University of Basrah

College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
 Speed studies
 Speed is defined as the rate of movement of a vehicle; it is
usually expressed in miles per hour (mi/hr) or kilometers
per hour (km/hr).
 Speed is a fundamental measure of traffic performance for
use in operations, design, and safety.
 Speed is an important measure for traffic operations,
because highway users relate speed to economics, safety,
time, comfort, and convenience.
 Speed is a basic measure of traffic performance.

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Several different speed parameters can be applied to a traffic stream. These include the
following:
Average running speed: A traffic stream measure based on the observation of vehicle travel
times traversing a section of highway of known length. It is the length of the segment
divided by the average running time of vehicles to traverse the segment. Running time
includes only time that vehicles are in motion.

Free-flow speed :The average speed of vehicles on a given facility, measured under Free-flow
speed, low-volume conditions, when drivers tend to drive at their desired speed and are not
constrained by control delay
Speed limit (posted speed)
This is the maximum speed permitted by law on a section of road. It is the speed which
decision-makers (and not necessarily the design engineers) say is the maximum permitted
speed at which any vehicle may travel along the section of road concerned.

Operating speed – maximum safe speed a vehicle can be driven without exceeding design
speed
Design Speed
Design speed is defined as the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a
specified section of highway when conditions are so favorable that the design features of
the highway govern. Design Speed should: 1) “…be consistent with the speed the driver is
likely to expect.” and 2) “. . .fit the travel desires and habits of nearly all drivers.”
Not posted speed and not operating speed (but ALWAYS higher than both)

1. Design Speed Considerations

2. Functional classification of the highway.

3. Character of the terrain.
4. Density and character of adjacent land uses.
5. Traffic volumes expected to use the highway.
6. Economic and environmental considerations.
suggested minimum design speed)

Rural Arterials
60 – 120 km/h Depends on …1-Terrain2- Driver expectancy 3- Alignment
(reconstruction)

Urban
1-Locals 30-50 km/hr
2-Collectors +50 km/hr
3-Arterials 50-95 km/hr
5
Space mean speed: A statistical term denoting an average speed based
on the average travel time of vehicles to traverse a segment of roadway.
It is called a space mean speed because the average travel time weights
the average to the time each vehicle spends in the defined roadway
segment or space.
Time mean speed: The arithmetic average of speeds of vehicles observed
passing a point on a highway; also referred to as the average spot
speed. The individual speeds of vehicles passing a point are recorded
and averaged arithmetically.
 Figure (1) shows a typical relationship between time
mean and space mean speeds. Space mean speed is
always less than time mean speed, but the difference
decreases as the absolute value of speed increases.
Based on the statistical analysis of observed data, this
relationship is useful because time mean speeds often
are easier to measure in the field than space mean
speeds
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Figure (1) TYPICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TIME MEAN AND
SPACE MEAN SPEED
example1
 Three vehicles are recorded with speeds of 30, 40, and
50 Km/h. The time to traverse1 Km is 2 min, 1.5 min,
and 1.2 min, respectively.
 Solution:
 Time mean speed = (30 + 40 + 50)/3= 40 Km/h
 Space mean speed= (60)[3 ÷ (2.0 + 1.5 + 1.2)]= 38.3 Km/h

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 spot Speed studies
 Spot speed study is carried out by recording the speeds of
a sample of vehicles at a specified location.
 Spot speed studies are conducted to estimate the
distribution of speeds of vehicles in a stream of traffic at a
particular location on a highway.
 The data gathered in spot speed studies are used to
determine the vehicle speed percentiles which are useful in
making many speed related decision.

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 Spot Speed studies
Speed characteristics determined from a spot speed study may be
used to:
 Establish parameters for traffic operation and control,
such as:
• Speed zones.
• Speed limits (85th-percentile speed).
 Evaluate and or determine the adequacy of highway
geometric characteristics, such as radii of horizontal
curves and lengths of vertical curves.
 Evaluate the effect of speed on highway safety through
the analysis of crash data for different speed
characteristics.
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Locations for Spot Speed Studies
The following locations generally are used for the different
applications listed:
 Locations that represent different traffic conditions on a
highway or highways are used for basic data collection.
 Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight, level sections
of rural highways are sites for speed trend analyses.
 Any location may be used for the solution of a specific
traffic engineering problem. .

