Chapter 2: Computer

Hardware
DR. SARAH NAIEM
S OU RCE BOOK : I NTRODUCTION TO I NFORMATION
SYSTEMS-1ST E DI TI ON [ EA R LY R E L EASE]
BY: P ROF. MA N A L A BDE L - K A DER A BDE L - FAT TA H
Computer Hardware
Introduction
Hardware Components
Processing and Memory Devices: Power, Speed, and Capacity
Characteristics and Functions of Processing
Characteristics and Functions of Memory
Multiprocessing
Moore’s Law
Secondary Storage, Input and Output Devices
Introduction
To construct a system that is both effective and efficient, it is crucial to carefully select and arrange its
components, all while considering the trade-offs between overall system performance, cost, control, and
complexity
organizations undertake the task of assembling computer systems that are not only effective and efficient but
also tailored to the specific tasks they need to perform.
Hardware objectives should always be subordinate to and supportive of the organization's current and future
requirements
Hardware Components
Having more central processing units (CPUs) and primary storage is crucial for a computer system.
CPU consists of two main components:
◦ The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) that manages mathematical computations and logical comparisons
◦ The control unit that accesses program instructions, interprets them, and regulates the flow of data to and
from the ALU, primary storage, secondary storage, and output devices.
The primary memory that stores both program instructions and data is closely linked to the CPU
Hardware Components
 Processing and Memory Devices: Power,
Speed, and Capacity
The processing components, consisting of the CPU and memory, are co-located within a single enclosure known as the
system unit.
All peripheral devices, such as the monitor and keyboard, are interconnected directly or indirectly with the system unit.
The primary consideration when selecting processing and memory devices should be the fulfillment of the IS objectives
and organizational goals.
Efficient processing and timely output are vital, leading organizations to employ various metrics to assess processing
speed. These metrics encompass the time required to complete a machine cycle, clock speed, and others.
Memory is positioned in close proximity to the CPU to minimize access time, offering the CPU a workspace for program
instructions and data.
The defining attribute of memory is its rapid provision of data and instructions to the CPU.
Characteristics and Functions of
Processing
Clock Speed:
◦ CPUs produce electronic pulses at a specific frequency known as clock speed.
◦ Clock speed affects how long it takes to complete a machine cycle
◦ The control unit uses these pulses to execute instructions, each one takes at least as long as the time between pulses
◦ Higher clock speeds result in shorter intervals between pulses leading to fast execution
◦ Most personal computers have clock speeds in the gigahertz range meaning they can perform billions of cycles per
second.

Physical Characteristics of the CPU

◦ The speed of a CPU is influenced by physical factors
◦ CPUs usually have digital circuits etched onto small silicon wafers or chips which are no larger than the end of a
pencil eraser
◦ To activate or deactivate a digital circuit, an electric current must travel through a medium typically silicon
Characteristics and Functions of Memory

Memory devices have thousands of circuits on

a silicon chip where the circuits can be on
(conducting current) or off (not conducting).
To store data, a combination of these on/off
states is used where 8 bits form 1 byte, which
represents one character of data (A for eg).
Characteristics and Functions of Memory
Types of Memory:
Random access memory (RAM) temporarily stores instructions or data, but it is
volatile, losing its contents when power is interrupted.
◦ Located either on the computer's main circuit board or on peripheral cards plugged into the
main board.
◦ RAM chips consist of millions of switches sensitive to changes in electric current.

Read-only memory (ROM) is typically nonvolatile, with its circuit states fixed,
ensuring data retention even when power is removed.
◦ ROM serves as permanent storage for unchanging data and instructions, such as those guiding
the computer's startup.
Multiprocessing
Multiple forms of multiprocessing involve the simultaneous execution of two or more
instructions.
Multicore Microprocessor: A multicore microprocessor integrates two or more independent
processors within a single computer to share the processing workload and enhance capacity.
◦ It can be likened to a four-lane highway, accommodating twice as many tasks as its dual-core
predecessor without requiring each task to proceed twice as fast.
◦ Dual-core processors enables concurrent multitasking, such as gaming and CD burning.
Companies like Intel, AMD, and IBM compete in the multicore processor market and progressed
beyond dual processors by introducing quad-core chips.
◦ For example, the Intel Core i7 combines four processors on a single chip, allowing them to
share a common L3 cache.
Multiprocessing
Parallel Computing: Parallel processing, another multiprocessing method, accelerates processing by
linking multiple processors to operate concurrently.
◦ Common applications of parallel computing include modeling, simulation, and data analysis.
◦ In medicine, it expedites ultrasound scans and enhances diagnostic accuracy.

