Angelica M.

Palomino

Groundwater
HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES • Outline
o Groundwater
o In Situ Permeability Test on Soil
GROUND WATER o In Situ Permeability Test in Rock
o Lugeon Value And Equivalent Rock Mass Permeability
o Test Methods
o Selection Of Test Section
o Test Equipment
Muhammad Usman Arshid o Test Procedure
Department of Civil Engineering o Presentation And Interpretation Of Results
University of Engineering & Technology Taxila o Use Of Surface Survey And Borehole Inclinometer

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Groundwater
• Introduction
• For the investigation of dams the groundwater should be continually
monitored.
• This involves the location and monitoring of seepage points recording of
groundwater inflows into pits and trenches and monitoring of
groundwater levels during the drilling investigation.
• As a full history as possible of the groundwater monitoring can be a
great help in any review of the dam.
• The response of groundwater levels to rainfall can provide a useful
indication of mass permeability.
• Figure in the next slide shows how a perched and main water table can
be inferred from the water levels measured in a borehole during drilling
using the depth of hole versus depth of water.

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Angelica M. Palomino

Groundwater Groundwater
• IN SITU PERMEABILITY TESTS ON SOI L • IN SITU PERMEABILITY TESTS ON SOI L
• The permeability of soil in a dam foundation may be of importance if the • Where possible pump out tests should be conducted with a pump
cutoff is founded in the soil. well and observation wells.
• In general the structure of the soil controls water flow, for example • The arrangements for the pump out test is shown in the next slide .
1. Sandy layers in alluvial soils. • In a pump out test the inflow of water removes the soil blocking or
2. Root holes and fissures in residual and alluvial soils. smearing the hole side and realistic estimates of permeability can be
3. Worm burrows in alluvial and residual soils. obtained.
4. Leached zones, infilled root holes and relict joints in lateritised soil and • In the event that the groundwater level is below the depth of interest,
extremely weathered rocks. it is necessary to carry out pump-in tests.
• So we can say that it is difficult to obtain a realistic estimate of soil mass
permeability from laboratory testing.
• Because the soil structure tends to be blocked or smeared by the drilling
action so the permeability values may be one or two orders of magnitude
lower than the actual soil mass permeability.

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IN SITU PERMEABILITY TESTS IN ROCK

Groundwater
• Lugeon value and equivalent rock mass permeability
• The permeability of the rock mass can be determined by either constant
head tests or falling head tests.
• A section of a drill hole is isolated using a sealing packer and water is
added to maintain a constant head. OR
• The rate of fall in water level is measured after a slug of water is added to
the hole.
• Both methods suffer from the potential effects of smear and clogging
defects but by careful flushing of the hole before testing a reasonable
values can be obtained.
• The most common and effective method of measuring rock mass
permeability is the water pressure test (also known as the Lugeon or
‘packer’ test)
• The test consists of isolating a section of drill hole and pumping water
under pressure into that section until the flow rate for any given pressure
is constant ( constant head).
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IN SITU PERMEABILITY TESTS IN ROCK

• Lugeon value and equivalent rock mass permeability

• The use of successive rising and falling test pressures establishes the
relationship between the volume of water accepted into the section and
the pressure, to provide an estimation of permeability, and indicate water
flow mechanisms.
• Results are expressed in Lugeon (uL) units. A Lugeon is defined as the
water loss of 1 litre/minute per meter length of test section at an effective
pressure of 1 MPa.
• Indicative rock mass permeabilities are

• Figure in the next slide show rock permeability testing by using single
and double packer method 11 12

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IN SITU PERMEABILITY TESTS IN ROCK