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Locations for Spot Speed Studies
 When spot speed studies are being conducted, it is
important that unbiased data be obtained.
 This requires that drivers be unaware that such a study is
being conducted.
 Equipment used therefore, should be concealed from the
driver.
 Observers conducting the study should be inconspicuous.
 It is important that a statistically adequate number of
vehicle speeds should be recorded.

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 Time of Day and Duration of Spot Speed
Studies
 The time of day for conducting a speed study depends on the
purpose of the study.
 In general, when the purpose of the study is to establish posted
speed limits, to observe speed trends, or to collect basic data, it is
recommended that the study be conducted when traffic is free-
flowing, usually during off-peak hours.
 The duration of the study should be such that the minimum
number of vehicle speeds required for statistical analysis is
recorded.
 Typically, the duration is at least 1 hour and the sample size is at
least 30 vehicles.

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 Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies
Manual Method:
 Stopwatch method can be used to carry out the spot speed
study by using a small sample size taken over a relatively short
period of time.
Recommended Spot Speed Study Lengths

Traffic stream Recommended

Average Speed study length
Below 40 km/hr
27 meter
(Below 25 mph)
40 - 64 km/hr
53 meter
(25 – 40 mph)
Above 64 km/hr
80 meter
(Above 40 mph)

 The manual method is seldom used, because it has low

accuracy due to human errors.
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Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies
Automatic Method:
 Several automatic devices that can be used to obtain the
instantaneous speeds of vehicles. These automatic devices
can be grouped into three main categories:
 Road detectors (such as Pneumatic road tubes and
inductive loop).
 Radar-based (such as Radar speed gun).
 Principles of electronics (such as electronic camera).

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Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies

Pneumatic road tubes detectors inductive loop detectors

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Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies

Radar speed gun Radar-Based Traffic Sensor

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Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies

electronic camera

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 Presentation and Analysis of Spot Speed Data
 The data collected in spot speed studies are usually taken
only from a sample of vehicles using the section of the highway
on which the study is conducted, but these data are used to
determine the speed characteristics of the whole population of
vehicles traveling on the study site.
 It is therefore necessary to use statistical methods in
analyzing these data.
 Several characteristics are usually determined from the
analysis of the data. Some of them can be calculated directly
from the data; others can be determined from a graphical
representation, such as frequency histogram and cumulative
frequency distribution curve.
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 Presentation and Analysis of Spot Speed
Data
 The calculated mean (or average) speed is used to represent the
true mean value of all vehicle speeds at that location.
 It is first necessary to define certain significant values that are
needed to describe speed characteristics. They are:
• Average Speed
• Median Speed
• Modal Speed
• The ith-percentile Spot Speed
• Pace
• Standard Deviation of Speeds

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definitions
 Average Speed:- which is the arithmetic mean of all
observed vehicle speeds (which is the sum of all spot speeds
divided by the number of recorded speeds). It is given as:

σ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖
𝑢ത =
σ 𝑓𝑖
 Where:
 𝑢ത = arithmetic mean
𝑓𝑖 = number of observations in each speed group
𝑢𝑖 = Midvale for the ith speed group.
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definitions
 Median Speed:- which is the speed at the middle value in a
series of spot speeds that are arranged in ascending order. 50
percent of the speed values will be greater than the median; 50
percent will be less than the median.

 Modal Speed:- which is the speed value that occurs most

frequently in a sample of spot speeds.

 The ith-percentile Spot Speed:- which is the spot speed

value below which i percent of the vehicles travel; for example,
85th-percentile spot speed is the speed below which 85 percent
of the vehicles travel and above which 15 percent of the vehicles
travel.
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 definitions
 Pace:- which is the range of speed (usually taken at 10 km/hr or
mph intervals) that has the greatest number of observations.

 Standard Deviation of Speeds:- which is a measure of the

spread of the individual speeds. It is estimated as:

σ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖 − 𝑢ത 2
𝑆=
𝑁 −1

Where: S = standard deviation; N = number of observations

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 Example 1
Determining Speed Characteristics from a set of speed data. The
Table 1 in next slide shows the data collected on a rural highway in
Virginia during a speed study. Develop frequency histogram and
cumulative frequency distribution of the data and determine:
• The arithmetic mean speed (average speed),
• The standard deviation,
• The pace,
• The mode or modal speed,
• The median speed, and
• The 85th-percentile speed.

