PRACTICAL 1

DATA: Its Source &

Compilation
Data
Data as a general concept refers to the fact that some existing information or knowledge is
represented or coded in some from suitable data" "cleaned that for better collection writes corrected
by through more a or numbers processing Or researchers and collected are data is A set about of one
or data) or coded in some from suitable Raw data ("unprocessed data) before it has been characters
Raw usually numerical, observation. In values of persons single value qualitative of and objects,
while move technical sense, qualitative variable a datum (singular of data) is a single value of a
single variable.
Although the terms ""data" and "information" are often used interchangeably, those data when have
are often distinct meanings sometimes Said is viewed treatments of the units of information in to be
transformed context subject Or In post- however data used popular information analysis. In
academic simply units of information.

SOURCES OF DATA
(A) Primary Data
Primary data is that type of data which provide first- hand evidence or data about an
organization, event or any person at work. People collect the data by going into a field and data
are collected for the very first time by individuals groups of individuals, institutions or
organization.
 Sources of Primary Data:-
1. Personal Observation : - Personal observation refers to that type of observation through
which there is a direct observation in the field and is collected by individual and group of
individuals. Through a field survey, information about the relief feature, drainage patterns,
types of soil and natural vegetable, as well as population structure, sex, ratio, literacy rate,
means of transport and communication, urban and rural settlements etc., is collected.
2. Interview : Interview is another way of collecting primary data. In this step, there is a presence
of an interviewer and the interviewer asks the questions from an interviewee, it is generally in
oral terms and face – to – face conversation with the person.
3. Questionnaire: In this method, simple question and their possible answer are written on a
plain paper and the respondents have to use tick –mark the possible answers from the given
choices. The objectives of the survey should be clearly mentioned in the questionnaire,
Sometimes, a set of structured question are written and sufficient space is provide in the
questionnaire where the respondents can write their opinions.
4. Schedule: Similar to the questionnaire that contains the questions pertaining to the matter of
investigation is known as the schedule.
5. Other Methods: Apart from the above methods of collecting primary data there are some
other methods through which we can collect the data. For example, the data about the
properties of soil and water are collected directly in the field by measuring their characteristics
using soil and water quality kit; similarly, field scientists collect data about the health of the
crops and vegetation using different kinds of sensors.
 (B) Secondary Data
Data collected from any published or unpublished sources are called Secondary data. In
secondary data, people do not go directly into the field for collecting the information rather
than they are dependent on primary data which is already been published or unpublished
Example – Government publications (Census of India) books, journals, etc.
Secondary Source of Data : -
PUBLISHED SOURCES
1. Government publications
The publications of the various ministers and the departments of the government of India, state
governments and the District are one of the most important sources of secondary, information.
These include the census of India published by the office of the register General of India.
Reports of the National sample survey, weather reports of Indian meteorological Department,
and statically abstracts published by state governments and the periodical reports published by
different commission.
2. Semi /Quasi – governments publications
The publications and reports of urban development authorities and municipal corporations of
various cities and towns, Jilaparishad (District councils), etc. fall under this category.
3. International publications
The international publications comprise year books reports and monographs published by
different agencies of the United Nations.
4. Newspapers and magazines.
The daily newspapers and the weekly. fortnightly and monthly magazines serve as easily
accessible source of secondary data.
5. Electronic media
The electronic media especially internet has emerged as a major source of secondary data in
recent times.
6. Private Publications :
Private publications include the year books, surveys, research reports and monographs
published by newspapers and private organization that fall under this category.
UNPUBLISHED SOURCES
1. Government Documents
The unpublished reports, monographs and documents are yet another source of secondary data
for example, the village level revenue records maintained by the patwaries of respective
villages serves as an important source of village-level information.
2. Quasi – Government Records
The periodical reports and the development plans prepared and maintained by different
municipal corporations, District councils, and civil services of village departments are included
in Quasi – Government records.
Tabulation and Classification of Data
The data collected from primary or secondary sources initially appear as a big dumbly of
information with the least of comprehension. This is known as raw data, to draw meaningful
inferences and to make them usable the raw data require tabulation and classification.
One of the simplest devices to summaries and present the data in the statistical table. It is a
systematic arrangement of data in columns and rows.
The purpose of table is to simply the presentation and to facilitate comparisons. This table
enables the reader to locate the purpose of table is to simplify the presentation and to facility
comparisons. This table enables the reader to locate the desired information quickly. The table make
it possible for the analyst to present a huge mess of data in an orderly member within a minimum of
space.

Data Combination and Presentation

Data are collected tabulated and presented in a tabular either in absolute terms, percentages or
indices.
(i) Absolute data: - Absolute Data are also called as raw data which are presented in their original
forms as integers. For example: Total population of a country or state, agricultural production,
manufacturing industry of different states of India are some of the example of absolute data.
 Population of India and Selected States/UTs, 2011

S.No. State/UTs Males Females Total

1. Uttar Paradesh 10,44,80,510 9,53,31,831 19,98,12,341
2. Rajasthan 3,55,50,997 3,29,97,440 6,85,48,437
3. Bihar 5,42,78,157 4,98,21,295 10,40,99,452
4. Haryana 1,34,94,734 1,18,56,728 2,53,51,462
5. Punjab 1,46,39,465 1,31,03,873 2,77,43,338
6. Goa 7,40,711 7,17,012 14,57,723

(ii) Percentage/Ratio: -
Some time date are tabulated in a ratio or percentage form that are computed form a common
parameters such as literacy rate or growth rate of population.

