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CONT E NT S
Preface xvii
About the Authors xxv
Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge,

C h A P t E R 1 and the Scientific Method 1
Chapter learning objeCtives 1
Chapter overvieW 2
1.1 Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge 2
The Method of Tenacity 3
The Method of Intuition 3
The Method of Authority 4
The Rational Method 6
The Empirical Method 7
Summary 9
1.2 The Scientific Method 10

The Steps of the Scientific Method 11
Other Elements of the Scientific Method 14
Science versus Pseudoscience 17
1.3 The Research Process 18

Quantitative and Qualitative Research 18
The Steps of the Research Process 19
Chapter Summary 26
Key Words 26
Exercises 27
Learning Check Answers 27
C h A P t E R 2 research Ideas and hypotheses 29

Chapter overvieW 30
2.1 Getting Started: Identifying a Topic Area 31
Common Sources of Research Topics 31
2.2 Searching the Existing Research Literature

in a Topic Area 33
v
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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vi Contents
Tips for Starting a Review of the Literature 34

Primary and Secondary Sources 36
The Purpose of a Literature Search 37
Conducting a Literature Search 37
Using Online Databases 39
Using PsycINFO 39
Screening Articles during a Literature Search 40
Ending a Literature Search 41
2.3 Finding an Idea for a Research Study from a
Published Research Article 42
Find Suggestions for Future Research 42
Combine or Contrast Existing Results 42
The Components of a Research Article—Critical Reading 42
2.4 Using a Research Idea to Form a Hypothesis and
Create a Research Study 45
Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis 45
Using a Hypothesis to Create a Research Study 48
Chapter Summary 49
Key Words 49
Exercises 49
C h A P t E R 3 Defining and Measuring Variables 51

Chapter overvieW 52
3.1 Constructs and Operational Definitions 52
Theories and Constructs 53
Operational Definitions 54
Limitations of Operational Definitions 54
Using Operational Definitions 55
3.2 Validity and Reliability of Measurement 56
Consistency of a Relationship 57
Validity of Measurement 58
Reliability of Measurement 61
The Relationship between Reliability and Validity 64
3.3 Scales of Measurement 65
The Nominal Scale 66
The Ordinal Scale 66
Interval and Ratio Scales 66
Selecting a Scale of Measurement 68
3.4 Modalities of Measurement 69

Self-Report Measures 70
Physiological Measures 70
Behavioral Measures 70
CONTENTS vii
3.5 Other Aspects of Measurement 72

Multiple Measures 72
Sensitivity and Range Effects 72
Artifacts: Experimenter Bias and Participant Reactivity 73
Selecting a Measurement Procedure 77
Chapter Summary 78
Key Words 78
Exercises 79
C h A P t E R 4 ethics in research 81
Chapter overvieW 82
4.1 Introduction 83
Ethical Concerns Throughout the Research Process 83
The Basic Categories of Ethical Responsibility 84
4.2 Ethical Issues and Human Participants in Research 84

Historical Highlights of Treatment of Human Participants 84
American Psychological Association Guidelines 87
The Institutional Review Board 97
4.3 Ethical Issues and Nonhuman Subjects in Research 99

Historical Highlights of Treatment of Nonhuman Subjects 100
American Psychological Association Guidelines 100
The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee 101
4.4 Ethical Issues and Scientific Integrity 102

Fraud in Science 102
Plagiarism 104
Chapter Summary 106
Key Words 106
Exercises 107
C h A P t E R 5 Selecting research Participants 109

Chapter overvieW 110
5.1 Introduction to Sampling 110
Populations and Samples 111
Representative Samples 113
Sample Size 113
Sampling Basics 115
viii CONTENTS
5.2 Probability Sampling Methods 116

Simple Random Sampling 116
Systematic Sampling 118
Stratified Random Sampling 118
Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling 120
Cluster Sampling 120
Combined-Strategy Sampling 121
A Summary of Probability Sampling Methods 121
5.3 Nonprobability Sampling Methods 122

Convenience Sampling 122
Quota Sampling 123
Chapter Summary 125
Key Words 125
Exercises 126
C h A P t E R 6 research Strategies and Validity 127

6.1 Research Strategies 129
The Descriptive Research Strategy: Examining
Individual Variables 130
Strategies That Examine Relationships between Variables 130
The Correlational Research Strategy:
Measuring Two Variables for Each Individual 131
Comparing Two or More Sets of Scores: The
Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, and Nonexperimental
Research Strategies 132
Nonexperimental and Correlational Research 134
Research Strategy Summary 135
Research Strategies, Research Designs, and
Research Procedures 136
Data Structures and Statistical Analysis 137
Summary 138
6.2 External and Internal Validity 138

External Validity 139
Internal Validity 140
Validity and the Quality of a Research Study 141
6.3 Threats to External Validity 142

Category 1: Generalizing across Participants or Subjects 142
Category 2: Generalizing across Features of a Study 144
Category 3: Generalizing across Features of the Measures 145
CONTENTS ix
6.4 Threats to Internal Validity 147

Extraneous Variables 147
Confounding Variables 148
Extraneous Variables, Confounding Variables, and Internal Validity 148
6.5 More about Internal and External Validity 152
Balancing Internal and External Validity 152
Artifacts: Threats to Both Internal and External Validity 152
Exaggerated Variables 153
Validity and Individual Research Strategies 153
Chapter Summary 154
Key Words 155
Exercises 155
C H A P T E R 7 The Experimental Research Strategy 157