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Example 1 Table 1
Speed Speed Car Speed Speed
Car No. (km/hr) Car No. (km/hr) No. (km/hr) Car No. (km/hr)
. . .
1 35.1 23 46.1 45 47.8 67 56
2 44 24 54.2 46 47.1 68 49.1
3 45.8 25 52.3 47 34.8 69 49.2
4 44.3 26 57.3 48 52.4 70 56.4
5 36.3 27 46.8 49 49.1 71 48.5
6 54 28 57.8 50 37.1 72 45.4
7 42.1 29 36.8 51 65 73 48.6
8 50.1 30 55.8 52 49.5 74 52
9 51.8 31 43.3 53 52.2 75 49.8
10 50.8 32 55.3 54 48.4 76 63.4
11 38.3 33 39 55 42.8 77 60.1
12 44.6 34 53.7 56 49.5 78 48.8
13 45.2 35 40.8 57 48.6 79 52.1
14 41.1 36 54.5 58 41.2 80 48.7
15 55.1 37 51.6 59 48 81 61.8
16 50.2 38 51.7 60 58 82 56.6
17 54.3 39 50.3 61 49 83 48.2
18 45.4 40 59.8 62 41.8 84 62.1
19 55.2 41 40.3 63 48.3 85 53.3
20 45.7 42 55.1 64 45.9 86 53.4
21 54.1 43 45 65 44.7
22 54 44 48.3 66 49.5
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 Example 1
Solution:
 The speeds range from 34.8 to 65.0 mph, giving a speed
range of 30.2. It is convenient to choose a range of 2 km/hr
per class which will give 16 classes.
 A frequency distribution table can then be prepared, as
shown in Table 2 in which the speed classes are listed in
column 1 and the mid-values are in column 2. The number
of observations for each class is listed in column 3; the
cumulative percentages of all observations are listed in
column 6.

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Example 1 Table 2
Class Cumulative
Speed Class Class Cumulative
Frequency fiui Percentage of fi(ui-u~)^2
(km/hr) Mid value (ui) Frequency
(fi) all Frequency
34 - 35.9 35 2 70 2 2.3 420.5
36 - 37.9 37 3 111 5 5.8 468.75
38 - 39.9 39 2 78 7 8.1 220.5
40 - 41.9 41 5 205 12 13.9 361.25
42 - 43.9 43 3 129 15 17.4 126.75
44 - 45.9 45 11 495 26 30.2 222.75
46 - 47.9 47 4 188 30 34.9 25
48 - 49.9 49 18 882 48 55.9 4.5
50 - 51.9 51 7 357 55 64 15.75
52 - 53.9 53 8 424 63 73.3 98
54 - 55.9 55 11 605 74 86.1 332.75
56 - 57.9 57 5 285 79 91.9 281.25
58 - 59.9 59 2 118 81 94.2 180.5
60 - 61.9 61 2 122 83 96.5 264.5
62 - 63.9 63 2 126 85 98.8 364.5
64 - 65.9 65 1 65 86 100 240.25
Totals 86 4260 3627.5
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Example 1
Solution:
 The arithmetic mean speed (average speed):

σ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖
𝑢ത =
σ 𝑓𝑖

 As shown in Table 2 in previous slide:

4260
𝑢ത = = 49.5 km/hr
86

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Example 1
Solution:
 The standard deviation:
σ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖 − 𝑢ത 2
𝑆=
𝑁 −1
 As shown in Table 2 in previous slide:
3627.5
𝑆=
86 −1

3625.5
𝑆2 = 85
====>> S = ± 6.5 km/hr
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 Example 1
 Figure 2 shows the 20

frequency histogram. 18

 The values in columns 16

Observed Frequency, fi
2 and 3 of Table 2 are 14
used to draw the 12
frequency histogram. 10
 The modal speed is 8
obtained from the 6
frequency histogram as
4
49 km/hr
2
 .
0
 The pace can be obtained 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65
from the Figure as 45 to 55 Vehicle Speed (mph)
km/hr
 .
Figure 2: Frequency histogram of speeds
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Example 1

Figure 4.4 Histogram of Figure 4.5 Frequency

Observed Vehicles’ Speeds Distribution
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 Example 1
 Figure 3 shows the
cumulative frequency

Cumulative Frequency (%)

distribution.
 The median speed is
obtained from Figure 2
as 48.5 km/hr
 , the 50th percentile
speed.
 85th percentile speed is
obtained from the
cumulative frequency
distribution curve
30 40 50 60 70
(Figure 3) as 55 km/hr
Vehicle Speed (mph)
 .
Figure 2: Cumulative Frequency Distribution
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Example 2
Determine the 50th and 85th speed percentiles from speed data
presented in Table 3 below.

