observation 63
Satellite weather and climate monitoring 66
Global positioning and navigation services 68
Space tourism 69
Conclusion 79

SECTION II
The national players 81

5 The USA space programme 83

Introduction 83
The space race spurs investment in space technology 83
NASA’s creation and organizational setup 86
Shared norms and mission lead to outperformance 87
Expanded regulation and organizational inertia 88
The faster, better, cheaper approach brings mixed results 90
Funding and policy uncertainty 91
Critiques of NASA 92
Emergence of the commercial space industry 95
NASA’s capability development in collaborating with commercial space 97
A shifting industry: from hierarchy to network 100

6 The main country players 105

Introduction 105
The long-established players 111
The fast growing emerging economy players 124
Other players 134
Space service economy country players 145
Conclusion 147

SECTION III
Looking ahead 151

7 Future trajectories 153

Scenarios for the future of the space sector 153
 Contents ix
New trends in space innovation 158
Comparison with other industry sectors: from aviation to space tourism 166
Forces affecting the industry 175
Key strategic issues facing the industry: PESTEL analysis 178
Further potential 180
International business perspective 181

8 Epilogue 186

Index 189
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Figures

1.1 Territorialization, De-territorialization and Re-territorialization

in space 8
1.2 From the Cold War to globalization 14
3.1 Overview of the space economy 38
3.2 The space industry and its core components 38
3.3 The space budget by selected countries as a share of GDP
in 2008 and in 2013 40
3.4 OECD, BRICs and EU-15 space budget 2008–2013 42
3.5 Countries with operational satellites in orbit in 2010 42
3.6 Number of successful space launches for selected countries 1997–2013 44
3.7 Commercial launch revenues by country (2014) 46
3.8 World satellite manufacturing revenues in billions
of dollars (2010–2015) 47
3.9 Distribution of satellites launched by mission type 47
3.10 Distribution of value of satellites launched by mission type 48
3.11 Value of spacecraft launched by country/region
of manufacturer (2015) 48
4.1 World satellite industry revenues for services and others 61
4.2 Penetration of satellite TV by country 62
4.3 Selected ongoing and planned institutional earth observation
missions by civilian agencies 64
4.4 Forecast of suborbital space tourism passenger demand in thousands 76
4.5 Revenue forecast for space tourism 77
4.6 2030 Space tourism industry 78
6.1 2014 Space Competitiveness Index – Basic model framework 107
6.2 2014 Space Competitiveness Index – Orbital launch and spacecraft
manufacturing trends 2004–2013 110
6.3 Rocket test ranges and major rocket production facilities 113
6.4 Classification of space systems by missions performed 114
6.5 ESA budget for 2017 118
7.1 Sectors impacted by innovations in satellite communications 165
7.2 The integration/responsiveness grid and strategy types 171
7.3 The integration/responsiveness grid and industry types 172
Tables

1.1 Friedman’s Argument 6

2.1 Characterizing globalization and the business of space 30
3.1 NASA space budget allocation for 2016 41
3.2 Total commercial and non-commercial launch events (2014) 44
3.3 Types of small satellites 50
3.4 Popular extraplanetary destinations 55
3.5 Selected human space-flights statistics 58
3.6 Human space-flights capabilities for selected countries 58
4.1 Geostationary weather satellites 67
4.2 Satellite navigation constellations 69
5.1 The space race 85
5.2 Traditional vs commercial development approaches
(Adapted from NASA 2012) 94
5.3 Development of capabilities at NASA over time 99
6.1 2014 Space Competitiveness Index – Relative competitiveness
changes by country, SCI 2013 to SCI 2014 112
7.1 Cycles of space development 159
Above and Beyond: Exploring
the Business of Space
Preface
Steven A. González

I believe we have entered a new era of space exploration which will redefine the
business of space. An era built upon the foundation of the pioneering achieve-
ments of the international space agencies. As we collectively reach deeper and
deeper into space, the opportunities and technologies that will be created in its
wake will create new economies that were first conceived of as science fiction. For
example, markets from space mining and in space manufacturing of superior opti-
cal fiber to tourist trips around the moon. The disruptions and discoveries of this
era will not only impact business in space and but on economies of Earth as well.
This next phase of the human activity in space will see the emergence of space
commerce. Every year we see new emerging companies created to leverage the
resources in space or provide additional capabilities in space. These companies
provide governments with increasing choices to access space and an incredible
amount of information generated from the myriad of satellites in earth’s orbit.
Space commerce will increasingly look beyond government customers to other
industries that can be transformed from the orbiting capabilities. The future
business of space will not focus solely on the business “in” space but the com-
merce that is enabled through, in and because of space assets. Government and
industry have created telecom and earth observation industries that are enabling
new emerging markets to provide insights to terrestrial industries including
energy, agribusiness and maritime trade. The United Kingdom’s Satellite Appli-
cations Catapult is just one example of an organization helping new industries
make use of and benefit from satellite technologies.
The interaction of space commerce with other forms of commerce on earth
will create new opportunities for industries on earth. One example is a project
intended to improve maritime vessel tracking from onboard the International
Space Station (ISS). This project was funded by the Center for the Advancement
of Science in Space (CASIS) and included the Greater Houston Port Bureau.
The success of this project will provide greater insight into the transoceanic
maritime trade.
The business of space is poised to take another leap forward as the number
of spaceports continue to grow. It will create a competitive edge for those that
can leverage this for their supply chain. Currently there is commerce through
the ports, airports, rail and roads but those that are positioned near a spaceport
 Preface xiii
may find an opportunity to transfer goods from one end of the globe to the
other end in 4 hours. Towards this end an annual Global Spaceport Summit was
launched in 2015 to bring together the spaceport community to discuss how
they can work with one another as the various suborbital space vehicles mature.
Yet all of this would not be possible without the nearly 60-year evolution of
the business of space from its roots in political competition to international col-
laboration and private/public partnerships. The authors’ in-depth review of this
evolution shines a light on the rich foundation that will propel us to the stars
and create the space markets of tomorrow.

Steven González serves as the Technology Strategist in the Exploration Technology office
at NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas.
Section I

Overview and trends

1 Introduction and background
The global space sector

Introduction
In this chapter we address the evolution of the global space sector outlining its
most recent dynamics. We focus in particular on the dichotomy between space
and globalization. To this purpose, the chapter comprises four sections. We
describe the main theoretical foundations of the book in the second section by
defining the concept of space from a globalization perspective. In the third sec-
tion, we outline the dynamics of de-territorialization and re-territorialization
as they are characterizing the sector. We trace the origins of space, from its
early developments to the most recent dynamics of the business of space in
section four.