Chapter Learning Objectives 157
CHAPTER OVERVIEW 158
7.1 Cause-and-Effect Relationships 159
Terminology for the Experimental Research Strategy 160
Causation and the Third-Variable Problem 162
Causation and the Directionality Problem 162
Controlling Nature 163
7.2 Distinguishing Elements of an Experiment 164
Manipulation 165
Control 167
Extraneous Variables and Confounding Variables 168
7.3 Controlling Extraneous Variables 170
Control by Holding Constant or Matching 170
Control by Randomization 172
Comparing Methods of Control 173
Advantages and Disadvantages of Control Methods 174
7.4 Control Conditions and Manipulation Checks 174
Control Conditions 175
Manipulation Checks 177
7.5 Increasing External Validity: Simulation and Field Studies 178
Simulation 179
Field Studies 180
Advantages and Disadvantages of Simulation and Field Studies 180
Chapter Summary 181
Key Words 182
Exercises 182
x CONTENTS
C h A P t E R 8 experimental Designs: Between-Subjects Design 185

8.1 Introduction to Between-Subjects Experiments 186
Review of the Experimental Research Strategy 187
Characteristics of Between-Subjects Designs 187
Advantages and Disadvantages of Between-Subjects Designs 189
8.2 Individual Differences as Confounding Variables 191

Other Confounding Variables 191
Equivalent Groups 192
8.3 Limiting Confounding by Individual Differences 193

Random Assignment (Randomization) 193
Matching Groups (Matched Assignment) 194
Holding Variables Constant or Restricting Range of Variability 195
Summary and Recommendations 195
8.4 Individual Differences and Variability 196

Differences between Treatments and Variance within Treatments 198
Minimizing Variance within Treatments 199
Summary and Recommendations 200
8.5 Other Threats to Internal Validity of Between-Subjects

Experimental Designs 201
Differential Attrition 202
Communication between Groups 202
8.6 Applications and Statistical Analyses of Between-

Subjects Designs 204
Two-Group Mean Difference 204
Comparing Means for More Than Two Groups 205
Comparing Proportions for Two or More Groups 206
Chapter Summary 208
Key Words 208
Exercises 208
C h A P t E R 9 experimental Designs: Within-Subjects Design 211

9.1 Within-Subjects Experiments and Internal Validity 212
Characteristics of Within-Subjects Designs 212
Threats to Internal Validity of Within-Subjects Experiments 214
CONTENTS xi
Separating Time-Related Factors and Order Effects 217

Order Effects as a Confounding Variable 217
9.2 Dealing with Time-Related Threats and Order Effects 219

Controlling Time 220
Switch to a Between-Subjects Design 220
Counterbalancing: Matching Treatments with Respect to Time 220
Limitations of Counterbalancing 222
9.3 Comparing Within-Subjects and Between-Subjects Designs 225

Advantages of Within-Subjects Designs 225
Disadvantages of Within-Subjects Designs 229
Choosing Within- or Between-Subjects Design 231
Matched-Subjects Designs 231
9.4 Applications and Statistical Analysis of Within-

Subjects Designs 233
Two-Treatment Designs 233
Multiple-Treatment Designs 234
Chapter Summary 235
Key Words 235
Exercises 236
C h A P t E R 1 0 the nonexperimental and Quasi-experimental

Strategies: nonequivalent Group, Pre–Post,
and Developmental Designs 237
10.1 Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental
Research Strategies 239
The Structure of Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs 240
10.2 Between-Subjects Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental
Designs: Nonequivalent Group Designs 242
Threats to Internal Validity for Nonequivalent Group Designs 243
Nonexperimental Designs with Nonequivalent Groups 244
A Quasi-Experimental Design with Nonequivalent Groups 247
10.3 Within-Subjects Nonexperimental and

Quasi-Experimental Designs: Pre–Post Designs 249
Threats to Internal Validity for Pre–Post Designs 250
A Nonexperimental Pre–Post Design 250
A Quasi-Experimental Pre–Post Design 251
Single-Case Applications of Time-Series Designs 253
xii CONTENTS
10.4 Developmental Research Designs 254

The Cross-Sectional Developmental Research Design 254
The Longitudinal Developmental Research Design 257
10.5 Applications, Statistical Analysis, and Terminology

for Nonexperimental, Quasi-Experimental,
and Developmental Designs 260
Application and Analysis 260
Terminology in Nonexperimental, Quasi-Experimental, and
Developmental Designs 261
Chapter Summary 262
Key Words 263
Exercises 263
C h A P t E R 1 1 factorial Designs 265

11.1 Introduction to Factorial Designs 267
11.2 Main Effects and Interactions 269
Main Effects 270
The Interaction between Factors 271
Alternative Views of the Interaction between Factors 272
Identifying Interactions 274
Interpreting Main Effects and Interactions 274
Independence of Main Effects and Interactions 276
11.3 Types of Factorial Designs and Analysis 277

Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs 278
Experimental and Nonexperimental or
Quasi-Experimental Research Strategies 279
Pretest–Posttest Control Group Designs 281
Higher-Order Factorial Designs 282
Statistical Analysis of Factorial Designs 283
11.4 Applications of Factorial Designs 284

