Mathematical Analysis

Lecture 1
Elements of mathematical logic, sets of numbers

Aleksandra P¦drak

23rd October 2023

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Organizational issues

E-amil: [email protected]
Course materials:
Claudio Canuto and Anita Tabacco "Mathematical analysis I"
https://www.booksfree.org/mathematical-analysis-i-by-
claudio-canuto-and-anita-tabacco-pdf-free-download/
Lecture presentation slides
Platon educational platform
The course credit:
end-term practical test,
nal theoretical examination (grade 4 or better from the
practical test exempts a student from taking a nal exam),
the presence in the classes is mandatory
Consultation: after every lecture at room 30

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Program of the lecture

Elements of mathematical logic,

Connectives, Predicates, Quantiers;
Types of mathematical proofs (direct proof, proof by
contradiction, proof by construction, proof by mathematical
induction);
Sets, algebra of sets;
Numbers;
Bounded sets, inmum and supremum.

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Elements of mathematical logic
Formula
In Mathematical Logic a formula is a declarative sentence, or
statement, the truth or falsehood of which can be established.
Thus within a certain context a formula carries a truth value: True
or False.
The truth value is represented using the binary value of a memory
bit (1 or 0), True has a logical value 1
False has a logical value 0

Examples:
'7 is an odd number' (True)
√
'3 > 12' (False)
'Venus is a star' (False)
'Milan is far from Rome' (is not a formula)
'Is it your place?' (is not a formula)

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Elements of mathematical logic
We shall indicate formulas by lower case letters a,b, p, q, r,. . . New
formulas can be built from old ones using logic operations expressed
by certain formal symbols, called connectives.
The basic connectives are: negation (¬, ∼), disjunction (∨),
conjunction (∧), implication (⇒), logic equivalence. (⇔).
Disjunction
The disjunction of p and q is the formula p ∨ q we read it as "p or
q ".
The disjunction is false if p and q are both false. The logical values
of the disjunction p and q are as follows

p q p∨q
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Elements of mathematical logic

Conjunction
The conjunction of two formulas p and q is the formula p ∧ q we
read it as "p and q ". The conjunction is true if both p and q are
true, false otherwise.
The logical values of the conjunction p and q are as follows

p q p∧q
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Elements of mathematical logic

Implication
The implication of two formulas p and q is the formula p ⇒ q we
read it as:
"If p then q "
"p implies q "
"p sucient condition for q "
"q necessary condition for p "
The logical values of the implication p and q are as follows:

p q p⇒q
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 1
1 1 1

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Elements of mathematical logic

Logic equivalence
The equivalence of two formulas p and q is the formula p ⇔ q we
read it as:
"p is equivalent to q "
The logical values of the equivalence p and q are as follows:

p q p⇔q
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

The logical equivalence can be rewriten in the following form:

p ⇔ q ≡ (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p)

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Elements of mathematical logic
Negation
The negation of formula p is formula ¬p we read it as: "not p "
The negation of p is True if p is False, and False if p is True. The
logical values of negation

p ∼p
0 1
1 0

Negation of the basic connectives

¬(p ∧ q) = (¬p) ∨ (¬q) I De Morgan's law

¬(p ∨ q) = (¬p) ∧ (¬q) II De Morgan's law
¬(p ⇒ q) = p ∧ (¬q)
¬(p ⇔ q) = (p ∧ (¬q)) ∨ (q ∧ (¬p))
Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l
Elements of mathematical logic

Predicates
A predicate is an assertion or property p(x, ...) that depends upon
one or more variables x ,... belonging to suitable sets, and which
becomes a formula (hence true or false) whenever the variables are
xed.

Example
Let us consider a predicate:

p(x) = ”x is an odd number”,

then
p(7) is true,
p(10) is false.

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Elements of mathematical logic
The logic operations can be applied to predicates as well, and
give rise to new predicates (e.g., ¬p(x), p(x) ∨ q(x) and so
on).
Using predicates one can dened sets

A = {x ∈ X | p(x)}

is the subset of a given set X , which elements fulll the

'characteristic property' p(x).

Example
Consider the set A = {(x, y ) | x 2 + y 2 ≤ 9}
3

-1

-2

-3

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Elements of mathematical logic
Universal quantier
Let S(x) be a predicate, the formula

∀x S(x)

we read "for all x , S(x) holds".

Example:
∀x∈N x + 1 ∈ N

Existential quantier
Let S(x) be a predicate, the formula

∃x S(x)

we read "there exists at least one x, such that S(x) holds".