Grid computing involves a collection of computers owned by individuals or organizations working together
to solve a common problem.
◦ This approach is cost-effective for parallel processing, utilizing many computers to tackle large tasks.
◦ A central server oversees the grid by dividing the main task into subtasks and assigning them to
computers with extra processing power.
◦ It monitors progress, reallocates tasks if needed, and consolidates the results once all subtasks are
completed.
Multiprocessing
PARALLEL COMPUTING: MULTIPROCESSING:
• Definition: A broader computing paradigm where • Definition: A specific type of parallel computing
multiple processes or calculations are executed that refers to using multiple processors or cores
simultaneously to solve a problem more quickly. It within a single machine to execute multiple
can involve multiple processors or cores, either in a processes simultaneously.
single machine or across multiple machines. • Focus: Primarily concerned with the management
• Focus: Emphasizes dividing a problem into smaller and scheduling of processes in a way that utilizes
sub-tasks that can run concurrently. It can involve multiple CPU cores effectively.
various types of parallelism, including data • Environment: Typically operates in a shared
parallelism and task parallelism. memory architecture, where processes communicate
• Environment: Can be implemented in shared through shared data.
memory systems, distributed memory systems, or • Applications: Common in operating systems (like
hybrid architectures. Examples include Linux, Windows) that support running multiple
supercomputers and clusters. processes at once. Useful for improving the
• Applications: Used in complex scientific performance of applications by leveraging multiple
simulations, large-scale data analysis, and tasks that cores.
benefit from high-performance computing.
Moore’s Law
Is there a limit to how fast computers can become? Can we realistically afford
the future's advanced computers?
These questions find their answers in Moore’s law.
Gordon Moore, one of Intel Corporation's co-founders, famously made this
observation in 1965, just four years after the first integrated circuit entered the
commercial market.
Moore observed an exponential growth pattern, with the number of transistors
per integrated circuit doubling every 18 to 24 months, a trend he predicted would
persist
Through continuous technological advancements, Moore's law, characterized by
the doubling of transistors at regular intervals, remains valid to this day
Moore’s Law
Transistors: These are tiny electronic switches that are fundamental to how computers process
information. More transistors usually mean more power and speed.
Doubling Effect: As technology improves, manufacturers can fit more transistors onto a chip
without increasing its size. This leads to faster and more efficient processors.
Impact on Technology: Because of Moore's Law, we've seen rapid advancements in computer
technology. Devices have become smaller, faster, and more affordable over the decades, enabling
everything from powerful smartphones to complex AI systems.
Limits and Future: While Moore's Law has held true for many years, there are signs that it may be
slowing down as we approach physical and technological limits of miniaturization. Researchers
are exploring new materials and architectures to continue advancements.
In short, Moore's Law illustrates the rapid growth of technology, shaping how we interact with the
digital world today.
Initially offered as an observation and prediction, Moore's law gained widespread acceptance and
subsequently served as a goal for the entire semiconductor industry.
Moore’s Law
•One common corollary of Moore's law is the expectation that the price of a given level of
computing power will halve approximately every 18 to 24 months. While Moore did not
explicitly predict this effect, it has consistently held true. This trend also extends to the cost of
storage, which we will delve into in the following section.
•It's important to note that exponentially improving hardware does not necessarily translate to
exponential improvements in software performance. The productivity of software developers has
not increased exponentially with hardware improvements; instead, it has advanced slowly and
unevenly over the decades.
•Software tends to become larger and more complex over time, humorously echoing Wirth's law,
which states that 'Software gets slower faster than hardware gets faster.'
Moore’s Law
Secondary Storage, Input and Output
Devices
Memory plays a crucial role in determining the overall computing power of a computer
system. However, memory offers only limited storage space for the data and instructions
required by the CPU for processing.
In contrast, computer systems require a means to store larger amounts of data, instructions,
and information more permanently than main memory allows.
This purpose is served by secondary storage, also referred to as permanent storage.
Secondary storage offers distinct advantages such as nonvolatility, greater capacity, and cost-
effectiveness.
Due to the electromechanical processes involved, secondary storage is noticeably slower
than memory.
Access methods for data and information retrieval can be categorized as sequential or direct.
Secondary Storage, Input and Output
Devices
•Sequential access necessitates accessing data in the order it is stored. For instance,
sequentially stored inventory data may be organized by part number (e.g., 100, 101, 102,
etc.). To retrieve information about part number 125, one must read through and discard data
related to parts 001 through 124
•Direct access permits the retrieval of data without following a sequential path. With direct
access, you can swiftly access the required data, such as part number 125, without sifting
through data for parts 001 through 124.
•Direct access is generally faster than sequential access. Devices used for sequential access to
secondary storage data are known as sequential access storage devices (SASDs), while those
used for direct access are referred to as direct access storage devices (DASDs).
Secondary Storage Devices
Common secondary storage forms include magnetic tapes, magnetic
disks, and optical discs. Some of these media, such as magnetic tape,
only support sequential access, while others, like magnetic and
optical discs, offer both direct and sequential access.