The conceptualization of the business of space:

a globalization perspective
Since the early 1970s, debates have raged throughout the social sciences con-
cerning the process of “globalization”, an essentially contested term whose
meaning is as much a source of controversy today as it was some decades ago,
when systematic research first began on the topic. Contemporary globalization
research encompasses an immensely broad range of themes, from the new inter-
national division of labour, changing forms of industrial organization, and pro-
cesses of urban-regional restructuring to transformations in the nature of state
power, civil society, citizenship, democracy, public spheres, nationalism, politico-
cultural identities, localities, and architectural forms, among many others. Yet
despite this proliferation of globalization research, little theoretical consensus
has been established in the social sciences concerning the interpretation of even
the most rudimentary elements of the globalization process (e.g., its historical
developments, its causal determinants and its socio-political implications).
Nevertheless, within this whirlwind of conflicting perspectives, a remarkably
broad range of studies of globalization have devoted detailed attention to the
problematic of space, its social production, and its historical transformation. Major
strands of contemporary globalization research have been permeated by geo-
graphical concepts (e.g., “space-time compression”, “space of flows”, “space of
4 The global space sector
places”, “deterritorialization”, “glocalization” the “global-local nexus”, “supra-
territoriality”, “diasporas”, “translocalities”, and “scapes” among many other
terms). Meanwhile globalization researchers have begun to deploy a barrage of
distinctively geographical prefixes (e.g. “sub-”, “supra-”, “trans-”, “meso” and
“inter-”), to describe various emergent social processes that appear to operate
below, above, beyond, or between entrenched geopolitical boundaries. In particu-
lar in social sciences, the recognition that social relations are becoming increasingly
interconnected on a global scale necessarily problematizes the spatial parameters
of those relations, and therefore, the geographical context in which they occur.
According to Friedman (1999) globalization is a new international system. It
came together in the late 1980s and replaced the previous international system,
the Cold War system, which had reigned since the end of World War II. Fried-
man defines globalization as the inexorable integration of markets, transportation
systems, and communication systems to a degree never witnessed before – in a
way that is enabling corporations, countries, and individuals to reach around the
world farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper than ever before.
Several important features of this globalization system differ from those of the
Cold War system. Friedman examined them in detail in his seminal book, The
Lexus and the Olive Tree. The Cold War system was characterized by one over-
arching feature and that was division. That world was a divided-up, chopped-up
place, and whether you were a country or a company, your threats and oppor-
tunities in the Cold War system tended to grow out of who you were divided
from. Appropriately, this Cold War system was symbolized by the Berlin Wall
and the Iron Curtain.
The globalization system is different. It also has one overarching feature and
that is integration. The world has become an increasingly interwoven place. Today,
whether you are a company or a country, your threats and opportunities increas-
ingly derive from who you are connected to. This globalization system is also
characterized by a single word – web, the World Wide Web. So in the broadest
sense we moved from an international system built around division and walls
to a system increasingly built around integration and webs. In the Cold War
we reached for the hotline, which was a symbol that we were all divided but at
least two people were in charge – the leaders of the United States and the Soviet
Union. In the globalization system we reach for the Internet, which is a symbol
that we are all connected and nobody is quite in charge. While during the Cold
War division caused rivalry and intense competition, in the globalization era
there is the reality that we will all succeed only on the basis of collaboration. In
this context, collaboration can assume many forms – from alliances to collabora-
tive networks – and can involve a wide variety of actors.
Everyone in the world is directly or indirectly affected by this new system,
but not everyone benefits from it, which is why the more it becomes diffused,
the more it also produces a backlash by people who feel overwhelmed by it,
homogenized by it, or unable to keep pace with its demands.
The other key difference between the Cold War system and the globalization
system is how power is structured within them. The Cold War system was built
 The global space sector 5
primarily around nation-states. You acted on the world in that system through
your state. The Cold War was a drama of states confronting states, balancing
states, and aligning with states. And, as a system, the Cold War was balanced at
the center by two superstates, two superpowers: the United States and the Soviet
Union.
The globalization system, by contrast, is built around three balances, which
overlap and affect one another. The first is the traditional balance of power
between nation-states as we have many “super-powers”. In the globalization
system, the United States is seen as the sole and dominant superpower and all
other nations are subordinate to it to one degree or another. The shifting balance
of power between the United States and other states, or simply between other
states, still very much matters for the stability of this system as it shifts from a
uni-polar world dominated by the United States to a multi-polar world in which
the United States is increasingly viewed as primus inter pares.
The second important power balance in the globalization system is between
nation-states and global markets. These global markets are made up of millions of
investors moving money around the world with the click of a mouse. Friedman
calls them the Electronic Herd, and this herd gathers in key global financial cen-
ters – such as Wall Street, Hong Kong, London, and Frankfurt – which Friedman
calls the “supermarkets”. The attitudes and actions of the Electronic Herd and
the “supermarkets” can have a significant impact on nation-states today, even to
the point of triggering the downfall of governments and the consequent emer-
gence of new dominant private actors and as we have experienced most recently
the virtual collapse of the global economy.
The third balance that we have to pay attention to is the balance between
individuals and nation-states. Because globalization has brought down many
of the walls that limited the movement and reach of people, and because it has
simultaneously wired the world into networks, it gives more power to individuals
to influence both markets and nation-states than at any other time in history.
Whether by enabling people to use the Internet to communicate instantly at
almost no cost over vast distances, or by enabling them to use the Web to transfer
money or obtain weapons designs that normally would have been controlled
by states, or by enabling them to go into a hardware store now and buy a five-
hundred-dollar global positioning device, connected to a satellite, that can direct
a hijacked airplane – globalization can be an incredible force-multiplier for indi-
viduals. Individuals can increasingly act on the world stage directly, unmediated
by a state. So according to Friedman we have today not only “many superpow-
ers”, not only “supermarkets”, but also what Friedman calls “super-empowered
individuals”.
Table 1.1 summarizes the main arguments that allow Friedman to delineate
the differences between the Cold War system and the globalization era. The
dynamics that globalization entails and as they have been described by Friedman
are well represented if we look at the evolution of the space industry. This section
will review the evolution of the space industry by looking at its different stages –
from the Cold War to globalization and their distinctive dynamics – in order to
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6 The global space sector
Table 1.1 Friedman’s Argument

• The Cold War System • Globalization

• Division • Integration
• Rivalry & Competition • Many Superpowers
• Two Superpowers • Collaboration
• Supermarkets
• Super empowered Individuals
Source: Adapted from Friedman, 2005.

provide a new conceptualization of the business of space that incorporates the

globalization perspective.

De-territorialization and re-territorialization

Since the early 1970s, debates have raged throughout the social sciences con-
cerning the process of globalization – an essentially contested term whose
meaning is as much a source of controversy today as it was some decades ago,
when systematic research first began on the topic. Contemporary globaliza-
tion research encompasses an immensely broad range of themes, from the
new international division of labour, changing forms of industrial organiza-
tion (Cerny, 1995), and processes of urban-regional restructuring (Florida,
1996; Storper, 1995) to transformations in the nature of state power (Glisby &
Holden, 2005), civil society (Van Rooy, 2004), citizenship (Castles & David-
son, 2000), democracy (Goodhart, 2001), public spheres (Bennett et al.,
2004), nationalism (Hannerz & Featherstone, 1990), politico-cultural identities
(Brenner, 1999); (Ferguson, 2005), localities (Amin, 2002), and architectural
forms (Kobrin, 1997), among many others. Yet despite this proliferation of
globalization research, little theoretical consensus has been established in the
social sciences concerning the interpretation of even the most rudimentary
elements of the globalization process (e.g., its historical developments, its causal
determinants, and its socio-political implications). The notion of globalization
as a catalyst for radical economic, political and social change is a recurring issue
in the current academic literature. There is however a lack of consensus on
the strength and the likely impact of globalization. This conceptual vacuum
is well described by Scholte, who affirms that:

in spite of a deluge of publications on this subject, our analysis of Global-

ization tends to remain conceptually inexact, empirically thin, historically
and culturally illiterate, normatively shallow and politically naïve. Although
Globalization is widely assumed to be crucially important, we generally have
a scant idea of what, more precisely, it entails.
(Scholte, 2000)
 The global space sector 7
Nevertheless, within this whirlwind of conflicting perspectives, a remarkably
broad range of studies of globalization have devoted detailed attention to the
problematic of space, its social production, and its historical transformation.
Major strands of contemporary globalization research have been permeated by
geographical concepts (“space-time compression” (Luke, 1996), “space of flows”
(Amin 2002), “space of places” (Brenner, 1999), “de-territorialisation” (Scholte,
2000), “glocalization” (Robertson, 1992), the “global-local nexus” (Friedman,
1999), “supra-territoriality” (Scholte, 2005), “diasporas” (Barker, 1999) and
“scapes” (Brenner, 1999) among many other terms). Meanwhile globalization
researchers have begun to rely on distinctively geographical prefixes (e.g. “sub-”,
“supra-”, “trans-”, “meso-” and “inter-”), to describe a set of emergent social
processes that appear to operate across increasingly entrenched geopolitical
boundaries. In social sciences, the acknowledgement that social relations are
becoming increasingly interconnected on a global scale raises some interesting
questions over the spatial parameters of those relations as well as the geographical
settings in which they occur.
The contemporary era of globalization has been represented (Brenner 1999)
as the most recent historical expression of an ongoing dynamic of continual de-
territorialization and re-territorialization that has underpinned the production
of capitalist spatiality since the first industrial revolution of the early nineteenth
century. On the one hand, capitalism is under the impulsion to eliminate all geo-
graphical barriers to the accumulation process in pursuit of cheaper raw materi-
als, fresh sources of labour, new markets for its products, and new investment
opportunities. This expansionary, de-territorializing tendency within capitalism
was clearly recognized by Marx, who famously described capital’s globalizing
nature as a drive to “annihilate space by time” and analyzed the world market
at once as its historical product and its geographical expression.
On the other hand, as David Harvey has argued, the resultant processes of
“space-time compression” must be viewed as one moment within a contradic-
tory socio-spatial dialectic that continually molds, differentiates, deconstructs, and
reworks capitalism’s geographical landscape (Harvey, 1991). According to Harvey,
it is only through the production of relatively fixed and immobile configura-
tions of territorial organization including urban built environments, industrial
agglomerations, regional production complexes, large-scale transportation infra-
structures, long-distance communications networks, and state regulatory institu-
tions that the capital circulation process can be continually accelerated temporally
and expanded spatially. Each successive round of capitalist industrialization has
therefore been premised upon socially produced geographical infrastructures that
enable the accelerated circulation of capital through global space. In this sense, as
Harvey notes, “spatial organization is necessary to overcome space”.
This theoretical insight enables Harvey to interpret the historical geography of
capitalism as “a restless formation and re-formation of geographical landscapes”
in which configurations of capitalist territorial organization are incessantly cre-
ated, destroyed, and reconstituted as provisionally stabilized “spatial fixes’” for
each successive regime of accumulation (Harvey 1991).
8 The global space sector
From this perspective, the business of space can be seen as a presupposition,
medium, and outcome of capitalism’s globalizing developmental dynamic.
Space is not merely a physical container within which capitalist development
unfolds, but one of its constitutive key dimensions, continually constructed,
de-constructed, and re-constructed through a historically specific, multi-scalar
dialectic of de-territorialization and re-territorialization.
Building upon this theorization, Brenner (1999) understands Globalization
as a double-edged process through which: 1) the movement of commodities,
capital, money, people, images, and information through geographical space is
continually expanded and accelerated (“de-territorialization”); and 2) relatively
fixed and immobile socio-territorial infrastructures are produced, reconfig-
ured, re-differentiated, and transformed to enable such expanded, accelerated
movement (“re-territorialization”). Globalization therefore entails a dialectical
interplay between the drive towards space-time compression under capitalism
(the moment of de-territorialization) and the continual production of relatively
fixed, provisionally stabilized configurations of territorial organization on mul-
tiple geographical scales (the moment of re-territorialization). The business of
space and its geopolitical implications represent an emblematic example of this
process by which de-territorialization and re-territorialization are taking place.
To this end, Figure 1.1 illustrates these processes.

Figure 1.1 Territorialization, De-territorialization and Re-territorialization in space

 The global space sector 9
In this context, territorialization happens on planet earth where the geopo-
litical boundaries of individual countries are established; de-territorialization
happens mainly through space exploration and re-territorialization takes place
by individual countries establishing their presence either in orbit through the
establishment of relatively fixed organizational forms (i.e. like the establishment
of a space station) or on other planets.

Origins of space
Human fascination in the world beyond the Earth’s atmosphere predates even
the pioneering astronomers of Ancient Greece. Great Stone Age structures such
as Stonehenge are believed to have fulfilled astronomical (as well as religious)
functions. Indeed, ever since humans first saw birds soar through the sky, they
have wanted to fly. The ancient Greeks and Romans pictured many of their gods
with winged feet, and imagined mythological winged animals.
The ancient fascination with the ocean of skies is illustrated in the legend of
Daedalus and Icarus in which father and son escaped prison by attaching wings
made of wax to their bodies. Unfortunately, Icarus flew too near the sun, the
heat caused the wax to melt and he plummeted to the sea as a punishment for
excessive daring. Chinese legend tells us of the first attempt to propel a man
into space made in the 14th century by the Chinese official Wan Hu. He built
a spacecraft with a chair, kites and 47 gunpowder filler bamboo rockets. There
was a loud explosion followed by smoke and Wan Hu was never seen again
(Burrows, 1999).