Expanding and Replicating a Previous Study 284
Reducing Variance in Between-Subjects Designs 285
Evaluating Order Effects in Within-Subjects Designs 286
Chapter Summary 292
Key Words 293
Exercises 293
CONTENTS xiii
C h A P t E R 1 2 the Correlational research Strategy 295

12.1 An Introduction to Correlational Research 296
Comparing Correlational, Experimental, and
Differential Research 297
12.2 The Data and Statistical Analysis for

Correlational Studies 298
Evaluating Relationships for Numerical Scores
(Interval or Ratio Scales) and Ranks (Ordinal Scale) 299
Evaluating Relationships for Non-Numerical Scores
from Nominal Scales 301
Interpreting and Statistically Evaluating a Correlation 303
12.3 Applications of the Correlational Strategy 305

Prediction 305
Reliability and Validity 306
Evaluating Theories 306
12.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Correlational

Research Strategy 307
Relationships with More Than Two Variables 309
Chapter Summary 311
Key Words 311
Exercises 311
C h A P t E R 1 3 the Descriptive research Strategy 313

13.1 An Introduction to Descriptive Research 314
13.2 The Observational Research Design 315
Behavioral Observation 316
Content Analysis and Archival Research 318
Types of Observation and Examples 318
Strengths and Weaknesses of Observational
Research Designs 321
13.3 The Survey Research Design 322

Types of Questions 324
Constructing a Survey 327
Selecting Relevant and Representative Individuals 328
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xiv CONTENTS
Administering a Survey 329

Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research 332
13.4 The Case Study Design 334

Applications of the Case Study Design 334
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Case Study Design 336
Chapter Summary 338
Key Words 338
Exercises 338
C h A P t E R 1 4 Single-Case experimental research Designs 341

14.1 Introduction 343
Critical Elements of a Single-Case Experimental Design 344
Evaluating the Results from a Single-Case Study 344
14.2 Phases and Phase Changes 346

Level, Trend, and Stability 347
Changing Phases 350
Visual Inspection Techniques 351
14.3 Reversal Designs: ABAB and Variations 355

Limitations of the ABAB Design 357
Variations on the ABAB Design: Creating More Complex
Phase-Change Designs 358
14.4 Multiple-Baseline Designs 361

Characteristics of a Multiple-Baseline Design 361
Component Analysis Designs 364
Rationale for the Multiple-Baseline Design 365
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Multiple-Baseline Design 366
14.5 General Strengths and Weaknesses

of Single-Case Designs 368
Advantages of Single-Case Designs 369
Disadvantages of Single-Case Designs 369
Chapter Summary 371
Key Words 372
Exercises 372
CONTENTS xv
C h A P t E R 1 5 Statistical evaluation of Data 373

15.1 The Role of Statistics in the Research Process 374
Planning Ahead 375
Statistics Terminology 375
15.2 Descriptive Statistics 377

Frequency Distributions 377
Describing Interval and Ratio Data (Numerical Scores) 379
Describing Non-Numerical Data from Nominal and
Ordinal Scales of Measurement 381
Using Graphs to Compare Groups of Scores 382
Correlations 384
Regression 387
Multiple Regression 388
15.3 Inferential Statistics 389

Hypothesis Tests 391
Reporting Results from a Hypothesis Test 395
Errors in Hypothesis Testing 396
Factors That Influence the Outcome of a Hypothesis Test 397
Supplementing Hypothesis Tests with Measures of Effect Size 399
15.4 Finding the Right Statistics for Your Data 403

Three Data Structures 403
Scales of Measurement 404
Category 1: A Single Group of Participants with
One Score per Participant 404
Category 2: A Single Group of Participants with Two
Variables Measured for Each Participant 405
Category 3: Two or More Groups of Scores with Each
Score a Measurement of The Same Variable 407
15.5 Special Statistics for Research 412

The Spearman–Brown Formula 413
The Kuder–Richardson Formula 20 413
Cronbach’s Alpha 414
Cohen’s Kappa 414
Chapter Summary 417
Key Words 418
Exercises 418
xvi CONTENTS
C h A P t E R 1 6 Writing an APA-Style research report 421

16.1 The Goal of a Research Report 422
16.2 General APA Guidelines for Writing Style
and Format 423
Some Elements of Writing Style 423
Guidelines for Typing or Word Processing 427
Manuscript Pages 427
16.3 The Elements of an APA-Style Research Report 428

Title Page 428
Abstract 430
Introduction 431
Method 434
Results 436
Discussion 436
References 439
Tables and Figures 441
Appendix 441
Submitting a Manuscript for Publication 441
Conference Presentations: Papers and Posters 444
16.4 Writing a Research Proposal 445