Literacy rate is calculated as :

Total Population and Urban Population of India

Census Total Population (in Crores) Percentage of Urban Population
1951 36.11 17.3
1961 43.92 18.0
1971 54.82 19.9
1981 68.33 23.3
1991 84.64 25.7
2001 102.87 27.8
2011 121.02 31.2
Processing of Data : -
The processing of data requires their tabulation and classification in selected classes.
Grouping of Data: -
The grouping of the raw data requires determining of the number of classes in which the raw
data are to be grouped and what will be the class internals. The selections of the class internal and
the number of classes, however, depend upon the range of raw data.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
1. Simple Frequencies
Simple frequency is expressed by the symbol ‘f’ and represents the number of individuals. The sum
of all the frequencies, belonging to all classes, represents the total number of individual observations
in the given series. It is expressed by the symbol N that is equal to ∑ ∫.
Class Interval Frequency (f) Sum of frequencies
15-20 3 3
20-25 3 6
25-30 1 7
30-35 2 9
35-40 3 12
40-45 3 15
45-50 2 17
50-55 2 19
55-60 3 22
60-65 8 30
𝑓 = 𝑁 = 30
2. Cumulative Frequency
It is expressed by ‘of’ and be obtained by adding successive simple frequencies in each group
with the previous sum. For example, the first simple frequency in table 101 is 4 next frequency of 5
is added to 4 which gives a total of a as the next cumulative frequency .likewise add every next
number until the of last cumulate frequency of 60 is obtained. Note that it is equal to N or 𝑁 𝑜𝑟 ∑ 𝑓
Each simple frequency is associated with its group or classes the exclusive or inclusive
methods are used for forming the groups or classes.
(i) Exclusive Method
It is a method of classification of given data in such a manner that the upper limit of the previous
class intervals gets repeated in the lower limit of the next class interval. For example , the upper limit
of the one group (15-20) is 20. Which is the lower limit of the next group (20-25) making 20 paper
in both groups. In Table 1.6 the upper limit of the one group (50-55) is 55, which is the lower limit
of next group ( 55-60) .
(ii) Inclusive Method
In the inclusive method, the upper limit of a class interval is included in the class itself. Classes are
mentioned in different forms in this method. It is important to note that each group spreads over five
units in this method also. For example, the group of 15-19 includes five values of 15, 16, 17, 18,
and 19.
 (Cumulative Frequency Distribution )
Class Interval Frequency (f) Sun of frequencies ( cf)

15-19 3 3
20-24 3 6
25-29 1 7
30-34 2 9
35-39 3 12
40-44 3 15
45-49 2 17
50-54 2 19
55-59 3 22
60-64 8 30

𝒇 = 𝟑𝟎
FREQUENCY POLYGON
Frequency polygon shows/represents frequency distribution through graph and is capable of showing
two or more than two frequency distribution.
Ogive
Ogives are graphs that are used to estimate how many numbers lie below or above a particular variable of
value in data. To construct an Ogive, firstly, the cumulative frequency of the variables is calculated using a
frequency table. It is done by adding the frequencies of all the previous variables in the given data set. The
result or the last number in the cumulative frequency table is always equal to the total frequencies of the
variables.
Ogive can be constructed by either of the following two methods, Less than & More than ogive.
Less than ogive: The frequencies of all preceding classes are added to the frequency of a class. This series is called
the less than cumulative series. It is constructed by adding the first – class frequency to the second- class frequency
and then to the third class frequency and so on. On plotting these frequencies on a graph paper we get a rising
curve shown as Less than Ogive.
Class Interval (Less than Ogive) Cumulative Frequency (cf)
Less than 20 3
Less than 25 6
Less than 30 7
Less than 35 9
Less than 40 12
Less than 45 15
Less than 50 17
Less than 55 19
Less than 60 22
Less than 65 30
More than ogive : The frequencies of the succeeding classes are added to the frequency of a class. This
series is called the more than or greater than cumulative series. It is constructed by subtracting the first
class, second class frequency from the total, third class frequency from that so on. The upward cumulating
result is greater than or more than the cumulative series. On plotting these frequencies on the graph paper
we get a declining curve which is known as ‘ More than Ogive’
Class Interval (Less than Ogive) Cumulative Frequency (cf)
More than 15 30
More than 20 27
More than 25 24
More than 30 23
More than 35 21
More than 40 18
More than 45 15
More than 50 13
More than 55 11
More than 60 8
Combined ‘Less than ‘ and ‘More than’ Ogives
When ‘less than’ and ‘more than’ Ogives are combined together we get combined ‘less than’ and ‘more
than’ ogive. This is helpful in determine the median of a series.
Class Interval Less Than More Than
15-20 3 30
20-25 6 27
25-30 7 24
30-35 9 23
35-40 12 21
40-45 15 18
45-50 17 15
50-55 19 13
55-60 22 11
60-65 30 8
PRACTICAL 2
Data Processing
Measures of Central Tendency
The statistical techniques used to find out the contra of distributions are referred as measures of central
tendency. The number denoting the central tendency is the representative figure for the entire date set
because it is the point about which items have a tendency to cluster. Measures of Central Tendency are
also known as averages. These are classified as mean, median and the mode.
Mean