Early developments
During the centuries when space travel was only a fantasy, researchers in the sci-
ences of astronomy, chemistry, mathematics, meteorology, and physics developed
an understanding of the solar system, the stellar universe, the atmosphere of the
earth, and the probable environment in space. In the 7th and 6th centuries BC,
the Greek philosophers Thales and Pythagoras noted that the earth is a sphere.
In the 3rd century BC the astronomer Aristarchus of Samos asserted that the
earth moved around the sun. Hipparchus elaborated information about stars
and the motions of the moon in the 2nd century BC. In the 2nd century AD
Ptolemy of Alexandria placed the earth at the center of the solar system in the
Ptolemaic system.
Not until some 1,400 years later did the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Coper-
nicus systematically explain that the planets, including the earth, revolve about
the sun. However, the scientific study of rockets, planes, and satellites was
inaugurated in the Modern Era by the impressive study of flight by Leonardo
da Vinci, one of the most versatile geniuses of the Renaissance. His surviving
notebooks contain over 35,000 words and some 150 drawings that illustrate his
theories, and his sketches indicate advanced ideas regarding the parachute and
helicopter, neither of which existed at the time. Later in the 16th century the
10 The global space sector
observations of the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe greatly influenced the laws
of planetary motion set forth by Kepler. Galileo, Edmund Halley, Sir William
Herschel, and Sir James Jeans were other astronomers who made contributions
pertinent to astronautics. The scientific breakthrough in designing spacecrafts
came in the 16th and 17th centuries. Physicists and mathematicians helped to
lay the foundations of astronautics with Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), the Ger-
man mathematician figuring out the equations for orbiting planets and satellites
and Isaac Newton (1643–1727) establishing the basic laws of gravitation which
confirm that planets follow Kepler’s equations. In 1654 the German physicist
Otto von Guericke proved that a vacuum could be maintained, refuting the old
theory that nature “abhors” a vacuum. In 1696, Robert Anderson, an English-
man, published a two-part thesis on how to make rocket moulds, prepare the
propellants, and perform the calculations. In the late 17th century Newton for-
mulated the laws of universal gravitation and motion. Newton’s laws of motion
established the basic principles governing the propulsion and orbital motion of
modern spacecraft.
The 19th century brought about advanced research. The essential equations
for rocketry were devised by a Russian school teacher Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
(1857–1935). Tsiolkovsky concluded that space travel was a possibility and
determined that liquid oxygen and hydrogen fuel rockets would be needed and
that these rockets would be built in stages. His prediction came through 65 years
later when the Saturn V Rocket facilitated the first landing of men on the moon.
Tsiolkovsky also stated that the speed and range of a rocket were limited by the
exhaust velocity of escaping gases (NASA, 2009). In America, Robert Goddard
(1882–1945) constructed the world’s first liquid fuelled rocket launch in 1926.
Goddard, “the American father of modern rocketry” invented rocket technology
and forged the same designs that were used by Germans during World War II.
After a confirmation of their military might and strategic importance during
the war, it was Hermann Oberth (1894–1989) who convinced the world that
the rocket industry was something to take seriously in his highly influential and
internationally acclaimed book The Rocket into Interplanetary Space. He was the
only one of the three rocketry pioneers who lived to see men travel through
space and land on the moon. Indeed, Oberth and a team of scientists directed
by Wernher von Braun (1912–1977) developed and launched the German V2
rocket, the first rocket capable of reaching space. At the end of World War II,
von Braun settled in the US where he played a crucial role in convincing the
federal government to pursue a landing of men on the moon, and guided US
efforts to success (NASA, 2009).
Literature has also greatly supported human interest in outer space. Greek
satirist Lucian (2nd century AD) wrote about an imaginary voyage to the moon.
Lucian was followed by French satirist Voltaire (‘Micromegas’ – travels of inhabit-
ants of Sirius and Saturn), French writer Jules Verne (From the Earth to the Moon),
British novelist H.G. Wells (The first man in the moon, War of the Worlds), Sir Arthur
Clarke (A Space Odyssey) Isaac Asimov (Nightfall), and many others. Despite the
scientific foundations laid in earlier ages, however, space observation and travel
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 *
* *
C’était bien le résumé de sa vie et la synthèse de sa nature
impatiente de la moindre entrave, qu’elle me donnait ainsi en quatre
mots, de son ton despotique, presque farouche.
Elle me communiquait sa fièvre, son inextinguible soif
d’indépendance. Et je la regardais, émerveillé, dominé, tyrannisé par
la force magnétique que dégageait ce corps d’apparence débile,
convalescent et pâli, emmitouflé dans les fourrures, et dont la fine
tête volontaire était coiffée d’ailes de papillon!
Quelques pièces jouées pour la seule beauté et qui ne pouvaient
fructifier, sa maladie, avaient mis un peu d’embarras dans ses
affaires de directrice.
«Mais baste! j’en ai vu bien d’autres... Et puis, Rostand va me
faire le duc de Reichstadt. Avec cet espoir-là, je suis tranquille.»
Et son rire clair, son rire d’insouciance bohémienne, chassa en un
clin d’œil au delà des verdures mouillées à présent baignées de
soleil, les soucis provisoires...
Cette admirable énergie, cette incomparable volonté ont donné à
Sarah une figure et une destinée presque en dehors de la réalité.
Elle n’est plus seulement une artiste dont le génie traducteur
s’adapte à toutes les formes de la beauté, elle se présente à son
entourage, passionné pour sa nature, et au public, idolâtre de son
art, avec la force et l’impersonnalité déconcertantes d’un élément. Et
en effet son histoire est unique au monde. La voici au sommet de sa
carrière, ayant connu les hauts et les bas de la chance capricieuse,
mais familière surtout avec le triomphe, la voici à cinquante ans en
possession du plus miraculeux de ses rôles, apporté sur un plat d’or
par un exquis poète qui paraît avoir été créé exprès pour elle!
Quand on commençait à dire que jamais son étoile pâlissante ne
retrouverait une Dame aux camélias, une Tosca, une Phèdre, une
doña Sol, ou un Hamlet, on la voit soudain se transfigurer comme
par magie sous l’uniforme blanc du fils de l’Empereur, de ce duc de
Reichstadt, de cet Aiglon dont la France, l’Europe et les deux
Amériques attendent déjà impatiemment l’essor.

*
* *
J’ai passé la veillée des armes à côté d’elle. Je ne l’ai pas quittée
un instant durant la journée et la soirée d’avant-hier. De trois heures
après midi à trois heures du matin, je l’ai vue debout, costumée,
souriante, sereine, tour à tour rieuse, réfléchie, grondante, fâchée,
câline, lyrique, tremblante d’émotion, une minute affaissée sous
l’effort d’une scène capitale, la minute suivante redressée et prête de
nouveau au combat...
Ce qui m’a le plus frappé hier dans sa physionomie, moi qui l’ai
vue en tant d’occurrences diverses et opposées, c’est la douceur
pacifiée de son regard, c’est l’expression de sérénité tranquille et
forte de ses traits, illuminée, de temps en temps, d’une sorte de
rayonnement joyeux.
Jamais je ne l’avais vue ainsi.
Dans le décor ravissant et clair de sa loge, située comme on sait
dans l’ancien foyer des artistes de l’Opéra-Comique, elle va et vient
posément, récitant un instant des vers nouveaux ajoutés par
Rostand à son rôle, s’interrompant pour faire rectifier par ses deux
caméristes un détail de son costume. Aucune fièvre. L’atmosphère
bienfaisante du succès a calmé toute irritation. C’est le camp d’un
général d’armée qui doit se battre demain pour la forme, car il ne
peut être vaincu.
Elle me demande de dépouiller pour elle son courrier. Il y a là un
tas de lettres et de dépêches qu’elle n’a pas le temps de lire. Je les
ouvre. Tout le monde veut des places... Députés, académiciens,
conseillers municipaux, artistes, journalistes traduisent tous à
l’avance l’enthousiasme sécrété au dehors par les murs du théâtre et
la hardiesse spéculatoire des marchands de billets. Mais il n’y a plus
de places, depuis longtemps.
«Des gens qui ne m’ont pas même écrit depuis vingt ans,
d’autres que je ne connais seulement pas, qui me demandent des
loges! Il y a de quoi mourir de rire, parole d’honneur!»
Elle ne rit pas d’ailleurs, n’y pensant déjà plus, se regardant dans
une glace, arrangeant ses cheveux qu’elle a fait couper courts pour
L’Aiglon, faisant jouer sa ceinture, bouffer son jabot de dentelles.
Rostand est là aussi, parmi le léger brouhaha des habilleuses,
des régisseurs, des amis. Il s’amuse à la regarder, tout prêt à rire, de
son rire de collégien. Car quand elle veut, Sarah est d’un comique
extraordinaire, par l’outrance de ses images toujours justes et la
violence imprévue de ses reparties.
Cette gaieté de Sarah est bien caractéristique de sa force. C’est
évidemment un trop-plein de sa sève qui se résout en joie. Elle a des
trouvailles, des mimiques, des répliques, une verve, des silences
même, qui font irrésistiblement éclater le rire autour d’elle. Elle imite
certains de ses amis avec une vérité comique incroyable.
«C’est une source de gaieté continuelle,» me disait Rostand en la
regardant.
Il faut l’entendre quelquefois parler à Pitou! Pitou, c’est son
secrétaire depuis plusieurs années. Brave garçon à la figure de
comique, très dévoué à la «patronne», un peu rêveur et passionné
de littérature dramatique. Pitou est responsable de tout. Quand
Sarah a tort, c’est Pitou qui «écope». Mais ce n’est jamais bien
grave. Et Pitou essuie sans émoi les averses de quolibets et de
reproches, sachant bien que le soleil n’est jamais long à reparaître.
Car c’est un des phénomènes les plus curieux de ce caractère,
que la soudaineté et la succession des impressions. Vous la croyez
follement en colère, sa bouche profère abondamment les épithètes
de la stupidité: idiot, imbécile, serin, âne! sa voix monte, s’exaspère;
si une opposition se produit à ce moment, l’orage se déchaîne en
tempête. Mais, soudain, une autre pensée traverse sa tête,
quelqu’un entre, le téléphone carillonne, c’est fini, le sourire
réapparaît sur ses lèvres, elle a tout oublié, et la voilà qui rit elle-
même de sa fureur.
Une telle variété, une telle richesse de nature a toujours attiré
autour d’elle beaucoup d’amis. Ils viennent près d’elle puiser une
force qu’elle est toujours prête à distribuer avec la générosité et
l’inconscience d’un élément.
Lorsqu’une première représentation approche, les répétitions
durent jusqu’à l’aube. Sur le coup de quatre heures du matin, les
jeunes femmes de la troupe sont anéanties, brisées, courbées, les
hommes grelottent sous leur pardessus au frisson du petit jour. Mais
elle, toujours pareille, plus animée même, plus brillante, a l’air
étonnée de la fatigue des autres. Combien de fois n’a-t-elle pas
électrisé ainsi de son ardeur la troupe tombant de lassitude!