IN SITU PERMEABILITY TESTS IN ROCK
• There is no unique relationship between Lugeon value and equivalent rock
• Test methods
mass permeability (ke). Moye (1967) recommended use of the equation.
• There are two common methods of water pressure testing
1. Down-stage (single-packer ) method (shown in above slide)
• This method involves isolating, and testing successively the bottom
sections of the drill hole.
• This method enables progressive assessment of permeability and
allows later stabilization of the wall of the hole by casing or grouting
if caving occurs.
• A disadvantage of down-stage packer testing is that it disrupts
• Hoek and Bray (1981) suggest the use of the equation drilling progress, so the alternative for rock mass permeability are.
• The alternative method is to complete the drilling of the hole and
• where m=(ke/kp)1/2 water test in sections by sealing the hole above and below the test
area (double-packer method).
• kp=equivalent permeability parallel to the hole
• This method has the advantage of convenience in that all water
• ke=equivalent permeability normal to the hole
testing is carried out at one time but results can be affected by:
• D=diameter of hole.
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IN SITU PERMEABILITY TESTS IN ROCK

IN SITU PERMEABILITY TESTS IN ROCK

1. Damage to the sides of the hole by drill rods and casing, • Selection of test.
2. Possible leakage from the test section past the lower packer, which cannot • To maximize the information on rock mass permeability the investigation
be detected and drill hole should be oriented to intersect as many joints as practicable as
3. Sections of the hole which have been stabilised by cement or by casing to shown below.
enable deeper drilling cannot be tested. Commonly these sections will be
highly permeable
• The purpose of the test is to estimate the potential of water to pass through
rock.
• The use of drilling mud to stabilise the hole can block these defects and
make the results of water pressure testing meaningless.
• For best results the drilling fluid used in holes where permeability testing is
required should be water.

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IN SITU PERMEABILITY TESTS IN ROCK IN SITU PERMEABILITY TESTS IN ROCK

• Every effort should be made to test the total length of hole in rock • Test equipment
• The length of test section depends on the nature of the rock defects and • The equipment required for water pressure testing are
the type of structure under investigation. 1. Packer to seal the test section.
• Examination of the drill core usually indicates the presence of typical 2. Water line from the packer to the supply pump.
fracture spacing which represents probable background permeability and
3. Pump to supply water under pressure.
anomalous structural features which may be associated with zones of
higher permeability. 4. Bypass to control the pressure.
• Test sections should be selected to provide an indication of the relative 5. Surface tank at the borehole to maintain the water level outside the
width and permeability of these zones. water line.
• In many cases water flow may be concentrated through a few fractures. 6. Water storages.
The water loss is averaged over the length of the test section and, if the 7. Pressure gauge.
section is too long, the presence of a high permeability zone may not be 8. Water meter.
recognized. • A layout used for water pressure testing is shown in the slide below
• Usual test section lengths range from 3 m to 6 m

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IN SITU PERMEABILITY TESTS IN ROCK

• Packers
1. Hydraulic Packer
• A hydraulic packer consists of a double tube with rubber sleeve.
• When the packer is in the ‘down’ position water can be pumped into
the sleeve to inflate the packer and seal the hole. In the ‘up’ position
water flows into the test section.
• Hydraulic Packer is shown below

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IN SITU PERMEABILITY TESTS IN ROCK

2. Pneumatic Packer
•The pneumatic packer sleeve is inflated by air from a compressed air bottle
using a separate air line to the surface. This method is effective in shallow
holes, but with deeper holes fracturing of the air line has caused problems.
Water levels do not affect inflation or deflation.
3. Wireline Packer
•Wireline packers have been developed for testing holes drilled with wireline
equipment. These enable water pressure testing without the withdrawal of the
drill rods.
•The packer incorporates two sealing sleeves, the upper seal within the drill
rods and the lower seal in the hole below the drill bit.
4 Mechanical Packer
•The mechanical packer seals by the expansion of two or more rubber rings
when compressed. The test section length is controlled by the insertion of a
selected length of perforated rod below the packer. Sealing is achieved by
downward pressure on the drill string by the drill chuck. This pressure must be
21 maintained throughout the test. 22

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IN SITU PERMEABILITY TESTS IN ROCK

➢ Water supply system

• The line connecting the packer to the surface should be watertight
with minimum restriction to water flow.
• Flush coupled rods or casing are commonly used.
• A centrifugal pump or reciprocating pump with surge chamber is
necessary to ensure constant pressure.
• Pressure and water flow is measured by meters which should be
recently calibrated.
➢ Selection of test pressures
• The purpose of the test is to
1. measure the natural permeability,
2. indicate the probable water flows under the expected hydraulic
loading by the proposed structure.