The mean is the value desired by summing all the values and dividing it by the value number of observation. It is
the simple arithmetic average of the different values of a variable. Mean can be calculated by direct or indirect methods,
both for grouped and ungrouped data.

Computing mean from ungrouped Data:

Direct Method - The following is to used compute the mean using direct method :
∑𝒙
𝒙=
𝑵
where,

𝒙 = 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏

= 𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔

𝒙 = 𝑨 𝒓𝒂𝒘 𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 .

𝒙 = 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔

𝑵 = 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔
Indirect Method
The following formula is used in computing the mean using indirect
∑𝒅
𝒙−𝑨+
𝑵
Where,
A = Subtracted constant

𝒅 = 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒆𝒔

N= Number of individual observation in a radios

Computing Mean from Grouped Data .
The mean is also computed for the grouped data using either direct or indirect method.
Direct method
When scores are grouped into a frequency distribution, the individual values lose their identity
.these value are represented by te midpoints of the class intervals in which they are located. While
computing the mean form grouped data using direct method, the midpoint of each class interval in
multiplied with its corresponding frequency (f)all the values of fx the x are the midpoints are
added i.e. N.
Hence, mean is calculated using the following formula :
∑ 𝒇𝒙
𝒙=
𝑵

Where
𝒙 = Mean
f= frequencies
x = midpoints of class intervals
N= number of observations (it may also be defined as ∑ 𝒇)
Indirect method
The following formula can be used for the indirect method for grouped data.
The principles of this formula are similar to that of the indirect method given for ungrouped data. It
is expressed as under.

∑ 𝒇𝒅
𝒙=A
𝒏
 Where,
A = midpoint
f = frequency
d = deviation from the assumed mean group (A)
N = sum of cases of ∑ 𝒇
i = Interval width
Calculation of Mean Rainfall

Selected Bokaro Ranchi Dhanbad Hazaribagh Ramgarh Sehebganj Jamtara Total

Districts of
Jharkhand
Normal Rainfall 992 1023 1105 1021 1045 1195 1087
(in mm)
Indirect Method 92 123 205 121 145 295 187 𝑑= 1168

∑
X=A +

X= 900+

= 900+ 166.85
X= 1066.85mm.
Computing Mean from Grouped Data
The mean can also be computed for the grouped data using either direct or indirect method. Direct
method: We can calculate mean by direct method using the formula given below.
∑
X=

Where
→ =Mean

f= Frequencies
x= Mid-points of class intervals
N= Number of observations (it may be defined as ∑ 𝑓)
Note : To find out mid- points, add the values of classes and divide it by two.
Question 2 : Compute the average wage rate of mines workers using data given in table below.
Wage Rate 150-200 200-250 250-300 300-350 300-350 400-450
(Rs/Day)
Number of 10 20 30 35 40 10
Workers
 Computation of Mean
Classes Frequency(f) Mid- Fx d=x-a(x- Fd U=(x-a) fu
points (x) 325) /h

150-200 10 175 1,750 -150 -1500 -3 -30

200-250 20 225 4,500 -100 -2000 -2 -40
250-300 30 275 8,250 -50 -1500 -1 -30
300-350 35 325 (a) 11,375 0 0 0 0
350-400 40 375 15,000 50 2000 1 40
400-450 10 425 4,250 100 1000 2 20
Total 𝑓 = 145
𝑓𝑥 = 45,125 𝑓𝑑 = −2000 𝑓𝑢
= −40

Where N= ∑ f = 145
A= assumed average
H= difference in class interval
Table 2.2 provides the procedure for calculating the mean for ground data both using direct and
indirect methods.
(i) Formula for Grouped Data (Direct Method )
∑ 𝑓𝑥 45.125
→= = 311.21
𝑁 145
(ii) Formula for Grouped Data (Indirect Method )
∑ 𝑓𝑑 2000
→= = 325 −
𝑁 145
= 325 − 13.79 = 311.21

Median
Median is a positional average. It may be defined “as the point in a distribution with an equal
number of cases or each side of it: The median is expressed using symbol M.
Computing Median for ungrouped data
When the Score are ungrouped. These are arranged or ascending or descending order . Media
can be formed by berating the central observation or value in the arranged series the central value
may be located from either end of the series arranged in ascending or descending order the following
equation is used to compute the median.

𝑀 = 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 the utom.