*
* *
Je cause de tout cela avec Rostand, pendant que, le coude
appuyé sur un angle de la cheminée de sa loge, elle répète, en les
martelant comme pour mieux les fixer dans sa mémoire, les vers des
«rajouts» du cinquième acte qu’elle ne sait pas encore bien.
Soudain elle l’appelle. Un vers ne va plus, à la suite d’une
coupure. Rostand prend un chiffon de papier, va s’asseoir sur le coin
d’une table, déplace les fourchettes et les cuillers du couvert qu’on
vient de dresser et se met là à fabriquer la soudure.
Le régisseur vient appeler:
«Quand Madame voudra... Le décor est prêt
—C’est bien.»
Et, la cravache à la main, en bottes vernies et éperonnées, voilà
Napoléon II, le sourire de la confiance sur les lèvres, qui monte en
scène.
«Jamais, me dit Rostand en la regardant partir, jamais elle n’aura
été plus belle. Elle apporte à ce rôle une vie, une jeunesse, un
charme, un rayonnement véritablement merveilleux.»
Dans ma mémoire, passe la vision du paysage d’avril, les lilas, les
grands arbres, la pluie tiède, et j’entends la voix despotique me
répéter à trois reprises:
—Faire ce qu’on veut!
 RÉJANE
20 mai 1900.

Depuis deux jours, l’éblouissante orgie de lumière qui inonde

chaque soir le boulevard s’est augmentée d’un nouveau foyer: à la
façade du Vaudeville, on voit fulgurer, puis s’éteindre, puis
réapparaître, dans le va-et-vient malicieux qu’on dirait inventé par un
enfant ingénieux et taquin, ces deux jolis noms d’une seule et même
personne: Réjane, Madame Sans-Gêne. Et ces deux noms
triomphants qui ont déjà fait ensemble le tour du monde, créent,
pour le passant étranger, comme une atmosphère soudaine de
gaieté et de sympathie souriante.
C’est que, si Sarah Bernhardt représente, devant l’unanime
admiration du monde, la force opprimante et tragique, le lyrisme
éperdu et chantant de la poésie universelle, l’émotion héroïque de
l’éternel Drame; si Coquelin peut, dans la même minute, tordre
brusquement en grimace émue le rire qui se dessinait sur vos lèvres,
s’il vous tient à son gré, par le mystère miraculeux de sa voix, entre
l’attendrissement, le rire ou la peur, Réjane résume, à l’heure qu’il
est, aux yeux de l’Europe, la fantaisie et l’esprit du génie français,
mêlés à l’humanité débordante et à la sincérité de son tempérament
d’artiste.
Et alors que Mme Sarah Bernhardt, avec L’Aiglon, offre au monde
entier, qui se presse aux portes de son théâtre, l’une de ses plus
belles incarnations; que Coquelin revivifie, avec le même succès
fastueux, le nez lyrique de Cyrano, Réjane devait ressusciter, pour la
joie de tous, la figure populaire de la Maréchale de France-
blanchisseuse qui a porté son nom aux quatre coins de la terre.
Ces trois succès de trois grands artistes français de ce temps, loin
de se nuire, vont réciproquement se servir l’un l’autre pendant les
cinq mois que le globe habité passera à Paris.

