MEASUREMENT

SCALING
BY: DR. Tanay Shah
  Measurement: The term
‘measurement’ means assigning
numbers or some other symbols to the
characteristics of certain objects. When
numbers are used, the researcher must
have a rule for assigning a number to
MEANING OF an observation in a way that provides an
accurate description.
MEASUREMENT
AND SCALING  Scaling: Scaling is an extension of
measurement. Scaling involves creating
a continuum on which measurements on
objects are located.
WHY IS LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
IMPORTANT?
▪ 1. Helps you decide how to interpret the data. (When you know that a measure is
nominal then you know that the numerical values are just short codes for the longer
names.)

▪ 2. Helps you decide what statistical analysis is appropriate. (If a measure is

nominal, then you know that you would never average the data values or do a t-test
on the data.)
 ▪ Description: The unique level or descriptors that are used
to designate each value of the scale. All scale possesses
description.

SCALE
1. Male
2. Female

CHARACTERISTICS
Descriptors used to describe values 1 and 2 of the gender
scale.
▪ Order: relative sizes or positions of the descriptor. Order

& LEVELS OF is denoted by discriptors like greater than, less than and
equal to.

MEASUREMENT
e.g: Respondents prefer which brand first and which brand
last
NIKE 1
Reebok 2
Adidas 3
Distance: Absolute differences between the scale descriptors are known
and may be expressed in units.

e.g.: Five person household has one person more than a four person
household , which in turn has one person more than 3 person household.

Origin: It means that the scale has unique or fixed beginning or true zero
point.

What is the annual income of household before tax?Rs______. (Absolute

zero)

Students having zero marks does not mean he /she is having zero
knowledge(No true/natural zero point)
If the scale has distance it also has order and description. If the scale has origin also has
distance, order and description. If the scale has higher level of characteristic it also has all lower
level characteristic.

Origin

Distance

Order

Description
 ▪ Nominal scale: This is the lowest level of
measurement. Here, numbers are assigned
for the purpose of identification of the
objects. Any object which is assigned a

PRIMARY
higher number is in no way superior to the
one which is assigned a lower number.

MEASUREMENT ▪ The assigned numbers cannot be added,

subtracted, multiplied or divided. The only
arithmetic operations that can be carried out

SCALES.
are the count of each category. Therefore, a
frequency distribution table can be prepared
for the nominal scale variables and mode of
the distribution can be worked out.
Ordinal scale: This is the next higher level of measurement.
One of the limitations of the nominal scale measurements is
that we cannot say whether the assigned number to an object
is higher or lower than the one assigned to another option.
The ordinal scale measurement takes care of this limitation. An
ordinal scale measurement tells whether an object has more
or less of characteristics than some other objects.
 Interval scale: It takes care of the limitation of the ordinal scale measurement where the
difference between the score on the ordinal scale does not have any meaningful interpretation.
 In the interval scale the difference of the score on the scale has meaningful interpretation. It is
assumed that the respondent is able to answer the questions on a continuum scale but does not
have a natural zero. 0 % doesn't mean that the student is having zero knowledge.
 The distance from 30º-40º is the same as the distance from 70º-80º

▪ Ratio scale: This is the highest level of measurement and takes care of the limitations of the
interval scale measurement, where the ratio of the measurements on the scale does not have a
meaningful interpretation
 All mathematical and statistical operations can be carried out using the ratio scale data.
 In ratio scale, there is a natural zero (origin).
COMPARISON OF MEASUREMENT SCALES
Label Order Distance Origin

▪ Nominal scale Yes No No No

▪ Ordinal scale Yes Yes No No

▪ Interval scale Yes Yes Yes No

▪ Ratio scale Yes Yes Yes Yes

 Nominal

• Used to categorize objects

Ordinal

• Used to define ordered relationships

USE OF
MEASUREMENT Interval
SCALES
• Used to rate objects such that the
magnitude of the difference between
two objects can be determined

Ratio

• Same as interval scale but has an

absolute zero point
 ▪ An attitude is viewed as an enduring
disposition to respond consistently in a
given manner to various aspects of the
world, including persons, events and
objects.
Three Components of an Attitude:

DEFINITION ▪ Affective: The feelings or emotions

toward an object

OF ATTITUDE ▪ Cognitive: Knowledge and beliefs

▪ Behavioral: Predisposition to action,
Intentions, Behavioral expectations
 A Classification of Scaling Techniques
SCALING TECHNIQUES

Comparative Non-Comparative
Scales Scales

Paired Rank Constant Others Continuous Itemized

Comparison Order Sum Rating Rating
Scales Scales

Semantic
Likert Stapel
Differential
COMPARATIVE SCALES
 Comparative scales – In comparative scales it is assumed that respondents make
use of a standard frame of reference before answering the question.
Example:-
▪ Rate dominos in comparison to pizza hut (1= extremely bad,5=extremely good)

1 2 3 4 5
Variety of menu options
Price
Quality of pizza
Discounts
Hygiene
Ambiance
Service
 ▪ In paired comparisons the respondents are
presented with two objects at a time and asked
to pick the one they prefer.
▪ If we have brands A, B, C and D, we would have
respondents compare
1. PAIRED A. A and B
B. A and C
COMPARISONS C. A and D
D. B and C
E. B and D
F. C and D
2. RANK- ▪ Rank the following soft-drinks from 1
(best) to 5 (worst) according to your
taste preference:

ORDER A.
B.
Coca-Cola
7-Up
_____
_____

SCALES C. Pepsi-Cola _____

D. Mountain Dew _____
3. CONSTANT SUM SCALE
Rate the following Segments of soaps for the following attributes
OTHER COMPARATIVE SCALES MAY INCLUDE

▪ Compared to Chevrolet, Ford is:

less about the more
innovative same innovative

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES
▪ Non-Comparative Scales – In the non-comparative scales, the respondents do not

make use of any frame of reference before answering the questions.