◦ Magnetic Tapes: Magnetic tape is a type of secondary storage similar to audio and video
tapes. It stores data sequentially, which makes access slower but is often cheaper than disk
storage. It’s commonly used for backups and off-site data storage. Recent advancements have
increased capacity and speed, and modern tape drives are compact, allowing for multiple
cartridges in a small space.
◦ Magnetic Disks: Magnetic disks, like hard disks or diskettes, are coated with iron oxide. They
use magnetized areas to represent bits of data. Unlike magnetic tape, magnetic disks allow for
direct access storage, which means you can quickly retrieve data. This makes them ideal for
businesses that need fast responses to customer requests.
Secondary Storage Devices
RAID: As businesses need more storage, they also worry about hardware failures. RAID
(Redundant Array of Independent/Inexpensive Disks) addresses this by storing data on
multiple disks in a way that protects against data loss. It uses a method called striping to
ensure data can be recovered if a hard drive fails. For example, Point360, a post-
production company in Burbank, California, uses RAID to secure and manage their
growing storage needs for high-definition video and visual effects.
Virtual Tape: Virtual tape technology is designed for data that isn’t accessed frequently.
It simulates tape storage while also using faster hard disks for some data. These systems
manage storage smartly, moving less-used data to cheaper options. This approach
reduces access times, lowers ownership costs, and saves space. For instance, Boston
Medical Center's IT team uses a virtual tape management system to handle over 400 TB
of data, managing a 50% annual growth rate while controlling costs and meeting
regulations.
Secondary Storage Devices
SAN (Storage Area Network): Storage Area Networks (SANs) connect computer servers, storage devices,
and networks to speed up data storage and retrieval. They use high-speed communication channels to
improve data transfer rates. Although SAN technology is relatively new, many organizations use it
effectively for reliable data storage. For example, Austar, an Australian subscription TV provider, uses a 60-
terabyte SAN to record customer interactions and gain insights to improve their services.
Optical Discs: Optical discs, like CD-ROMs, can hold about 740 MB of data. Once data is written on a CD-
ROM, it becomes read-only and cannot be changed. CD burners allow you to record data on discs, with two
main types: CD-Recordable (CD-R), which can be written once, and CD-Rewritable (CD-RW), which can
be written and erased multiple times. CD-RW technology is especially useful for data backups.
Digital Video Discs (DVDs): DVDs look like CD-ROMs but can hold much more data, about 135 minutes
of video or several gigabytes. They have largely replaced CD-Rs and CD-RWs for sharing movies and
photos. While CDs store around 740 MB, single-sided DVDs can hold 4.7 GB, and double-sided DVDs can
store 9.4 GB. DVDs are available in formats that can be recorded once (DVD-R and DVD+R) or rewritable
(DVD-RW, DVD+RW, and DVD-RAM), though compatibility among rewritable types may vary.
Secondary Storage Devices
Emerging Technologies: Blu-ray discs use blue-laser technology and can store much more data
than DVDs, primarily for high-definition video in home entertainment. The Holographic Versatile
Disc (HVD), still in development, aims to store even more data than Blu-ray, with potential
capacities of up to 6 TB on a single disc and data transfer speeds ranging from 1 to 20 GB per
second.
Solid State Secondary Storage Devices (SSDs): SSDs use memory chips instead of magnetic or
optical media, which leads to lower power consumption and faster data access. They’re also more
durable because they have fewer moving parts, making them great for portable computers.
However, SSDs usually have a higher cost per GB and lower capacity compared to traditional
hard drives. Advances in SSD technology are expected to lower costs and increase capacity in the
future.
 Input Devices
Interaction with computers starts with input and output devices, which allow users to provide data and receive results. These
devices are key to a computer's user interface, along with other hardware and software. Organizations should choose these
devices based on their business goals. Speech recognition technology is one such tool, enabling computers to understand
spoken language through microphones. Basic systems may need training and have limited vocabularies, while advanced
systems can handle continuous speech and recognize unfamiliar voices. For instance, SBI Funds Management used a speech
recognition system to replace live agents, reducing costs and wait times for customers.
Input Devices for Personal Computers
◦ Common input devices include keyboards and computer mice. Newer ergonomic keyboards are designed for comfort and
injury prevention.
◦ Split keyboards allow for sketching on a touchpad and typing.
Digital Cameras
◦ Capture and store images or videos in digital format. Images can be transferred to computers for editing and sharing. Digital
cameras offer higher quality and more features than film cameras.
Head-Mounted Displays (HMD)
◦ Provide immersive experiences with 3D views of virtual worlds.
◦ Include motion trackers to adjust scenes based on user movements.
 Input Devices
Input Devices for Personal Computers
◦ Common input devices include keyboards and computer mice. Newer ergonomic keyboards are designed for
comfort and injury prevention.
◦ Split keyboards allow for sketching on a touchpad and typing.
Digital Cameras
◦ Capture and store images or videos in digital format. Images can be transferred to computers for editing and
sharing. Digital cameras offer higher quality and more features than film cameras.
Head-Mounted Displays (HMD)
◦ Provide immersive experiences with 3D views of virtual worlds.
◦ Include motion trackers to adjust scenes based on user movements.
Touch-Sensitive Screens
◦ Function as both input and output devices.
◦ Used in various settings: gas stations, fast-food restaurants, hotels, amusement parks, and airports.
Input Devices
Optical Data Readers
◦ Specialized devices for scanning documents. Including Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) for scoring tests and Optical
Character Recognition (OCR) for converting printed text to digital format.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