*
* *
Mais Réjane ce n’est pas seulement Madame Sans-Gêne! Et il
faut espérer que l’alternance des spectacles, dont la mode s’implante
peu à peu dans tous les théâtres, permettra aux visiteurs étrangers
de s’en rendre compte.
L’étonnante variété de cette nature d’artiste a été rendue par
deux portraits fameux: celui de Chartran et celui de Besnard. On ne
peut rien rêver de plus dissemblable, on ne peut rien peindre de plus
frappant! Ils sont tous deux, en croquis, dans sa loge, placés face à
face. Besnard n’a retenu des traits de son modèle que l’expression
énergique et même un peu brutale, sensuelle et populaire, la Réjane
du drame de l’Ambigu ou de la comédie réaliste, La Glu et Germinie
Lacerteux. Malgré la robe de soie décolletée et les luxueux atours
dont il l’a habillée, Besnard l’a vue avec ses bottines de lasting que
Germinie traînait si lamentablement dans les bals de barrière, et ses
gants blancs de filoselle que, pour plus de vérité, elle avait
empruntés à sa bonne. Et c’est bien elle, admirablement!
Mais elle n’est pas apparue ainsi à Chartran. Il l’a vue en coiffe
de dentelle ornée d’un ruban rose, les cheveux sur les yeux, la
bouche spirituelle, avec l’ovale gracieux de sa figure; il a vu surtout
ses yeux extraordinaires et complexes, agiles, veloutés, pervers, à la
large paupière voluptueuse, moqueurs, ardents, bavards et rêveurs!
C’est la Réjane du répertoire de Meilhac, de la lignée des
comédiennes du dix-huitième siècle, c’est «Ma Cousine» qui se
prépare à devenir «Amoureuse».
Et cette complexité étonnante du tempérament de Réjane se
retrouve dans ses origines, dans sa biographie et dans ses goûts
d’aujourd’hui. La petite «gosse» qui passait ses soirées au balcon de
l’Ambigu en suçant une grosse orange gâtée, qui restait en extase
devant la psyché d’Adèle Page et qui en rêvait, des années durant,
comme au comble du luxe, cette petite gosse se retrouve dans le
portrait de Besnard. Mais la jeune fille du Conservatoire, l’élève
préférée de Régnier, qui enleva son premier succès dans L’Intrigue
épistolaire, puis l’interprète élégante et recherchée des cercles et
des salons, l’artiste grandie de Marquise, sont toutes vivantes dans
la peinture de Chartran!
Même cette apparente contradiction de cette multiple nature, je
la retrouvai au Vaudeville le dernier soir qu’elle joua La Robe rouge.
C’était Yanetta, la pauvre paysanne basque, coiffée du madras, en
corsage de bure, en épais souliers, au milieu de la plus jolie, de la
plus vaporeuse loge d’artiste qu’on puisse rêver! Sur les murs, des
tapisseries du dix-huitième siècle, où vivent des bergers exquis et
des bergères idéales; une grande glace triptyque à guirlandes
dorées, avec des appliques en fer forgé et peint; les dessus de porte
en feuilles de laurier multicolores, des bois du temps, des panneaux
sculptés d’arcs et de flèches, de hautbois et de cornemuses, de
tambourins et de castagnettes; sur une table, le Triomphe de
Bacchus en biscuit de Sèvres, un service complet de maquillage en
vieux saxe, des tabatières, des pendules du temps, des boîtes à
pastilles; un bonheur-du-jour en bois de citronnier, entouré d’une
galerie de cuivre; sur les murs, deux petits tableaux de Watteau de
Lille, un Huet charmant, un portrait d’enfant de Lépicier, un dessus
de glace du décorateur Eisen, et autour des doubles fenêtres à
glaces qui donnent l’illusion d’une enfilade de salons, d’adorables
rideaux de soie pâle, gris-vert, aux plis gracieux, bordés de
splendides vieilles dentelles! Sur tout cela une profusion de lampes
électriques versant à flots une lumière folle.
 Ce goût pour la réalité crue et honnête, ce déguisement de
femme du peuple au verbe haut, au ton populaire, à la nature âpre
et sauvage, dont la rancune se manifeste à coups de couteau, et
cette autre passion pour le bibelot rare, l’arrangement délicat des
étoffes, la couleur douce atténuée des tentures et des tapis, pour
ces mille riens élégants des arts passés, c’est Besnard et c’est
Chartran,—c’est Réjane!
 COUPEAU ET GERVAISE
A BELLEVILLE
26 novembre 1900.