Why Write a Research Proposal? 445
How to Write a Research Proposal 446
Chapter Summary 447
Key Words 447
Exercises 447
a p p en d i ce s
A Random Number Table and Instruction 449
B Statistics Demonstrations and Statistical Tables 453
C Instructions for Using SPSS 481
D Sample APA-Style Research Report Manuscript for Publication 501
Glossary 511
References 525
Name Index 533
Subject Index 535
P R E FAC E
For years, we have watched students come into the psychology research methods course
with a fundamental fear of science. Somewhere, these students seem to have developed
the idea that psychology is interesting and fun, but science is tedious and difficult. Many
students even resent the fact that they have to take a research methods course: “After all, I
want to be a psychologist, not a scientist.”
As the semester progresses, however, most of these students begin to lose their fears,
and many of them actually begin to enjoy the course. Much of this change in attitude is
based on a realization that science is simply the technique that psychologists use to gather
information and to answer questions. As long as the questions are interesting, then the task
of answering them should also be interesting.
When people watch a magician do an amazing trick, the common response is to ask,
“How was that done?” In the same way, when you learn something interesting about
human behavior, you ought to ask, “How do they know that?” The answer is that most of
the existing knowledge in the behavioral sciences was gathered using scientific research
methods. If you are really curious about human behavior, then you should also be curious
about the process of studying human behavior.
This textbook is developed from years of teaching research methods. During that
time, we tried various examples or explanations in the classroom and observed student
response. Over the years, the course evolved into a less intimidating and more interesting
approach that is highly effective in getting students interested in research. Our students
have been very helpful in this evolutionary process. Their feedback has directed our prog-
ress through the development of the research methods course and the writing of this book.
In many respects, they have been our teachers.
Overview of Text
Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences, sixth edition, is intended for an under-
graduate Research Methods course in psychology or any of the behavioral sciences. The
overall learning objectives of this book include the following:
1. Describe the scientific method and research process
2. Use research databases to locate and obtain psychology articles relevant to a research
topic of interest
3. Analyze and evaluate published research
4. Develop an original research question and hypothesis
5. Define measurement validity and reliability, as well as internal and external validity,
and identify the various threats to validity
6. Identify ethical issues pertaining to research in psychology
7. Compare and contrast the various research strategies and designs
8. Identify the descriptive and inferential statistical analyses utilized to interpret and
evaluate research
9. Compose an APA-style research report or proposal
10. Critically evaluate secondary sources of scientific information
xvii
xviii Preface
We have organized the text according to the research process, making it appropriate
for use in a lecture-only class or a class with a lab component. The text discusses in detail
both experimental and nonexperimental research strategies. We use a rather informal writ-
ing style that emphasizes discussion and explanation of topics. For each chapter, pedagog-
ical aids include chapter learning objectives, chapter overview, a list of chapter sections,
learning objectives at the beginning of each section, Learning Check questions at the end
of each section, a running glossary, a chapter summary and a list of Key Words, and a set
of end-of-chapter exercises that are identified by learning objectives.
Organization of Text
Overall, the book is organized around the framework of the research process—from start
to finish. This step-by-step approach emphasizes the decisions researchers must make at
each stage of the process. The chapters of the text have been organized into five sections.
Chapters 1 and 2 focus on the earliest considerations in the research process, presenting
an overview of the scientific method and including tips for finding a new idea for research
and developing a research hypothesis. Chapters 3–6 focus on the preliminary decisions in
the research process, and include information on how to measure variables, maintaining
ethical responsibility throughout the research process, selecting participants, and choos-
ing a valid research strategy. Chapters 7–9 introduce the experimental research strategy
and provide the details of between-subjects and within-subjects experimental designs.
Chapters 10–14 present other (nonexperimental) research strategies and their associated
research designs, and single-case experimental designs. Chapters 15 and 16 focus on the
ending decisions in the research process and include information on how to evaluate, inter-
pret, and communicate the results of the research process.
Although the chapters are organized in a series that we view as appropriate for a
one-semester research methods course, the order of chapters can be varied to meet the
requirements of different course instructors. For example, the chapters on statistics and
APA style can easily be presented much earlier in the course.
Writing Style
We have attempted to use a rather informal, conversational style of writing that empha-
sizes discussion and explanation of topics rather than a simple “cookbook” presentation
of facts. We have found this style to be very successful in our own classes and in our other
coauthored textbooks, Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences. Students find this style very readable and unintimidating. This style
is particularly useful for material that students perceive as being difficult, including the
topic of this text, research methodology.
Pedagogical Aids
One item that has received particular attention as we developed this text is the use of
a variety of pedagogical aids. Each chapter includes many opportunities for students to
interact with the material, rather than simply be passively exposed to the material. In addi-
tion, the Learning Checks, and end-of-chapter exercises may be used by the instructor as
prepackaged assignments.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
WELL, WHO IS PRUNES?
2nd Episode of the great Dramatic Serial,
THE TRUTH, NOTHING BUT THE TRUTH, SO HELP ME GOD.
Same scene as the first Episode—the Third Degree Room
of the Grand Jury of the United States Senate. Mr.
Senator Walsh leading question asker of a body of men
noted for their inquisitiveness.
Doortender of This Torture Chamber
Who will we call first today?
Senator Walsh