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Example 2
Solution:

𝑃𝐷 − 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝐷 = 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛

Where SD = speed at PD, PD = percentile desired,

Pmax = higher cumulative percent,
Pmin = lower cumulative percent,
Smax = higher speed, and Smax = lower speed.

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 Example 2
Solution:
The 50th percentile of speed ( PD = 50%) falls between 27 and 30
mph (see Table3), so Smax = 30 mph and Smin = 27 mph. The
higher cumulative percent (Pmax) is 54%, and the lower
cumulative percent (Pmin) is 34%. Therefore, to find SD at PD =
50%,

𝑃𝐷 − 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝐷 = 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛

50 − 34
𝑆𝐷 = 30 − 27 + 27 = 29.4 𝑚𝑝ℎ
54 − 34
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 Example 2
Solution:
The 85th percentile of speed ( PD = 85%) falls between 33 and 36
mph (see Table3), so Smax = 36 mph and Smin = 33 mph. The
higher cumulative percent (Pmax) is 86%, and the lower
cumulative percent (Pmin) is 72%. Therefore, to find SD at PD =
85%,

𝑃𝐷 − 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝐷 = 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛

85 − 72
𝑆𝐷 = 36 − 33 + 33 = 35.8 𝑚𝑝ℎ
86 − 72
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Back to Example 1
Finding the 85th percentile of speed for Example 1 by using
the following equation.
𝑃𝐷 − 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝐷 = 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛
As shown in Table 2 The 85th percentile of speed ( PD = 85%)
falls between 53 and 55 mph. The higher cumulative percent
(Pmax) is 86.1%, and the lower cumulative percent (Pmin) is
73.3%. Therefore, to find SD at PD = 85%,

85 − 73.3
𝑆𝐷 = 55 − 53 + 53 = 54.8 𝑚𝑝ℎ
86.1 − 73.3
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 Back to Example 1
Finding the 50th percentile of speed for Example 1 by using the
following equation.
𝑃𝐷 − 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝐷 = 𝑆 − 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
As shown in Table 2 The 50th percentile of speed ( PD = 50%) falls
between 47 and 49 mph. The higher cumulative percent (Pmax) is
55.9%, and the lower cumulative percent (Pmin) is 34.9%.
Therefore, to find SD at PD = 50%,

50−34.9
𝑆𝐷 = 55.9−34.9
49 − 47 + 47 = 48.4km/hr

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 Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies
 The calculated mean (or average) speed is used to
represent the true mean value of all vehicle speeds at that
location.
 The accuracy of this assumption depends on the number
of vehicles in the sample.
 The larger the sample size, the greater the probability that
the estimated mean is not significantly different from the
true mean.
 It is therefore necessary to select a sample size that will
give an estimated mean within acceptable error limits.

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 Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies
 The minimum sample size depends on the precision level
desired.
 The precision level is defined as the degree of confidence.
 The commonly used confidence level for speed counts is 95%.
 The properties of the normal distribution have been used to
develop an equation to determine the sample size. The formula
is.

2
𝑍𝜎
𝑁=
𝑑

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 Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies
2
𝑍𝜎
𝑁=
𝑑
Where
N = Minimum sample size
Z = Constant corresponding to level of confidence = 1.96 for 95%
confidence level
𝜎 = Standard deviation (km/hr). The standard deviation can be
estimated from previous data, or a small sample size can first be
used.
d = Limit of acceptable error in the average speed estimate
(km/hr).

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 Example 3
Determining Spot Speed Sample Size. As part of a class project, a
group of students collected a total of 120 spot speed samples at a
location and determined from this data that the standard variation
of the speeds was ± 6 km/hr. If the project required that the
confidence level be 95% and the limit of acceptable error was 1.5
km/hr, determine whether these students satisfied the project
requirement.
Solution:
By using this equation:
𝑍𝜎 2
𝑁=
𝑑

42
Example 3
Z = 1.96
𝜎 = ± 6 km/hr
d = 1.5 km/hr
2
1.96 ∗ 6
𝑁=
1.5
N = 61.45
Therefore, the minimum number of spot speeds collected to
satisfy the project requirement is 62.

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