Au milieu du concert d’admiration et d’éloges qui récompensa

Guitry le lendemain de L’Assommoir pour sa belle re-création de
Coupeau, l’artiste et ses amis s’étaient surtout montrés surpris d’une
critique—heureusement rare—formulée par quelques-uns et qui peut
se traduire ainsi: «Guitry n’est pas un ouvrier, c’est un clubman
déguisé en plombier...»
Or, l’autre après-midi, me promenant sur le boulevard, je
rencontrai Guitry qui se rendait à la Porte-Saint-Martin. Nous
reparlâmes de Coupeau. Et il me fit des confidences. Il était allé
plusieurs fois à Belleville pendant les répétitions de L’Assommoir.
Pour s’entraîner au naturel, ayant revêtu le costume d’ouvrier, il était
entré dans les «mannezingues», s’était attablé aux petites tables de
fer et accoudé aux zincs des comptoirs.
Même, un jour qu’il passait, avec sa boîte ronde de zingueur sur
le dos, un marchand de vins le héla, le fit entrer et lui demanda de
faire une réparation pressée. Il examina l’ouvrage à exécuter,
réfléchit, se gratta l’oreille, et finalement, «n’ayant pas les outils qu’il
fallait», promit de revenir le lendemain matin à six heures, en allant
à l’atelier... C’était un triomphe!
«Et tenez, me dit Guitry, je parie avec vous que nous allons
passer deux heures ensemble à Belleville et à Ménilmontant, et que
nous ne rencontrerons ni un regard étonné, ni l’ombre d’un sourire.
—En costume?
—En costume.
—Avec Suzanne Desprès?
—Pardi.»
Nous prenions aussitôt rendez-vous pour le lendemain matin
avant l’heure du déjeuner, au carrefour de la rue Oberkampf et du
boulevard de Ménilmontant, en plein centre ouvrier.
Le lendemain donc, habillé moi-même en ouvrier fondeur,
vareuse de toile bleu déteint, casquette de cycliste, un foulard de
coton noué autour du cou, je me fis conduire au lieu du rendez-
vous. Comme le cheval de mon fiacre marchait lentement et que
j’étais en retard, je passai la tête à la portière pour dire au cocher
d’aller un peu plus vite. Je m’attirai cette réponse si flatteuse pour
mon déguisement:
«Mon cher ami, le pavé est mauvais sur le boulevard, par ce
temps-là.....»
Jamais un cocher ne m’avait parlé avec cette politesse, ni sur ce
ton de bienveillance.
Un peu avant la rue Oberkampf, je descendis de voiture et je me
mêlai au flot des ouvriers qui quittaient les ateliers pour aller
déjeuner. Les deux mains dans les poches, je marchais, très à mon
aise, parmi la foule, sur le trottoir étroit. Vite je me sentis en
sécurité, malgré mon isolement, débarrassé du souci de paraître,
comme allégé d’un fardeau que j’aurais laissé tomber avec mes
habillements de ville: singulière sensation de bien-être moral,
obscure encore, mais bienfaisante et si nouvelle!
Sur la place, voici Guitry. C’est exactement le Coupeau du 1er
acte. Un chapeau de feutre mou, veste et pantalons de velours à
côtes, usé, rapiécé, plein de reflets d’usure. Une ceinture de flanelle
rouge entoure sa taille. Sous le gilet entr’ouvert, un foulard de coton
serré au cou. Il est chaussé d’épaisses bottines vieilles, mais solides,
usées au bout par les agenouillements du plombier à l’ouvrage. Sa
moustache tombe sur ses lèvres; il houle un peu des épaules en
marchant, et je ne vois de différence entre lui et les ouvriers qui
l’entourent qu’un peu plus de vigueur dans son allure.
La portière d’une voiture s’ouvre de l’autre côté de la place, et
voici Suzanne Desprès, la triomphante Gervaise. Elle vient à nous,
souriante, de son pas d’anglaise, allongé et glissant. C’est la
Gervaise gaie encore, qui n’a pas touché à son livret de caisse
d’épargne, confiante dans l’avenir; ses yeux bleus sourient, sa peau
est rose et fraîche dans l’air du matin. Elle est vêtue d’une robe
sombre, d’un corsage noir recouvert d’un petit châle noir, la tête
encadrée d’une fanchon de tricot noir. Un petit tablier noir à deux
poches serre sa taille.
Je la regarde, à côté de Guitry, et c’est tout le poignant drame de
Zola qui vit sous mes yeux, comme dans une hallucination.
Ce n’est plus la lumière factice de la rampe, ni le décor en
trompe-l’œil, c’est la double vie de ces deux êtres simples et bons,
qui furent si malheureux, dont la détresse me fit autrefois tant
pleurer. Durant un instant se mêlent dans mon esprit la fiction et la
réalité, le roman et la vie, le drame de Zola, Guitry et Suzanne
Desprès, Coupeau et Gervaise, en chair et en os, qu’il me semble
reconnaître.
Gaiement, nous allons déjeuner tous les trois, à l’Escargot d’Or,
un bon petit restaurant populaire que Guitry connaît. On nous offre,
comme à des clients qu’on veut faire revenir, les meilleurs plats du
jour: des moules marinière et du ragoût d’oie; après cela une
côtelette de mouton au cresson, puis du fromage et des poires, et
du café, le tout arrosé de deux bouteilles de chablis, soit trois francs
par personne.
Nous sortons sur le boulevard de Ménilmontant. C’est jour de
marché. Nous nous promenons au milieu des étals de boucherie, de
légumes, de fromages. A regarder ainsi, dans ce milieu, Coupeau et
Gervaise, je relis L’Assommoir! C’est ici que les critiques qui ont vu
en Guitry un clubman déguisé, devraient venir redresser leur
jugement! Suzanne Desprès a pris son bras, et elle a l’air d’être là
pour faire ses provisions, avec son homme, la veille de sa fête! On
leur offre des marchandises au passage. Ils poussent la conscience
jusqu’à ne pas même répondre aux avances des marchandes; ils ont
l’air de ne pas les entendre.
Non, Guitry n’a pas l’air d’un déguisé. Il s’aperçoit que ce qui
nous différencie peut-être un peu du reste des gens, c’est l’acuité, la
vivacité de nos regards. C’est vrai. Aussi, il éteint son œil, le fait
moins mobile, moins curieux, la transformation est subite et absolue,
et désormais, on ne peut s’y méprendre: c’est Coupeau,
indiscutablement!
Je suis là pour constater—et je le constate—que, parmi la foule
dont nous faisons partie, de ceux qui vont dans le même sens que
nous, de ceux qui nous croisent ou de ceux qui nous regardent
passer, personne n’a manifesté un étonnement, personne ne s’est
retourné sur Coupeau, comme cela se fût immanquablement produit
si Guitry avait eu l’air d’un sportsman maquillé.
Et nous avons continué l’expérience tout l’après-midi. Nous nous
sommes promenés curieusement dans ce Paris inconnu du dix-
neuvième et du vingtième arrondissement, prenant au hasard les
rues et les ruelles, les larges voies et les boulevards, de
Ménilmontant à Belleville, solitaires ou grouillants de monde, pour
que la preuve fût décisive.
Une foule de gens du peuple stationnait devant un dépôt
d’ouvrage municipal; on venait là attendre, sans doute, pour se faire
embaucher. Nous nous sommes mêlés à cette foule, nous l’avons
traversée lentement sans susciter le moindre regard de méfiance ou
de curiosité, sans provoquer la plus petite réflexion.
Nous marchons ainsi, en causant et en flânant, jusqu’à la porte
de Romainville et au lac Saint-Fargeau, à travers des rues inconnues
et pittoresques. Nous nous arrêtons à la devanture des marchands
de bric-à-brac et de reconnaissances du Mont-de-Piété. Suzanne
Desprès nous fait remarquer, aux étalages, un grand nombre de
bagues-alliances. Elle nous dit que, dans tous les quartiers pauvres,
c’est la même chose: comme les ouvrières n’ont généralement pas
d’autre bijou, c’est leur alliance qu’elles vendent d’abord. Les robes,
le linge, la literie ne viennent qu’après...
Suzanne Desprès appelait à elle tous les chiens errants, les
flattait, les caressait, les plus sales, les plus laids comme les autres.
Ils reconnaissaient vite en elle une amie, et ceux qui n’avaient rien à
faire se mettaient à la suivre jusqu’à la prochaine borne. Guitry
découvrait des enseignes pittoresques: «Au Perroquet populaire»,
«Lavatory Club», «Au Chien sauveteur», «Au Lapin Vengeur» et des
cadres de photographes populaires, avec des couples de mariés
engoncés et roides, des enfants frisés comme des caniches, des
hommes et des femmes dans des poses inouïes, aux expressions
impossibles de fausse dignité ou de naïve rêverie que le
photographe leur fit prendre.
Pour moi je déchiffrais les affiches posées sur les murs: les
annonces de quêtes à domicile pour l’hiver de 1900-1901, l’avis de
l’arrivée de Krüger à Paris, que de pauvres vieilles femmes lisaient
péniblement, de ces pauvres femmes voûtées, pâlies, maigres, au
regard vide, si triste... L’arrivée de l’ennemi de l’Angleterre les
intéressait donc?
Deux de ces femmes, assises sur un banc, parlaient. J’entendis
l’une dire d’une voix résignée: «Le peu qu’il gagne, il me l’apporte».
Sur le seuil d’une épicerie, une femme criait à un enfant qui tenait
un cornet à la main: «Donne ton sou!» Et Suzanne Desprès, dont
l’enfance ne fut pas gâtée, nous raconte que sa mère, chaque
dimanche, lui donnait aussi un sou pour son prêt; mais elle disait à
la petite fille: «Rapporte-moi quelque chose!»
«Heureusement, ajouta-t-elle, que mon père m’en donnait
d’autres, en cachette!»
 Le temps est gris, sans soleil, mais pas trop froid. Les arbres
dénudés s’estompent d’un fin voile de brume. Dans les lointains, les
maisons, les cheminées, paraissent enveloppées d’une fumée légère.
Nous admirons la finesse de cette atmosphère de Paris, ni crue,
comme dans le Midi, ni embrouillardée, comme un peu plus haut,
dans les pays du Nord, et qui met un mystère délicat autour des plus
banales architectures.
Rue de Belleville, au no 279, accroché à une grille qui sert
d’entrée, un écriteau porte: Logement à louer.
«Voyons si cela peut faire notre affaire,» dit Guitry pour
plaisanter.
Il entre pourtant dans la maison. Nous le suivons. Il demande à
la concierge:
«Vous avez un logement à louer?
—Oui. Au premier, sur la cour.
—Combien?
—Deux cent quarante francs, et vingt francs de plus avec jardin.
Deux pièces.
—Est-ce qu’on peut voir?»
La brave femme nous mène à l’étage, et frappe à une porte.
"Ah! il y a du monde? s’étonne Guitry.
—Mais, oui, jusqu’au terme.»
La porte s’ouvre sur une petite pièce encombrée de linge à l’air,
de berceaux et de baquets. Trois femmes sont là, autour d’enfants.
Guitry les compte: un, deux, trois, quatre.
«Eh ben! j’espère que ça ne manque pas, la marmaille, ici! fait-il.
—Ah, bien sûr, répond l’une des femmes, d’un ton de bonne
humeur, ça vient plus vite que des rentes!»
 Le logement se compose de cette pièce où l’on étouffe, et d’une
autre petite chambre où se trouve le lit des parents.
Nous redescendons.
«Il y a encore le jardin, dit la concierge.
—Ah oui! Voyons-le.»
Nous sommes dans un terrain d’une vingtaine de mètres de long
sur quatre de large, divisé en une série de petits rectangles séparés
par des barrières de bois, qui sont autant de «jardins». Nous
regardons «le nôtre»: un coin de terre que je pourrais recouvrir de
mes bras étendus. Pas une herbe. Pas un arbre. Le locataire l’a
abandonné sans doute. Il reste debout quelques cerceaux cloués sur
des pieux, et qui dressent le squelette d’une gloriette... Des débris
de paille, des loques, de la vaisselle cassée, jonchent le sol.
«Faudra rudement travailler ça, dit Guitry.
—Oh! bien sûr,» répond la concierge.
Guitry n’a pas voulu avoir dérangé cette brave femme pour rien
et lui glisse dans la main une pièce qu’elle veut poliment refuser,
mais qu’il lui fait accepter.
Nous redescendons toute la rue de Belleville. Le temps passe et
le soir va tomber. Je voudrais bien pourtant voir Gervaise dans un
lavoir...
En voici un.
«Entrons,» dit bravement Suzanne Desprès.
Elle y a d’autant plus de mérite, qu’une fois déjà elle y vint seule,
et que les femmes l’apostrophèrent vivement: «Qu’est-ce qu’elle
veut, celle-là? Elle vient voir comment on lave son linge?» Et des
épithètes sans grâce volaient dans l’air autour d’elle.
«Ça ne fait rien, me dit-elle. Allons-y. Entrons tout de go.»
A travers la porte vitrée, j’aperçois le décor de la Porte-Saint-
Martin lui-même! Un plafond de grosses poutres, de larges fenêtres
à droite, et des rangs de laveuses penchées sur leur travail, dans
une buée lourde chargée d’odeurs âcres de chlore et d’eau de
javelle. Bruits de battoirs, grondements de machines, cris de
femmes. Mes yeux et mes oreilles ne distinguent pas autre chose.
Suzanne Desprès, curieusement, regarde de tous côtés... Avec sa
fanchon sur la tête, ses deux mains dans les poches de son tablier,
sa figure pâlie par le faux jour, c’est Gervaise à en pleurer! Il lui
manque son petit paquet de linge, et une place à côté de Mme
Boche. On dirait que j’entends Mme Boche l’appeler: «Par ici, ma
petite!»
«C’est là, tenez, dans cette allée où nous sommes que vous vous
êtes battue avec la grande Virginie...»
Elle sourit. Et je cherche Andrée Mégard, sa perruque noire, sa
toilette canaille, sa beauté provocante, et sa voix acerbe.
Singulier effet d’une imagination qui fut profondément frappée:
quelques secondes, ici encore, je crois revivre l’œuvre admirable de
Zola, je me figure faire partie du drame, être quelqu’un, je ne sais
lequel, des personnages de L’Assommoir.
Suzanne Desprès passe devant moi, va rejoindre Guitry, et je la
regarde marcher: il me semble que, comme Gervaise, elle boite!
 TABLE DES MATIÈRES