Call the Editorial Writer of that newspaper.
Doorman
But, Mr. Walsh, we just called him yesterday.
Senator Walsh
I know we did but call him again. A whole lot is happening in this
country between yesterday and today. Now Mr. Bennett who was it
that you referred to as the Principal in those wires to Palm Beach?
Mr. Bennett
Why, Senator Curtis.
Senator Heflin
Curses on the Luck. I thought it was Coolidge.
Senator Harrison
Wish it had of been Coolidge. It’s no novelty to get a Senator in
Wrong.
Senator Walsh
What did you confer with Curtis about?
Mr. Bennett
About the Editorial Policy of our Paper.
Senator Walsh
Well what does the Editorial Policy of any Paper amount to? You
don’t suppose anybody reads those things do you? Why one Ad is
worth more to a paper than 40 Editorials. That will be all for you Mr.
Bennett.
Senator Caraway
Just a minute before you go. Who was Peaches in those Telegrams?
Mr. Bennett
I don’t remember.
Senator Robinson
Yes, and who was Prunes? I hope it referred to no Democrat.
Senator Walsh
Call Mr. Curtis.
Senator Walsh
Senator Curtis, will you tell the Grand Jury in your own way just what
happened between you and this Editorial Writer of the Washington
Post.
Mr. Curtis
Yes Sir.
Senator Walsh
What was it?
Mr. Curtis
Nothing.
Senator Walsh
You mean you didn’t confer with this Gentleman?
Mr. Curtis
I did not.
Senator Walsh
But you know him?
Mr. Curtis
Never saw him in my life.
Senator Walsh
But you have heard of him?
Mr. Curtis
Never in my life.
Senator Walsh
But you know of the Washington Post?
Mr. Curtis
Yes sir, I have heard it.
Senator Walsh
Heard it? What do you mean you heard it?
Mr. Curtis
I have heard Sousa’s Band play it many a time.
Senator Walsh
Play what?
Mr. Curtis
Washington’s Post.
Senator Walsh
It’s not a tune; it’s a Newspaper. You talk like a Congressman.
Where are you from?
Mr. Curtis
Kansas.
Senator Walsh
That will be all.
Senator Caraway
Just a minute, Mr. Curtis, Who is Peaches?
Mr. Curtis
I don’t know unless it’s Jim Reed.
Senator Heflin
Just a minute. I object to the Republican Senator’s slur on the fair
name of the Democratic Party. This Investigation is supposed to be
Non Sectarian, and I object to having Politics dragged in, just to
make a Republican Holiday.
Senator Robinson
And I want to know who Prunes was.
Mr. Curtis
You mean you want to know who Prunes IS.
Senator Lenroot
Mr. Walsh, and Gentlemen of the Vigilance Committee there is a Bell
Boy over at my Hotel and he just got it from the chauffeur of a
Prominent Oil Man, that Major Leonard Wood’s Son had just heard
that his Father was offered the Nomination for the Presidency 3 and
a Half years ago, if he would appoint Mr. Jake Hamon Secretary of
the Interior. Now that is a very serious charge, and one that I think
this Committee should look into at once. Public affairs have come to
a fine Climax when a Man in this Country offers to make another one
President. I tell you it is undermining the confidence of the Great
American People and when you do that you shake the very Bulwarks
of the American Constitution. I think a Subpœna should be issued for
Mr. Wood’s Son at once and if this is so I am for a swift and speedy
trial for the Culprits.
Senator Walsh
I am for calling Mr. Wood himself. There’s one thing that this
Committee has proven that it won’t take, and that is Hear Say
Evidence. So call Mr. Wood himself.
Mr. Moses
(The Senator one, Not the Apostle One)
But, Mr. Walsh, Mr. Wood is in the Philippines.
Senator Walsh
I thought he was home. Haven’t they got their Independence yet?
Mr. Moses
No, Mr. Coolidge wouldn’t give it to them.
Senator Walsh
What’s the matter? Have they struck oil, too?
Mr. Moses
No, Mr. Coolidge told them that a Nation that would not support
Wood’s Administration certainly would not be able to support one of
their own.
Senator Heflin
Well, how did America get Independence? They didn’t support
Wood.
Senator Reed
Who said we had any independence?
Senator Lodge
(The Confucius of Nahant)
I object to having the President of these United States’ name
dragged into this thing. I think when a Man occupies the exalted
position that he does that his name should not be degraded by
having it mentioned in The Senate. Now I know that he is doing the
best he can. I have known him ever since he got prominent enough
for me to know. In the eight months that I have known him, I have
found him to be patient, honest, and a Man who would not knowingly
rob a single Filipino of his Liberty. This is simply a Political trick to
drag his name into this Philippine muddle.
Senator Heflin
Yes but he sent the Filipinos the Wire didn’t he! And it’s wires that we
are here to investigate ain’t it?
Senator Harrison
Does the exalted Senator from Massachusetts recall that during the
late Democratic Administration, he himself during the talk on
European Affairs mentioned not only once, but twice, the name of
the then President, Mr. Wilson? Now he don’t want us to mention his
President.
Senator Heflin
Well it’s funny to me that a Country can’t get their Liberty, when they
have advanced far enough to have the Champion Bantamweight
Prize Fighter of the World. I know Countries that have their Liberty,
when they can’t even produce a good Golf Player and that’s the
lowest form of Civilization.
Senator Caraway
I would like to ask Mr. Lodge if he knows who Peaches is.
Senator Lodge
I do not. It’s the only subject I ever admitted being ignorant on.
Senator Robinson
Well, I want to know who Prunes IS.
Senator Lodge
You mean who Prunes AM, don’t you?
Senator Robinson
Darn it; that man is a bear on Grammar.
Senator Walsh
I think the committee should adjourn until we can get Mr. Wood
himself.
Doorman
Excuse me, Mr. Walsh, but there is a Gentleman out here who wants
to testify in regard to the Doheny and Sinclair leases. What can I tell
him?
Senator Walsh
Oh, yes, I had forgotten about those. Tell him as soon as we get this
Wood for President affair settled, and Jack Dempsey’s mysterious
sickness, and Babe Ruth’s collapse, that we will be able to get to
that Oil Lease thing again.
Senator Copeland
Mr. Walsh, I was in New York last night and I heard Mr. Vanderlip
make a Speech to the Rotary Club of Coney Island, and he said, “I
have it on absolutely reliable authority that George Washington
never crossed the Delaware. That fellow you see in the Picture in the
middle of the Boat was a fellow doubling for him, and if I am called I
will be glad to give this information that I possess to the Senate
Investigating Committee.”
Senator Walsh
Mr. Secretary, call Mr. Vanderlip at once.
Mr. Lenroot
Let’s not call him until tomorrow, Mr. Walsh, as he will make another
speech tonight perhaps on what he discovered about Lincoln. So we
can quiz him on both men at once.
Mr. Caraway
Well, before we adjourn, I want to know who Peaches is.
Mr. Robinson
Well, I want to know who Prunes WERE.
POLITICS GETTING READY TO JELL
POLITICS GETTING READY TO JELL
The Illiterate Digest, after reviewing the news, finds that Politics is
