polynomial functions polynomial functions

Polynomial Functions In Factored Form

MHF4U: Advanced Functions
Polynomials are generally written in standard form, such as
f (x) = x 3 + 4x 2 + x − 6.
A more useful way to write a polynomial function’s equation
is to use factored form, such as f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 3).
Each factor corresponds to an x-intercept of the function.
Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Functions
Factored Form of a Polynomial Function
J. Garvin An equation of a polynomial function is in factored form if it
is written as f (x) = a(x − r1 )(x − r2 ) . . . (x − rn ), where
(x − rk ) is a factor corresponding to x-intercept rk .

Note that it is not always possible to express a polynomial

function using factored form.

J. Garvin — Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Functions

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polynomial functions polynomial functions

Polynomial Functions In Factored Form Order of a Factor

Example Examine the x-intercepts of f (x) = 6x(x − 1)2 (x − 2)3 below.
Identify the factors, and x-intercepts, of the polynomial
function f (x) = −2x(x + 5)(x − 3).

f (x) has three factors: x, x + 5 and x − 3.

These factors correspond to x-intercepts 0, −5 and 3.

How does the function behave around each x-intercept?

J. Garvin — Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Functions J. Garvin — Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Functions
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polynomial functions polynomial functions

Order of a Factor Order of a Factor

The function f (x) = 6x(x − 1)2 (x − 2)3 has x-intercepts at In two cases, x = 0 and x = 2, the exponents were odd.
0, 1 and 2. Both of these cases saw the function change from positive to
At x = 0, the function changes from positive to negative, negative, or vice versa.
passing through the x-axis. In the other case, x = 1, the exponent was even. No change
The function remains negative on either side of x = 1, in sign occurred here.
“bouncing” off of the x-axis. Order of a Factor
At x = 2, the function changes from negative to positive, The factor (x − r )n has order n. If n is odd, the function
passing through the x-axis. crosses the x-axis at r . If n is even, the function touches (but
How does this behaviour relate to the factors of the function? does not cross) the x-axis at r .

Used in conjunction with a function’s end behaviour,

identifying the order of each factor is a useful tool for
sketching graphs.

J. Garvin — Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Functions J. Garvin — Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Functions
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Graphs of Polynomial Functions Order of a Factor

Example One final piece point is the y -intercept, which can be found
Sketch a graph of f (x) = (x + 3)2 (x − 1). by multiplying all of the constant terms and the leading
coefficient.
f (x) has two distinct x-intercepts, at x = −3 and x = 1. In this case, the y -intercept is (3)(3)(−1) = −9.
Another way to write the equation is
f (x) = (x + 3)(x + 3)(x − 1). Multiplying all terms
containing x, we obtain x 3 , so f (x) has degree 3 (cubic).
The leading coefficient is positive, so f (x) has Q3-Q1 end
behaviour. Therefore, f (x) is negative as x → −∞.
Moving from left to right, the first x-intercept is at x = −3,
where it has order 2. Thus, the function touches the x-axis
at x = −3, but stays negative beyond it.
The next x-intercept is at x = 1, where it has order 1. f (x)
changes from negative to positive at x = 1.
J. Garvin — Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Functions J. Garvin — Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Functions
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polynomial functions polynomial functions

Graphs of Polynomial Functions Graphs of Polynomial Functions

Example
Sketch a graph of f (x) = −2x(x + 1)(x − 2)2 .

f (x) has three distinct x-intercepts, at x = −1, x = 0 and

x = 2.
f (x) is a quartic function, with degree 4.
The leading coefficient is negative, so f (x) has Q3-Q4 end
behaviour. f (x) is negative as x → −∞.
From left to right, f (x) changes from negative to positive at
x = −1, changes from positive to negative at x = 0, and
touches the x-axis at x = 2.
The y -intercept is −2(0)(1)(−2)(−2) = 0.

J. Garvin — Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Functions J. Garvin — Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Functions
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polynomial functions polynomial functions

Graphs of Polynomial Functions Graphs of Polynomial Functions

Example f (x) has Q2-Q4 end behaviour, so the degree must be odd
Given the graph of f (x) below, state the minimum possible and the leading coefficient is negative.
degree, sign of the leading coefficient, factors, x-intercepts There are x-intercepts at x = −3 (even order), x = 0 (odd
and intervals where the function is positive or negative. order) and x = 2 (even order), so the minimum degree is 5.
This is confirmed by the fact that there are 4 local minimums
and maximums.
f (x) is positive on the intervals (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 0).
Since zero is neither positive nor negative, it is not included
in the interval.
f (x) is negative on the intervals (0, 2) ∪ (2, ∞).

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Symmetry Symmetry
Recall that an even function is symmetric in the f (x)-axis. An odd function is point-symmetric about the origin.
Any function that is symmetric in the f (x)-axis has the Any function that has point symmetry about the origin has
property that f (x) = f (−x). the property that f (−x) = −f (x).

J. Garvin — Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Functions J. Garvin — Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Functions
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polynomial functions polynomial functions

Symmetry Symmetry
Example Example
Verify algebraically that f (x) = 2x 4 + 3x 2 − 1 is symmetric Algebraically classify f (x) = 2x 3 + x 2 − 5x as even, odd or
in the f (x)-axis. neither.

Test if f (x) is even first.

f (−x) = 2(−x)4 + 3(−x)2 − 1 f (−x) = 2(−x)3 + (−x)2 − 5(−x)

= 2x 4 + 3x 2 − 1 = −2x 3 + x 2 + 5x
= f (x) 6= f (x)

Therefore, f (x) is symmetric in the f (x)-axis. It is an even Therefore, f (x) is not even.
function.

J. Garvin — Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Functions J. Garvin — Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Functions
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polynomial functions polynomial functions

Symmetry Questions?
Test if f (x) is odd next.

f (−x) = −2x 3 + x 2 + 5x
− f (x) = −(2x 3 + x 2 − 5x)
= −2x 3 − x 2 + 5x
f (−x) 6= −f (x)

Therefore, f (x) is not odd either.

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