Example : Calculate median height of mountains packs in parts of the following Himalayas using the
following
8, 126 m, 8, 611m, 181,m, 8,172,m 8,076m, 8,848, 8,598 m
Computation : Median (M) May be calculated in the following steps :
(i) Arrange the given data in ascending or descending order.
(ii) Apply the formula for locating the central value in the series
 Thus Value of ( ) th Piexn

=( ) th itam

=( ) th item
4 th item in the arranged series will be the median.
Arrangement of data in ascending order :
7,817, 8,076, 8,126, 8, 172 , 8,598, 8,611, 8,84
4thitem
Hence , M- 8, 172m
Computing Median for grouped Data
When the scores are ground we have to find the value of the point where an individual or
observation is centrally located. In the group.
It can be computed using the following formula

𝑀 =1+ ( − 𝐶) / 𝑀 =4+ 𝑥
Where
M= Median for grouped data
L= Lower limit of the median class
I = Interval
F= frequency of the median class.
N= Total number of frequencies or number of observation.
C= Cumulative frequency of the pre- median Class .
Example : Calculate the median for the following distribution :
Class 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100 100-110
f 3 1 11 16 8 5

Computation of Mediam
Class Frequency Cumdative frequency (f) Calculation of mediam class
50-60 3 3
60-70 7 10
70-80 11 21c
80-90 16 f 37 𝑁
(Median group) 𝑀=
2
90-100 8 45 50
=
2
𝑓 𝑜𝑟 =25
𝑁 = 50
The median is computed from the following steps : -
(i) Cumulative frequencies are obtained first by adding each normal frequency of the following groups.
(ii) ∑ 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 total frequencies are calculated ie N and then ½ is obtained.
(iii) Here N- 50 do N/2 =25 which is more than 21 and less than 37 in the column of cumulative frequency.
(iv ) So, (80-90 ) is the median class, where c.f. 3 f lies.
The frequency of the medium class, where c.f. 3 Lies.
(V) And the cumulative frequency of the free medium class is 21 ( fc).
Then ,

(Medium ) M=4+ 𝑋 1

25 − 21
= 80 + 𝑋 10
16

𝑀
= 80 + 𝑋 10
164

10
= 80 +
4
= 80 + 2.5
= 82.5
Mode
The value that occurs most frequently in a distribution is referred to as mode. It is symbolized
as z or mo. Mode is a measure that is less widely compared to mean and medium there can be more
that one type.
Computing mode for ungrouped Data:-
While computing mode from the given data sets all measures are first arranged in ascending or
descending order. It helps in identifying the most frequently occurring measure easily.
Example: Calculate mode for the following test score in geography for the students.
61, 10, 88, 31, 61, 72, 55, 67, 46, 22
Computation: To Find the mode the measures are arranged in as ascending given below :-
10, 22, 37, 46, 55, 61, 61, 61, 72, 88,
The measures 61 occurring three times in the series is the mode in the given dataset. As no other
number is in the similar way in the data it , it processes the property of being unimodal.
Example 2 = Calculate the mode using a different sample of ten other students , who soured :
82, 11, 57, 82, 08, 11, 82, 95, 41, 11,
Computation: Arrange the given measures in an ascending order as shown below : =
08, 11, 11, 11, 41, 57, 82, 82, 82, 95.
It can easily be observed that measures of 11 and 82 both are occurring these times in the
distribution. The data set, therefore, is bimodal in appearance.
If there values have equal and highest frequency the series is trimmed similarly, a recurrences of
many measures in a series makes it multimodal. However, when there is no measure being repeated
in a series it is design mated as without mode.
Merits of Mode
1. Simple and popular
2. Less effect of marginal values
3. Graphic presentation
4. Best representative
Demerits of Mode
Following are the various demerits of mode.
1. Uncertain and unclear: Mode is an uncertain and unclear measure of central tendency.
2. Not capable of algebraic treatment: Unlike mean, mode is not capable of further algebraic
treatment.
3. Difficult: With frequencies of all items being identical, it is difficult to identify by modal value .
Comparison Between Mean, Median and mode
Mean Median Mode
Mean is the average value that Median is the central value of Mode is the most repetitive
is equal to the ratio of sum of given set of values when value of a given set of value.
values in a data set and total arranged in an order whether
number of values. ascending or descending
Mean =
For example, if we have set of values = 2, 2, 3, 4, 5 then
Mean = ( 2+2+3+4+5)/5=3.2 Median = 3 Mode = 2

Prominence
Global
Peaks Other names and meaning Region
Rank
(metres)

1 Mount Everest Sagarmatha, Chomolungma 8,848 Mahalangur

Godwin Austin, Chhogori
2 K2 "Savage Mountain" 4,020 Karakoram
3 Kanchenjunga "Five treasures of great snow" 3,922 Nepal/India
4 Lhotse "South Peak" 610 Mahalangur
5 Makalu "The Great Black" 2,378 Mahalangur
6 Cho Oyu "Turquoise Goddess" 2,430 Mahalangur
7 Dhaulagiri I "White Mountain" 3,357 Central
Kutang, "Mountain of the
8 Manaslu Spirit","Killer Mountain" 3,092 Central
9 Nanga Parbat Diamir, "Naked Mountain" 4,608 Gilgit-Baltistan (GB) region
10 Annapurna I "Goddess of the Harvests" 2,984
 PRACTICAL 3
Graphical
Representation Of
Data
GENERAL RULES FOR DRAWING GRAPHS, DIAGRAMS AND MAP’S

1. Selection of a Suitable Method: Data reflect a variety of topics such as temperature, rainfall, population
growth and dispersion, production and distribution, among others, A suitable graphical method must be used to
display the data’s characteristic Given the variety of ways available, we must select the most appropriate graphical
method. For example, if we want to show the increase of any element, we should use a line graph. When displaying
different components of a single element, a pie chart is the best option. The population density will be depicted by
using a choropleth map.