sure at the point when it is about to jell. My old friend Jim Reed from
the smelly banks of the Kaw River has broke out again. If you have
done anything against the welfare or conventions of the United
States, and everybody has passed their various opinions on you,
and you think you have been roasted to a dark bay, why, until Jim
Reed breaks out on you, you haven’t been called anything.
Well, it was kinder funny Jim was to make a Washington Day
speech. Naturally everyone supposed it to be on George
Washington, but it was the only speech ever made on Washington’s
Birthday that didn’t have a word about Washington. He didn’t even
mention his name. I don’t know that McAdoo, Denby, Daugherty,
Doheny, and others will consider it much Flattery, but it will go down
in History as being the only time they ever replaced Washington.
Reed wouldn’t have been any good making a speech on
Washington, anyway. He would have been expected to compliment
him and I doubt if he could think of anything George had ever done
that really was worth while.
Vanderlip made a speech at the Rotary Club of Ossining, New York,
that astonished the United States. Now that speech didn’t astonish
me near as much as the knowledge that Ossining had a Rotary Club.
For the sake of the unfingerprinted ones, I will state that Ossining is
the Town where Sing Sing is permanently located. Now if Ossining
has a Rotary Club they certainly had to take in some Lay Members
from this Musically named Institution.
But when you come to think of it, just think what a Distinguished
Rotary Club they could have at that. Rotary is composed of one of
the best of each line of work or business. Just think what a
competitive thing it would be trying to find in Ossining the leading
Burglar sojourning with them at the time, or the most representative
Pickpocket to represent them in the Club. And Bankers! Mr.
Vanderlip must have felt right at home up there. There are more
Bankers in Ossining than any Town of its size in the United States.
A two year residence is necessary to be able to join the Rotary. Can
you imagine them questioning members of Sing Sing, “Have you
been a resident of this Town for two years?” and the answer would
be, “Yes Sir, constantly.”
So, as I say, it was not the things Mr. Vanderlip said that attracted the
unusual attention. It was the distinguished audience that he
delivered it to. Just to show you the difference: Appearing before the
Rotary Club of Sing Sing he caused a commotion by his Speech. He
took the same Act down to Washington and nobody would listen to
him. It shows you have to have an intelligent audience. Up in Sing
Sing they got what he was talking about but down in Washington it
went right over their heads.
I know, for last winter while playing in New York I was asked to go
over to a big Charity affair given by the 400 of 5th Avenue. I thought I
had a pretty good line of Gags, as there was quite a lot happening
every day of Public interest. So I go over and start in telling them
what I had read in the Papers and nobody even cracked a smile,
much less laughed. So I just kept on trying remarks on every subject
that had been in the papers since Bryan last got a Hair cut. But it
was about one of the worst Flops I ever encountered, and I have had
some beauts in my time.
Well, of course, I felt terrible about it, so just by a coincidence on the
very next night I had promised to go up to Ossining and do an act for
(at that time it wasn’t called the Rotary Club). I think then they called
it Inmates. There was no show—just me alone went up to add to the
hardships of Prison Life. Well I never knew I had as many friends in
the World. I knew everybody up there. I was twice as much at home
as I had been on 5th Avenue the night before. So now I know why
Vanderlip picked out Ossining for his Annual February Oration.
I started in on those same Jokes on up-to-date things that had
flopped so completely at the Millionaire’s Charity affair. Why, say,
they just started right in dying laughing at them. I was sorry Ziegfeld
wasn’t there, as I would have got a raise in salary if he had heard
how my act went. I don’t care what I talked about they knew all about
it.
Ordinarily, I only do about 15 or 20 minutes but up there I did an
Hour and a Quarter. I was so tickled I offered to take all the whole
audience of 12 hundred down to the Follies and pay their way in to
see our Show. Now you know I must feel pretty good with myself,
when I offer to spend my Dough like that. A lot of people would be
kinder sore at the 400 because they didn’t laugh like these 12
hundred did, but I am not. I don’t blame them. If I had their money I
wouldn’t read either. So I can understand very readily why
Vanderlip’s act didn’t go so big in Washington as it did in Ossining.
Of course Van and I use just the opposite methods in our Stage
performances. Every Gag I tell must be based on truth. No matter
how much I may exaggerate it, it must have a certain amount of
Truth. Vanderlip bases his Gags on Rumor.
Now Rumor travels Faster, but it don’t stay put as long as Truth. I
will, however, give him credit for one thing. While here lately
everybody is telling what he has heard, and all about this and that
rumor, why, he thought of by far the best ones I have heard up to
now.
That’s no small accomplishment I tell you, in this year of Rumors, to
be able to say at the end of it: “Well, I told the best ones.”
His were so good that before his audience got through applauding at
Sing Sing (or rather Ossining) why, they had him on the stand at
Washington. That’s the first time a Theatrical troup ever jumped from
Ossining to Washington.
They even put him on ahead of Fall, Sinclair, and all the Headliners.
TWO LONG LOST FRIENDS FOUND
AT LAST
THEY REHEARSED THEIR OLD ACT HERE YESTERDAY.
TWO LONG LOST FRIENDS FOUND
AT LAST
Well, sir, I have a real Message for my readers. It looked like it would
be just the ordinary Article with no flavor or Backbone or Truth, and
with no real underlying news or wisdom, that is, nothing that the
people would be glad to know and read. As I say, that is the kind of
Article I thought it would be. But as I picked up the morning Papers,
why, I read who was in our midst out here in Sunny California. Well,
sir, it struck me like a thunderbolt here was news which my public
had been longing for for years and here I had found it out!
Well, I says to myself, this is too good to keep, for here people had
been wondering all this time for just what I knew now. I kinder hated
to leave the East on account of thinking I would be out of touch with
some of our National Characters but I find that sooner or later they
all arrive out here and start in fighting off Real Estate men the same
as shooing away Mosquitoes on Long Island.
Well, who should blow in but two of our old long-lost friends, and I
know that even ’Frisco (who is jealous of any one being here) will be
glad to hear they are here well and hearty, and rehearsed their old