Example:
∃x∈R (x − 1)2 = 0
Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l
Elements of mathematical logic

Sometimes a third quantier is used, ∃!, (existential quantier

with exclamation mark) which means "there exists one and
only one element" or "there exists a unique".
There exist other designation of quantier
W universal quantier
V
existential quantier

De Morgan laws for quantiers

¬ (∀x S(x)) = ∃x ¬S(x)

¬ (∃x S(x)) = ∀x ¬S(x)

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Types of mathematical proofs
Direct proof
In the direct proof one starts from the set of assumptions, mathematical
formulas, h1 , h2 , . . . , hn from which one leads the conclusion c . The conclusion
is established by logically combining the axioms, denitions, and earlier
theorems.
The direct proof rely on justication the following sentence:
(h1 ∧ h2 ∧ · · · ∧ hn ) ⇒ c

Proof by contradiction
In this case we also have to prove the implication:
(h1 ∧ h2 ∧ · · · ∧ hn ) ⇒ c

In proof by contradiction is done by showing that assuming the proposition to

be false leads to a contradiction.
In this method one has to prove that the negation of the above implication is
false. Precisely, the sentence
h1 ∧ h2 ∧ · · · ∧ hn ∧ (∼ c)

is intrinsically contradictory.
Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l
Types of mathematical proofs
Example
√
Prove that 2 is irrational number.
√
Suppose that 2 is a rational number.
√
Then it could be written as common fraction 2 = ba where a
and b are non-zero integers with no common factor.
√
Thus b 2 = a, squaring both sides one gets 2b 2 = a2 . Thus
the right expression is divisible by 2, so we can write a = 2c
where c is also integer.
Substitution into the original equation yields 2b 2 = 4c 2 ,
dividing both sides by 2 yields b 2 = 2c 2 . But it means that b
must be even number.
This contradicts our previous statement that
√ a and b have no
common factor, so we must conclude that 2 is an irrational
number.
Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l
Types of mathematical proofs

Proof by construction and nonconstructive proof

Proof by construction, or proof by example, is the construction
of a concrete example with a property to show that something
having that property exists.
A nonconstructive proof establishes that a mathematical
object with a certain property existswithout explaining how
such an object can be found.

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Types of mathematical proofs
Mathematical induction
Let p(m) be a predicate where m = m0 , m0 + 1, m0 + 2, . . . . Our task is to
prove truth the predicate p(m) for every m.
Let us consider the following line or reasoning
1 formula p(m0 ) is true for given m0 ,
2 formula p(k + 1) is true, if p(k) is true and m0 ≤ k
It means that predicates p(m) is true for every m ≥ m0

Mathematical induction is based on proving the sequence of implication:

p(m0 ) ⇒ p(m0 + 1) ⇒ p(m0 + 2) ⇒ · · · ⇒ p(k) ⇒ p(k + 1) ⇒ . . .
In the rst step one has to prove the rst formula from the sequence.
Next one needs to prove the implication p(k) ⇒ p(k + 1). It must be
done without assuming the specic value of k .
So then because the rst formula p(m0 ) is true and by substituting
k = m0 in implication p(k) ⇒ p(k + 1) one can conclude that p(m0 + 1)
is true. Next taking k = m0 + 1 one gets that p(m0 + 2) is true, and so
on. Prolonging this procedure to innity one obtains that predicates
p(m0 ) is true for every m ≥ m0 .
Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l
Types of mathematical proofs
Example
Prove the inequality n! > 2n for n ≥ 4, where n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · · · · · (n − 1) · n
(factorial).

We check the inequality for rst element of the sequence

4! > 24 ⇒ 24 > 16

Then we intend to prove the implication

k! > 2k ⇒ (k + 1)! > 2k+1

To do that we assume that the left side of implication is true for a certain
k > 4.
Next we want to draw a conclusion that right side is true
(k + 1)! = k!(k + 1) > 2k (k + 1) > 2k · 2 = 2k+1

Because the rst formula in the sequence is true and the implication
k! > 2k ⇒ (k + 1)! > 2k+1 is also true for every k > 4 by the mathematical
induction theorem the inequality n! > 2n is true for n ≥ 4.
Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l
Algebra of sets

We shall denote sets by upper case letters A, B, X ..., while for the
members or elements of a set lower case letters x, y , ... will be
used. When an element x is in the set X one writes x ∈ X ("x is
an element of X "), otherwise the symbol x ̸∈ X is used.
Union of sets

A∪B = {x | x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}

Intersection of sets

A∩B = {x | x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Algebra of sets

Dierence of sets

A\B = {x | x ∈ A ∧ x ̸∈ B}

Complement of a set

CA = Ac = X \A = {x | x ̸∈ A}

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Algebra of sets

N = {1, 2, 3, . . . } set of natural numbers

Z = {0, ±1, ±2, . . . } set of integer numbers
n o
Q = qp : p ∈ Z, q ∈ N  set of rational numbers (the
numbers which can be expressed by common fraction)
R set of real numbers

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Bounded sets

Set bounded from below

A set X ⊂ R is bounded from below if there is a real number m,
that for all x ∈ X the inequality is true x ≥ m.