2. Selection of Suitable Scale : For data representation on diagrams and maps, the scale is utilized as a measure of
the data. As a result, selecting a suitable scale for the provided data sets should be done with care, taking into
account the complete data set to be represented. The scale must not be too big or too small.

3. Design: Graphical presentation of the data must be attractive. Map design must have legibility, visual contrast
figure- ground and balance. These should be carefully shown on a map or diagram.

4. Heading of the Diagram: There should be a title for each diagram. As far as feasible, the heading should be
complete and succinct. There are four elements that must be included in the heading.

(i) The thing depicted in the diagram’s name. (ii) The area’s name.

(iii) The year or period of time. (iv) The data’s unit of measurement.

5. Legend/ Index : A legend or index is an essential part of any graph or map. It describes the map and map/
contents. Furthermore, it must be appropriately positioned. A legend is usually displayed on the map sheet’s lower
left or lower right side.

6. Direction : The maps, being a representation of the part of the earth’s surface need to be oriented to the
directions Hence, the direction symbol, I.e. North, should also be drawn and properly placed on the final map.
7. Accuracy : The accuracy of the diagram Should be carefully considered . In other words, the diagram should be
able to appropriately depict the relevant data.

8. Simplicity : Diagrams should be simple as far as possible so that the reader can understand them properly.

Construction of Diagrams

The diagrams and the maps that are drawn to represent these data related characteristics may be grouped into the
following types : -

Line Graph

The Line graphs are usually drawn to represent the time series data related to the temperature. Rainfall,
Population growth birth rates and the death rates.
Polygraph
Polygraph is a line which two or more than two variables are shown by an equal number of
lines for an immediate comparison such as the. Growth rate of different crops like rice, wheat, pulses
or the birth rates, death rates and life expectancy or sex ratio in different states or countries.
Example :Construct a polygraph to compare the growth of sex ratio in different states.
Table : Sex – Ratio L female per 1000 male ) of selected states – 1961-2011
States/UT 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Delhi 785 801 808 827 821 866
Haryana 868 867 870 860 846 871
Uttar 907 876 882 876 898 908
Pradesh

Bar Diagram
The bar diagrams are drawn through columns of equal width it is also called a column
diagram. Following rules should be observed while constructing a bar diagram.
(a)The width of all the bars or columns should be similar .
(b) All the bars should be placed on equal intervals , distance.
(c)Bars may be showed With shows color or patterns to make them distinct and attractive.
Simple Bar Diagram

A simple bar diagram is constructed for an immediate comparison , it is advisable to arrange the given data
set in as ascending or descending order and plot the data variables accordingly. However. Time series data are
represented according to the sequencing of the time period.

Table : Arrange monthly rainfall of thirvanthapuram.

Months J F M A M J J A S O N D
Rainfall in 2.3 2.1 3.7 10.6 20.8 35.6 22.3 14.6 13.18 27.3 20.6 7.5
cm
Line and Bar Graph
The line and bar groups as drawn separately may also be combined to depict the data rllated to
some the closely associated characteristics such as the climatic data of mean monthly temperature
and rainfall .In doing so, a simple diagram is drawn in which months are represented on X-axis
while temperature and rainfall data are shown on y- axis at both sides of the diagram.
Example :Construct a line graph and bar diagram to represent the average monthly rainfall and
temperature data of Delhi.

Months Temp in C0 Rainfall in cm.

January 14.4 2.5
February 16.7 1.5
March 23.30 1.3
April 30.0 1.0
May 33.3 1.8
June 33.3 7.4
July 30.0 19.3
August 29.4 17.8
September 28.9 11.9
October 25.6 1.3
November 19.4 0.2
December 15.6 1.0
Multiple Bar Diagram

Multiple bar diagrams are constructed to represent two or more than two variables for the purpose of comparison.

Example :Construct a suitable bar diagram to show decadal literacy rate in India during 1951- 2011

Table : Literacy rate in India , 1951-2011 (in %)

Year Total population Literacy rate Male Tomale

1951 18.39 27.16 8.86
1961 28.3 40.4 15.35
1971 34.45 45.96 21.97
1981 43.57 56.38 29.76
1991 52.21 64.13 39.29
2001 64.84 45.85 54.16
2011 73.0 80.9 64.6
Compound Bar Diagram

When different components are grouped in one set of variable or different variable of one component are put
together, their representation is mode by a compound bar diagram. In this method, different variables are shown in
a single bar with different rectangles.