Act here yesterday and people enjoyed them just as much as they
did in the old days.
Both of these Boys were on the big time and were well known all
around the Circuit, and any time they took the Platform standing by
the side of a Pitcher of ice water and a glass, why, it just meant 6
columns starting on the front page and ending among the want ads. I
bet you hadn’t heard of them in years and will thank me for
resurrecting this information for you.
I can’t keep it any longer. I did want to keep it till the finish of this to
tell you but I must tell you now who they are—William J. Bryan and
Billy Sunday!
Neither did I, but they are, and looking fine.
You know, if you have lost any one, look out here, because sooner or
later they will come here to visit relatives, for anybody that has
relatives comes here so he can write back to other relatives.
They are both just resting here (so is everybody else). Mr. Bryan is
waiting till he finds out where the next Democratic Convention will be
held, and then be there ready to knock any aspiring Presidential
Candidate on the head the minute it shows above the mob.
The only way they will ever fool W. J. is some presidential year
decide not to run any one. Then it will be a good joke on him; he will
have no one to object to.
Of course, now we don’t hear much of Democratic Candidates, as
both sides are busy watching to see what Cal. will do. When he first
become President there seemed to be quite a Sentiment to nominate
him again for Vice President.
Everybody was wondering how he would come out of the Coal strike
situation, and figured his political life or death depended on how he
decided, so he just fools everybody by appointing some other man to
settle it. Now, no other President had ever been smart enough to
think of a thing like that; they tried to do it themselves, so I think he
will go a long ways. He figured, why should I get in wrong when I can
get some man to do it for me, so he just looked around until he found
some other fellow who had a political future.
He said, “Gifford, you go get in wrong with which ever side you
decide against.” Now, the minute a Crisis comes up, all he has to do
is to remember some Republican name and appoint him to settle it
for him.
Now the only Crisis that Mr. Coolidge can possibly get into, himself,
is running out of Republicans to appoint. In that case he would have
to appoint a Democrat which would bring on a worse Crisis than the
one he appointed him to settle.
But I am not here to talk about Cal. and what he is doing. I am here
to tell you of these two long lost Prodigals that I discovered in the
wilds of this Village. They were preaching in a Pulpit. I guess that’s
why no one had seen them for so long. Both these Boys, in the good
old days used to talk in a Tent. Now you can always attract a crowd
in a Tent, for they figure that it might be a Circus. Come to think of it,
their Acts were similar; either one of them could take a Dictionary
and sink an enemy with words at 40 paces.
Bryan’s speeches have been the only thing to look forward to at a
Democratic Convention for years. He has sent more Presidential
Candidates home without a Reception Committee meeting them
than any Monologist living. He can take a batch of words and
scramble them together and leaven them properly with a hunk of
Oratory and knock the White House door knob right out of a
Candidate’s hand.
Bryan has made more Political speeches than Germany has Marks.
He kissed, when they were Babies, every man and woman in the
United States who is now up to the age of 45. He has juggled the
destinies of America more than any two Presidents because he has
the choosing or rejecting of them.
His career has varied from Non-intoxication to Evolution; his hobbies
have jumped from Grape juice to Monkeys. He tries to prove that we
did not descend from the Monkey, but he unfortunately picked a time
when the actions of our people prove that we did. He, undoubtedly,
is one of our greatest minds and in most of his Theories he has been
just too far ahead of the mob.
He preached Prohibition at a time when it meant Political Suicide for
himself. I bet the next Democratic Candidate for President, no matter
how strong he may think he is, would rather have the support of W.
J. Bryan than any doubtful State in the Union.
Now that brings to us his accomplice, Willie Sunday, who I
discovered staggering from one of our Local Pulpits last Sunday. To
some of you who can’t or don’t wish to remember, Billy passed out
just as Andy Volstead made his entrance. Now Barnum invented the
Tent, but Billy Sunday filled it. He can get more people into a tent
than an Iowa Picnic at Long Beach, California.
He is the only man in Ecclesiastical or Biblical history that ever had
to train physically, for a sermon. He brought more converts to
Prohibition before the 18th Amendment come in, than the 18th
Amendment has converted to Prohibition since it went in.
He is the first preacher to specialize on Liquor. While Bryan’s
oratorical wrath in the later years has been hurled at Darwin, Billy
Sunday picks his opponent with a carelessness that is almost
reckless.
I suppose that he has had more mortal worldly combats with the
Devil himself than any man living. He has challenged the Devil
publicly more times than Wills, the Negro, has Jack Dempsey.
People have been going for years to hear Billy, just figuring that if
they didn’t go that night it might be the very night the Devil would
hear what Billy was calling him and come up, and they might miss
what would happen.
I don’t know this Devil myself but if he heard Billy say these things
and didn’t come up and call him for it, I think less of him than Billy
does. Of course, the Devil may be just good natured, and figure,
well, he can’t hurt ME, and if he can get anything out of it why let him
go ahead.
Now, of course, you can get a fellow wrong. Billy used to lay all the
drinking on to this Devil, and claimed that if we had Prohibition we
could lick this Devil. Now we got Prohibition, I don’t think he can
legitimately lay the present drinking onto the Devil.
Course, from this I don’t want you to think I am taking sides in this
thing. I don’t know either one personally. But, as I say, there is a
chance that they both may have each other wrong. As I say, Billy
must have something on the Devil or he wouldn’t dare to call him
what he does, especially if the Devil can hear him, and I tell you the
Devil must be pretty low if he don’t answer him, that is, if he hears
him.
I have always figured that the reason that the Devil didn’t arise and
respond was Billy’s slang was too much for him. But Billy sure did do
a lot of good in the old days, and no matter if you didn’t like his style
of sermon, you sure didn’t get a chance to do any sleeping.
So I hope we can keep them both out here with us, and help to get
some of our population’s mind on the Church on Sunday instead of
being continually looking for lots.
THEY NOMINATED EVERYBODY BUT
THE FOUR HORSEMEN