◦ Developed in the 1950s to improve document processing in banking. Uses magnetic ink to print machine-readable
data on checks.

Pen Input Devices

◦ Allow for commands, note-taking, and drawing on touch screens requiring specialized software for handwriting
recognition.

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

◦ Uses tags to transmit data to RFID readers and commonly applied in retail for inventory management. RFID tags can
store data about items, including identification and status changes.
Output Devices
Provide information to decision-makers at all levels. Help address business challenges and seize
opportunities. Output from one system can serve as input for another taking various forms: visual,
audio, or digital content. Output devices ensure the right information is delivered to the right
people at the right time.
◦ Display Monitors :Used to present computer-generated output. Early monitors (CRTs) used
electron beams to illuminate phosphors, creating pixels each pixel has an "on" or "off" state,
with the beam continuously sweeping the screen.
◦ Plasma Displays use smart cells (pixels) with charged gases to emit light. Render images
based on video signals, producing a wide spectrum of colors Offering high-resolution and
accurate color representation.
◦ LCD Displays are flat screens with liquid crystals between polarizers. Benefits: reduced eye
strain, no harmful radiation, space efficiency, lower energy consumption compared to CRTs.
Output Devices
OLED Technology Utilizes organic materials to produce light when electricity is applied, known
for sharp, bright colors and exceptional thinness and flexibility. They are resistant to shattering
and capable of 3D video displays without special glasses.
Printers and Hard Copy Output, available in various models with different speeds and features.
◦ Speed measured in pages per minute (ppm), quality in dots per inch (dpi).
◦ Laser printers generally offer higher speeds than inkjet printers.
◦ Plotters are suited for large-scale designs and blueprints
Digital Audio Players store and play digital music files, with MP3 format providing efficient compression.
E-books are digital counterparts to traditional books which are downloadable on PCs or dedicated e-book
readers. E-paper displays resemble printed pages, are lightweight, and offer adjustable text sizes.