Example : Construct a compound bar diagram to depict the data as given in table below : -

Table : - Gross generation of electricity in diagram India ( in billion kwn )

Year Thermal Hydro Nuclear Total .

2008- 09 616.2 110.1 14.9 741.2
2009-10 677.1 104.1 18.6 799.8
2010-11 704.3 114.2 26.3 844.8
Pie Diagram

Pie Diagram is another graphical method of the express of data . It is drawn to depict the total value of the given attribute using
a circle. Dividing the circle into corresponding degrees of angle then represent the subsets of the data. Hence, it is also called as

The angle of each variable is calculated using the following formula :

𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑿 𝟑𝟔𝟎
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏

If the data is given in percentage form, the angles are calculated using the given formula

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑿 𝟑𝟔𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎

For example :

A Pie diagram may be drawn to show total population of India along with the proportion of the reualand urban
popular in this case. The circle of an appropriate radio sps drawn to represent the total population and its sub-
division rural and urban population are shown by corresponding degrees o angle.
Example : Represent the data as given in table (a) with a suitable diagram.

Table (a) : India’s expert to major regions of the word in 2010-2011

Unit / Region % of India Export

Europe 20.2
Africa 6.5
America 14.8
Asia and aseach 56.2
Others 2.3

Total 100

Table ( b) Calculation for pie – India’s export to Major Regions of the world in 2010-11

Countries % Calculation
Europe 20.2 20.2 x 3.6 = 72.72 730
Africa 6.5 6.5 x 3.6 = 23. 4 230
America 14.8 14.8 x 3.6 =53.28 530
Asia and Asian 56.2 56.2 x 3.6 = 208 .32 2030
Others 2.3 2.3 x 3.6 = 8.28 80
Total 100 360

FLOW MAPS/CHART

These are dynamic diagrams because the phrase flow communicates the impression of movement. The flow of
buses, railroads and other modes of transportation is depicted using these diagrams. They also depict the movement
of people and goods, as well as the flow of water in rivers and canals.
Features of Flow Maps:

In flow diagrams, the following two characteristics are critical to understand:

(i) The direction of flow or movement of vehicles.

(ii) The number of vehicles, people, commodities required, and other items transported from one
place to another.

Construction Methodology of a Flow Map:

(i) A map of the selected area is produced, showing transportation lines and notable locations.

(i) Data of people or goods movement from point of origin to point of destination is compiled.

(iii) A suitable scale is chosen to represent the number or quantity to be displayed by a line thickness
proportional to the number or quantity to be displayed.
Example 6: Construct a flow map to represent the number of trains running in Delhi and the adjoining
areas.

Number of trains running between selected routes of Delhi and adjoining areas:

S.No. Railway Routes No. of Trains

1 Old Delhi --- New Delhi 50
2 New Delhi ----Nizamuddin 40
3 Nizamuddin----Badarpur 30
4 Nizamuddinn-----Sarojni Nagar 12
5 Sarojni Nagar-----Pusa Road 8
6 Old Delhi-----Sadar Bazar 32
7 Udyog Nagar-----Tikri Kalan 6
8 Pusa Road-----Pehladpur 15
9 Sahibabad------Mohan Nagar 18
10 Old Delhi------Silampur 33
11 Silampur----NandNagari 12
12 Sillampur-----Mohan Nagar 21
13 Old Delhi-----Shalimar Bagh 16
14 Sadar Bazar-----Udyog Nagar 18
15 Old Delhi-----Pusa Road 22
16 Pehladpur----PalamVihar 12
Steps of Construction

(i) Take an outline map of Delhi and the surrounding areas that include the railway line and nodal stations.

(ii)Choose a scale for the number of trains. The maximum and minimum numbers are 50 and 6, respectively. The
maximum and minimum numbers will be depicted on the map by a strip of 10 mm thick lines and 1.2 mm thick
lines, respectively, if we choose a scale of 1 cm = 50 trains.

(iii) Draw a graph of the thickness of each route strip between the two railway lines .

(iv) Create a legend with a terraced scale and a separate sign or symbol to represent the nodal points(stations)
inside the strip
THEMATIC MAPS:

Graphs and diagrams are excellent for getting a sense of how internal variances within data of various qualities
compare. They frequently fail to establish a regional viewpoint, which necessitates the drawing and comprehension
of regional distributions or spatial variations. Distribution maps are another name for these types of thematic maps.

Pre-requisites for Thematic Maps Making a distribution map requires a pre-requisite:

(i) State/district data pertaining to the theme for which the map is to be created.

(i) A map of the research area.

(iii) The region's physical map.

Rules for Making Thematic Maps

(i) Thematic maps must be meticulously designed before being drawn. The finished map should include the
following elements:

(a) Name of the area

(b) Title of the subject-matter

(c) Source of the data and year

(d) Identification of symbols, signs, colours, shades etc.

(e) Scale used to measure particular area/region.

(ii) Selection of an appropriate method to be used for thematic mapping.