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Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge,

1.2 The Scientific Method 10

1.3 The Research Process 18

C h A P t E R 2 research Ideas and hypotheses 29

2.2 Searching the Existing Research Literature

Tips for Starting a Review of the Literature 34

C h A P t E R 3 Defining and Measuring Variables 51

3.4 Modalities of Measurement 69

3.5 Other Aspects of Measurement 72

4.2 Ethical Issues and Human Participants in Research 84

4.3 Ethical Issues and Nonhuman Subjects in Research 99

4.4 Ethical Issues and Scientific Integrity 102

C h A P t E R 5 Selecting research Participants 109

5.2 Probability Sampling Methods 116

5.3 Nonprobability Sampling Methods 122

C h A P t E R 6 research Strategies and Validity 127

6.2 External and Internal Validity 138

6.3 Threats to External Validity 142

6.4 Threats to Internal Validity 147

C H A P T E R 7 The Experimental Research Strategy 157

C h A P t E R 8 experimental Designs: Between-Subjects Design 185

8.2 Individual Differences as Confounding Variables 191

8.3 Limiting Confounding by Individual Differences 193

8.4 Individual Differences and Variability 196

8.5 Other Threats to Internal Validity of Between-Subjects

8.6 Applications and Statistical Analyses of Between-

C h A P t E R 9 experimental Designs: Within-Subjects Design 211

Separating Time-Related Factors and Order Effects 217

9.2 Dealing with Time-Related Threats and Order Effects 219

9.3 Comparing Within-Subjects and Between-Subjects Designs 225

9.4 Applications and Statistical Analysis of Within-

C h A P t E R 1 0 the nonexperimental and Quasi-experimental

10.3 Within-Subjects Nonexperimental and

10.4 Developmental Research Designs 254

10.5 Applications, Statistical Analysis, and Terminology

C h A P t E R 1 1 factorial Designs 265

11.3 Types of Factorial Designs and Analysis 277

11.4 Applications of Factorial Designs 284

C h A P t E R 1 2 the Correlational research Strategy 295

12.2 The Data and Statistical Analysis for

12.3 Applications of the Correlational Strategy 305

12.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Correlational

C h A P t E R 1 3 the Descriptive research Strategy 313

13.3 The Survey Research Design 322

Administering a Survey 329

13.4 The Case Study Design 334

C h A P t E R 1 4 Single-Case experimental research Designs 341

14.2 Phases and Phase Changes 346

C H A P T E R 7 The Experimental Research Strategy 157