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IN SITU PERMEABILITY TESTS IN ROCK

Groundwater
5.14.4.3 Selection of test pressures ➢ Test procedure
• The pressures applied during the test should not be sufficient to • The test involves
produce hydraulic fracturing of the rock around the test section. 1. Measurement of ground water level.
• It is recommended that, to avoid potential ‘jacking’ maximum 2. Washing out of drill hole. Circulation of drilling water should be
effective test pressures be limited below overburden pressure continued for at least 15 minutes after the water appears clear.
approximately 22 kPa/m. 3. Installation of packer at the selected level.
• In low strength weathered rocks, lower values will probably be 4. Connection of the water supply system.
necessary.
5. Application of the test pressures and measurement of water loss.
6. Removal of equipment.
• The testing is carried out in several stages with different pressures.
Pressures are applied in an increasing and then decreasing sequence.
For example with three pressures – a, b, c – the water loss is
measured at stages with pressure successively at a, b, c, b, a.
• Each stage should be continued until a constant rate of water loss
(within 10%) for a 5 minute period is recorded.
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IN SITU PERMEABILITY TESTS IN ROCK

➢ Presentation and interpretation of results

• The results are best plotted with the effective test pressure at the center of
the test section against the flow rate. The effective test pressure is the
gauge pressure corrected for the elevation difference between gauge and
water table and for friction losses in the system. (i.e. HT in Figure 5.35).
• Where the water level is not known, or suspected to be locally elevated
due to the effects of the testing, the results are plotted using gauge
pressure only.
• Typical test results (Table 5.6) plotted in this way are shown in the Figure
below.
• Note that the data from the increasing pressures do not plot identically to
those on the decreasing pressures.
• The plot is judged to be parallel to the 6 Lugeon line.
• A range of different results is possible, indicative of the following
possible mechanisms:

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5.14 IN SITU PERMEABILITY TESTS IN

ROCK Stresses Due to Applied Loads
1. Laminar flow and no change in permeability during the test.
2. The occurrence of turbulent rather than laminar flow.
3. Scour of joint infill, weathered or crushed rock.
4. Leakage past the packer.
5. Sealing of joints by fines eroded by the water.
6. Hydraulic fracture of the ground.
7. Inaccuracies in measurement.

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Test Result From karot Hydropower Project SURFACE SURVEY AND BORE HOLE INCLINOMETER

➢ USE OF SURFACE SURVEY AND BORE HOLE

INCLINOMETERS
✓ Surface survey
• In the investigation of dam sites and the assessment of existing dams
the precise measurement of location and elevation of the ground
surface provides information on
1. Existing mass movement – e.g. Land sliding
2. Foundation settlement
3. Deformation or displacement of structures.
• A range of surface survey methods is included in Table 5.7

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SURFACE SURVEY AND BORE HOLE INCLINOMETER

5.15.2 Borehole Inclinometers

• Subsurface movement can be measured using several different

instruments as listed in Table 5.7 and discussed in Chapter 20.
• These instruments are also used in the study of landslide movements and
are described by Dunnicliff (1995).
• The most common method uses a borehole inclinometer, the principles of
which are described in chapter 20.
• Successive readings on a borehole inclinometer provide information on
the amount and direction of deflection and the location of the point of
rupture as shown in the next slide

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Picture From karot Hydropower Project

Inclinometer Installation 35 36

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INCLINOMETER OBSERVATIONS
From Karot Hydropower Project

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