 THEMATIC MAPS (BASED ON CONSTRUCTION)

Quantitative Map Non - Quantitative Map (qualitative Map)

Based on Empirical Data

Choropleth Maps

Dot Map

Isopleth Map

DOT MAP:

The dot method of showing distribution on a map is the most essential, practical, and straightforward method. This
technique is especially handy for displaying absolute values. On the map, dots rrepresent
epresent the distribution of the
worry. A unique value is assigned to each dot. The dots are placed in accordance with the actual distribution of the
element being displayed. This approach is used to display people, livestock, crops, minerals, and industri
industrial
distributions.

Requirement for Dot Map:

(a) A state/district/block administrative map of the provided territory.

(b) Statistical data for the chosen administrative units on a specific issue, such as total population, cattle, and so on.

(c) Choosing a scale

ale for calculating a dot's value.

(d) A regional physiographic map, particularly relief and drainage maps.

Precautions to be Followed

(a) The lines dividing administrative units should not be too thick or bold.

(b) The size of all the dots should be uniform.

Advantages of Dot Method:

(i) Because of its precision, this method outperforms all other methods of displaying distribution. The distribution
of dots resembles the commodity that they have displayed.

(ii) It has a better visual impression and is more useful than the other distribution-display approaches.

(iii) By counting the dots, we may get an approximation of the figures on the map.

(iv) We do not need to consult the index on a regular basis (as in the case of choropleth maps). The dotmap is
simple to read.

(v) Using the multiple dot method, more than one element can be displayed on a single map.

Disadvantages of Dot Method:

(i) Clustering may make plotting and interpreting data impossible.

(ii) It is difficult to count and calculate actual figures when there are a lot of dots.

iii) No-dot areas provide the impression of emptiness.

(iv) To illustrate the distribution clearly, the size of the dots must be properly chosen.
Example 7: Construct a dot map to represent population data of 2011 .
Table 3.8: Population of Indian states (as per 2011 Census)

S.No. States / UTs Total Population No. of dots

1 ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS* 3,80,581 4
2 Andra Pradesh 8,45,80,777 846
3 Arunachal Pradesh 13,83,727 14
4 Assam 3,12,05,576 312
5 Bihar 10,40,99,452 1041
6 CHANDIGARH* 10,55,450 11
7 Chhatisgarh 2,55,45,198 256
8 DADRA & NAGAR HAVELI 3,43,709 4
9 DAMAN & DIU* 2,43,247 10
10 Goa 14,58,545 15
11 Gujarat 6,04,39,692 605
12 Haryana 2,53,51,462 254
13 Himachal Pradesh 68,64,602 69
14 Jammu & Kashmir 1,25,41,302 126
15 Jharkhand 3,29,88,134 330
16 Karnataka 6,10,95,297 611
17 Kerala 3,34,06,061 334
18 LAKSHADWEEP* 64,473 1
19 Madhya Pradesh 7,26,26,809 727
20 Maharashtra 11,23,74,333 1124
21 Manipur 25,70,390 26
22 Meghalaya 29,66,889 30
23 Mizoram 10,97,206 11
24 Nagaland 19,78,502 20
25 NCT OF DELHI* 1,67,87,941 168
26 Odisha 4,19,74,218 420
27 PUDUCHERRY* 12,47,953 13
28 Punjab 2,77,43,338 278
29 Rajasthan 6,85,48,437 686
30 Sikkim 6,10,577 6
31 Tamil Nadu 721,47,030 722
32 Tripura 36,73,917 37
33 Uttar Pradesh 19,98,12,341 1998
34 Uttrakhand 1,00,86,292 101
35 West Bengal 9,12,76,115 913
Source: Final Populations Totals (P C A) - India: Data-sheet based on Census 2011 (Final Data - Released in
Dec., 2013)
Steps of Construction:

(i) Select the size and value of the dot.

(i) Determine the number of dots in each state using the given scale. For example, number of dots in

Maharashtra will be (11,23,74,333/1,00,000) = 1123.74333. It may be rounded to 1124.

(iii) Place the dots in each state as per the determined number in all states.

CHOROPLETH MAP

Choropleth maps are frequently used to show the data properties concerning to the administrative units.

These maps are used to show population density, literacy/growth rates, gender ratios, and so on.

Choropleth Map Requirement

(a) A map of the area illustrating distinct administrative units.

(b) Appropriate statistical data by administrative units.

Procedures to be Followed

(a) Sort the information in ascending or descending order.

(b) Divide the data into five categories: very high, high, medium, low and very low. Concentrations in the low and
very low ranges.

(c) The distance between the categories can be calculated using the formula below. Range/5 and Range =
maximum value - minimum value are examples of equations.

(d) Patterns, shades, or colours are used to represent the selected categories. It should be numbered in ascending or
descending order.
Example 8: Construct a choropleth map to represent the literacy rates in India .