∃m∈R ∀x∈X x ≥m

Every m satisfying this relation is said a lower bound of X .

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Bounded sets

Set bounded from above

A set X ⊂ R is called bounded from above if there exist a real
number M that for all x ∈ X the inequality is true x ≤ M .

∃M∈R ∀x∈X x ≤M

Any M with this property is called an upper bound of X .

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Bounded sets

Bounded set
A set X ⊂ R is bounded if it is bounded from above and from
below.
∃m,M∈R ∀x∈X m ≤ x ≤ M

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Bouned sets

Example
Check if the set A is bounded
 
p
A= : p, q ∈ N ∧ p < q
q

Since
p
p<q ⇒ <1
q
Therefore the upper bound of A is any number M which is M ≥ 1.
On the other hand since p, q ∈ N then p > 0 and q > 0 thus
p
q > 0. According to this the lower bound of A is any number m
which fulll the inequality m ≤ 0.

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Bouned sets
Example
Check if the set B is bounded

B = {x ∈ R : tan(x) = 4}

The set B is a set of solutions equation tan(x) = 4. The graphical

solutions of the equation are the points of intersection of graph of a

function y =tan(x) and line y = 4

Because function tan(x) is periodic then B is not bounded.

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Maximal and minimal elements od a set

Minimal element of a set

Number a is the minimal element of a subset X ⊂ R if and only if

a ∈ X ∧ ∀x∈X x ≥ a

We write it as
a = minX .

Maximal element of set

Number b is the maximal element of a subset X ⊂ R if and only if

b ∈ X ∧ ∀x∈X x ≤ b

We write it as
b = maxX .

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Maximal and minimal elements od a set
Example
Check if sets A an B possess maximal and minimal elements
a) A = [0, 2)
The section A possesses the minimal element that is 0 because
every element of the interval is greater or equal to 0.
The set A does not possess the maximal element because the
right end-point of the interval does not belong to the set A.
n o
1
b) B = 2n− 1 : n ∈ N
Let us write rst few elements of the set B
n 1 2 3 4 ...
1 1 1 1 1
2n−1 1 3 5 7 ...

It is easy to see that the element are getting smaller. Thus the
maximal element is the rst one 1 and set B does not possess
the minimal element.
Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l
Inmum and supremum

Innum of a set
Let set X ⊂ R be bounded from below. Number a is an innum of a set X if
and only if
∀x∈X x ≥ a and ∀ϵ>0 ∃x0 ∈X x0 < a + ϵ
We write it as
a = inf X .
If set X in not bounded from below we take:
inf X = −∞

Remarks:
Innum of a set X is also a lower bound of X .
Innum of a set X is not necessarily an element of a set X .
If on a number line one steps away to the right from the innum by a
arbitrarily small distant ϵ then one get past some element x0 which
belong to the set X .

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Inmum and supremum

Supremum of a set
Let set X ⊂ R be bounded from above. Number a is a supremum of a set X if
and only if
∀x∈X x ≤ b and ∀ϵ>0 ∃x0 ∈X x0 > b − ϵ
We write it as
b = sup X .
If set X in not bounded from above we take:
sup X = ∞

Remarks:
Supremum of a set X is also an upper bound of X .
Supremum of a set X is not necessarily an element of a set X .
If on a number line one steps away to the left from the supremum by a
arbitrarily small distant ϵ then one get past some element x0 which
belong to the set X .

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l

Inmum and supremum
Example
Find innum and supremum of sets A and B
√ √
a) A = (− 2, 5⟩
The section A on a number line has a following form

√ √
Therefore inf A = − 2 and sup A = 5.
√
b) B = ⟨ 2, ∞) ∩ Q
A set√B is composed of rational numbers which are greater
than 2. The supremum√ of a set is sup B = ∞. The innum
of a set is inf B = 2. It comes from the fact that the real
number √
2 = 1.4142135623730950488 . . .
can be approximate by rational number with arbitrary precision.

Aleksandra P¦drak Mathematical Analysis Lecture 1 Elements of mathematical l