(A)Continuous scale/ Graphical scale: This is a continuous scale and the

respondent is asked to tick his preference on a graph.

Examples:
 CONTINUOUS RATING SCALE
▪ Rate Fortune landmark hotels on following attributes: (1= less preferable 5= most preferable )

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Variety of menu
options

Price
Quality of pizza

Discounts
Hygiene
Ambiance
Service
Alternative Presentation of Graphic Rating Scale –

▪ Please indicate how much do you like fast food by pointing to the
face that best shows your attitude and taste. If you do not prefer it at
all, you would point to face one. In case you prefer it the most, you
would point to face seven.
ITEMIZED RATING SCALE
(B) Itemized rating scale – In the itemized rating scale, the respondents are
provided with a scale that has a number of brief descriptions associated with
each of the response categories. There are certain issues that should be kept
in mind while designing the itemized rating scale.

1. Likert scale:

 The respondents are given a certain number of items (statements) on

which they are asked to express their degree of agreement/disagreement.

 This is also called a summated scale because the scores on individual

items can be added together to produce a total score for the respondent.
▪ Example of a Likert Scale:
2. Semantic Differential Scale:

 This scale is widely used to compare the images

of competing brands, companies or services.

 Here the respondent is required to rate each

attitude or object on a number of five-or seven-
point rating scales.

 The difference between Likert and Semantic

differential scale is that in Likert scale, a number
of statements (items) are presented to the
respondents to express their degree of
agreement/disagreement. However, in the
semantic differential scale, bipolar adjectives or
phrases are used.
▪ Example of Semantic Differential Scale:
▪ Here are a number of statements that could be used to describe K-Mart. For each
statement tick ( X ) the box that best describes your feelings about K-Mart.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

old fashioned store Modern Store

Unfreindly staff freindly staff

Less variety Less variety

High price low price

Low quality good quality

3. Stapel Scale:
 Choosing the Appropriate Scale
Attitude Itemized Rank Constant Likert Semantic
component category order sum differential
Knowledge
Awareness A
Attribute beliefs A B B B A
Attribute A B A B
importance
Affect or Liking
Overall A B A B B
preferences
Specific A B B B A
attributes
Action
intentions A B A B

A = Very appropriate, B = Sometimes appropriate

 1. Reliability:
▪ The degree to which a measure
accurately captures an individual’s true
outcome without error; Accuracy
▪ synonymous with repetitive consistency
2. Validity:
▪ The validity of a scale refers to the
CRITERIA/CHARACTERISTICS
OF GOOD MEASUREMENT question whether we are measuring
SCALES what we want to measure.
3. Sensitivity:
▪ Sensitivity refers to an instrument’s
ability to accurately measure the
variability in a concept.
REPORT WRITING
SIGNIFICANCE OF REPORT
WRITING
▪ Research report is considered a major component of the
research study for the research task remains incomplete till
the report has been presented and/or written. As a matter of
fact even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed
and conducted research study, and the most striking
generalizations and findings are of little value unless they
are effectively communicated to others.
▪ The purpose of research is not well served unless the
findings are made known to others.
DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING
REPORT
▪ Logical analysis of the subject matter

▪ Preparation of the final outline

▪ Preparation of the rough draft

▪ Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft

▪ Preparation of the final bibliography

LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH
REPORT
▪ (A) Preliminary Pages

▪ In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and

date, followed by acknowledgements in the form of ‘Preface’
or ‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of contents
followed by list of tables and illustrations so that the decision-
maker or anybody interested in reading the report can
easily locate the required information in the report.
(B) Main Text
• The main text provides the complete outline of the research
report along with all details. Title of the research study is repeated
at the top of the first page of the main text and then follows the
other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with
the second page. Each main section of the report should begin on
a new page. The main text of the report should have the following
sections:
• Introduction;
• Literature review
• Research Methodology
• Data Analysis and Interpretations
• Statement of findings and recommendations
• Conclusion.
(C) End Matter
▪ At the end of the report, appendices should be
enlisted in respect of all technical data such as
questionnaires, sample information,
mathematical derivations and the like ones.
Bibliography of sources consulted should also
be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of
names, places and topics along with the
numbers of the pages in a book or report on
which they are mentioned or discussed)
should invariably be given at the end of the
report. The value of index lies in the fact that it
works as a guideto the reader for the contents
in the report.
 1. Title Page
2. Abstract
3. Acknowledgements (optional)
4. Contents
▪ List of Tables

TYPICAL
▪ List of Figures

5. Introduction

RESEARCH 6.

7.
Literature Review
Methodology

REPORT 8.

9.
Data Analysis
Findings

STRUCTURE 10.

11.
Recommendations
Conclusions
12. Reference List
13. Appendices
TYPES OF REPORTS
(A) Technical Report
▪ In the technical report the main emphasis is on (i) the
methods employed, (it) assumptions made in the course of
the study, (iii) the detailed presentation of the findings
including their limitations and supporting data.
(B) Popular Report
▪ The popular report is one which gives emphasis on
simplicity and attractiveness
 ▪ At times oral presentation of the results of
the study is considered effective,
particularly in cases where policy

ORAL
recommendations are indicated by project
results. The merit of this approach lies in
the fact that it provides an opportunity for

PRESENTATION
give-and-take decisions which generally
lead to a better understanding of the
findings and their implications.
▪ Oral presentation is effective when
supplemented by various visual devices.
Use of slides, wall charts and blackboards
is quite helpful in contributing to clarity
and in reducing the boredom,
THAT’S ALL WHAT YOU NEED
TO KNOW ABOUT RESEARCH