Pages
Réjane racontée par elle-même 1
Chez Sarah Bernhardt 91
L’Interdiction de Thermidor 103
Un projet de Révolution au Théâtre Français 111
Conversation avec Maurice Maeterlinck 120
Sibyl Sanderson 129
«Le Capitaine Fracasse» (Deux versions d’une même
légende) 135
La mise en scène du «Capitaine Fracasse» (Conversation
avec M. Porel) 143
La nouvelle «Lysistrata» 153
Comment M. Sardou devint spirite 160
«La loi de l’homme»—quelques propos de M. Paul Hervieu 169
Alfred Bruneau 176
Sarah Bernhardt en guenilles 182
La sensibilité des Comédiens 188
La Duse 197
Notes biographiques sur la Duse 211
Du Maquillage a la Peinture 216
Madame Duse a l’ambassade d’Italie 227
La Duse devant les Comédiens français 232
Quelques lettres sur quelques questions.—Lettres d’Alphonse
Daudet, Paul Hervieu, Porto-Riche, Alfred Capus,
Brieux, Emile Zola, Jules Case, Lucien Descaves, Henri
Becque, Marcel Prévost, Romain Coolus, Georges
Ancey, Abel Hermant, François de Curel, Henri
Lavedan, Alexandre Bisson, Léon Gandillot, Georges
Feydeau, Georges Courteline, Maurice Hennequin,
Albin Valabrègue, Ernest Blum, Aurélien Scholl, Antony
Mars, Paul Ferrier, Henri Chivot, Maurice Ordonneau,
Henri de Bornier, Paul Meurice, Edmond Rostand,
Alfred Dubout, Jean Aicard, Eugène Morand, Edmond
Haraucourt, Georges Rodenbach, Jules Mary, Armand
Silvestre 242
Le départ de Réjane 345
Un Mariage bien parisien 351
Petite enquête sur l’Opéra-Comique.—Opinion de MM.
Théodore Dubois, Massenet, Reyer, Alfred Bruneau,
Gustave Charpentier, André Wormser, Samuel
Rousseau, Silver, Camille Erlanger, Alexandre Georges,
Xavier Leroux, Victorin Joncières, Gaston Salvayre,
Arthur Coquard, Georges Marty 357
La ville morte 390
Novelli à Paris—Conversation avec M. Jean Aicard 396
Jeanne Ludwig 404
Emma Calvé 408
Sarah 414
Réjane 424
Coupeau et Gervaise à Belleville 430

Châteauroux.—Imprimerie et Stéréotypie A. MELLOTTÉE

 Extrait du Catalogue des Éditions de la revue blanche
23, BOULEVARD DES ITALIENS, PARIS

ALFRED ATHYS
Grasse matinée, comédie en un acte. Couverture de Vallotton.
1 vol. in-18 jésus 1.
BJÖRSTJERNE-BJÖRNSON
Au-dessus des forces humaines, drame en six actes et deux
parties. 1 vol. in-18 jésus 3.
ALFRED CAPUS
La Bourse ou la Vie, comédie en quatre actes et cinq tableaux.
1 vol. in-18 jésus. Couverture en couleurs de Cappiello 3.
MAURICE DONNAY et LUCIEN DESCAVES
La Clairière, comédie en cinq actes. Couverture de G. Carrière.
1 vol. in-18 jésus 3.
ANDRÉ GIDE
Le roi Candaule, drame en trois actes 2.
GERHARDT HAUPTMANN
Le Voiturier Henschel, pièce en cinq actes, traduite de
l’allemand par Jean Thorel. 1 vol. in-18 jésus 3.
ROMAIN COOLUS
Le Marquis de Carabas, conte lyrique bouffe en trois actes. 1
vol. in-18 jésus 3.
L’Enfant malade, pièce en quatre actes, en prose. 1 vol. in-16 2.
ANDRÉ DE LORDE et EUGÈNE MOREL
Dans la Nuit, tragédie en quatre actes, en prose. 1 vol. in-16 2.
 ANDRÉ PICARD
La Confidente, pièce en trois actes. 1 vol. in-16 2.
URBAIN GOHIER
Le Ressort, étude de révolution, en quatre actes. 1 vol. in-16 2.
TRISTAN BERNARD
Le Fardeau de la Liberté, comédie en un acte. Couverture de
Toulouse-Lautrec. 1 vol. in-16 1.

Imp. CH. RENAUDIE, 50, r. de Seine, Paris.—4572.

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