Literacy rate in India 2011

(A) Original Data on Literacy in India

S.No. States/ Union territories Literacy S.No. States/ Union territories Literacy
rate(%) rate(%)
1 Andaman & Nicobar 86.63% 19 Madhya Pradesh 69.32%
islands
2 Andhra Pradesh 67.02% 20 Maharashtra 82.34%
3 Arunachal Pradesh 65.38% 21 Manipur 76.94%
4 Assam 72.19% 22 Meghalaya 74.43%
5 Bihar 61.80% 23 Mizoram 91.33%
6 Chandigarh* 86.05% 24 Nagaland 79.55%
7 Chhatisgarh 70.28% 25 NCT of Delhi* 86.21%
8 Dadra & Nagar Haveli* 76.24% 26 Odisha 72.87%
9 Daman & Diu* 87.10% 27 Puducherry* 85.85%
10 Goa 88.70% 28 Punjab 75.84%
11 Gujarat 78.03% 29 Rajasthan 66.11%
12 Haryana 75.55% 30 Sikkim 81.42%
13 Himachal Pradesh 82.80% 31 Tamil Nadu 80.09%
14 Jammu & Kashmir 67.16% 32 Tripura 87.22%
15 Jharkhand 66.41% 33 Uttar Pradesh 67.68%
16 Karnataka 75.36% 34 Uttrakhand 78.82%
17 Kerela 94.00% 35 West Bengal 76.26%
18 Lakshadweep* 91.85%
 (B) Data on Literacy in India as arranged in ascending order

S.No. States/ Union territories Literacy S.No. States/ Union territories Literacy
rate(%) rate(%)
1 Bihar 61.80% 19 Gujarat 78.03%
2 Arunachal Pradesh 65.38% 20 Uttrakhand 78.82%
3 Rajasthan 66.11% 21 Nagaland 79.55%
4 Jharkhand 66.41% 22 Tamil Nadu 80.09%
5 Andhra Pradesh 67.02% 23 Sikkim 81.42%
6 Jammu & Kashmir 67.16% 24 Maharashtra 82.34%
7 Uttar Pradesh 67.68% 25 Himachal Pradesh 82.80%
8 Madhya Pradesh 69.32% 26 Puducherry* 85.85%
9 Chhatisgarh 70.28% 27 Chandigarh* 86.05%
10 Assam 72.19% 28 NCT of Delhi* 86.21%
11 Odisha 72.87% 29 Andaman & Nicobar 86.63%
islands
12 Meghalaya 74.43% 30 Daman & Diu* 87.10%
13 Karnataka 75.36% 31 Tripura 87.22%
14 Haryana 75.55% 32 Goa 88.70%
15 Punjab 75.84% 33 Mizoram 91.33%
16 Dadra & Nagar Haveli* 76.24% 34 Lakshadweep* 91.85%
17 West Bengal 76.26% 35 Kerela 94.00%
18 Manipur 76.94%
Steps of Construction

(a) Arrange the data in ascending order.

(b) Determine the data range. Bihar (61.80%) and Kerala (94.00%) have the lowest and the highest literacyrates in
the current scenario, respectively. As a result, the range is 94.00-61.80 = 32.2 (or = 32).

(c) Divide by 5 to get categories ranging from very low to very high.

(d) Determine the number of categories as well as each category's range. As before, add 6.0 to the lowest value of
61.80,

The categories are represented in the tabular form below:

Category States / Union Territories

(Range)
61-67 Very low (Bihar, Arunachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir)
67-73 Low (Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Assam, Orissa)
73-79 Medium (Meghalaya, Karnataka, Haryana, Punjab, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, West Bengal,
Manipur, Gujarat, Uttarakhand)
79-85 High (Nagaland, Tamil Nadu, Sikkim, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh, Puducherry)
85-94 Very High (Chandigarh, Delhi, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Daman and Diu, Tripura, Goa,
Mizoram, Lakshadweep, Kerala)

(e) Assign shades/patterns to each category ranging from lower to higher hues.

(f) Prepare the map .

(g) Complete the map with respect to the attributes of map design.
Advantages of Choropleth Map

(i) It makes it simple to see how a measurement changes over time in a certain area.

(ii) They're good for displaying differences in land use, such as how much recreational land is covered.

(iii) It is very simple to comprehend.

Disadvantages of Choropleth Map

(i) They create the illusion of a sharp change at the shaded unit's limits.

(ii) They're not always appropriate for displaying totals.

(iii) For a precise drawing, a great amount of data is needed.

(iv) They aren't designed to display 'patch' distribution.

(v) Size of a class needs to be carefully chosen.

ISOPLETH MAP

Isopleth refers to an imaginary line that connects points of equal value. Isotherms, isobars, isohyets, isonephs, and
isohels are examples of isopleth maps.

Requirement

(i) A base map displaying the placement of several points.

(ii) Accurate data on temperature, pressure, rainfall, and other variables throughout a specific time. (iii) Drawing
tools, particularly French curves, etc.
INTERPOLATION

Interpolation is a technique for inserting intermediate values between observed values at two stations or locations,
such as temperature recorded at Chennai and Hyderabad or spot heights at two sites. Interpolation is the process of
connecting sites with the same value by drawing isopleths.

Method of Interpolation

(i) First, figure out what the maximum and minimum ranges are.

(ii) Determine the range accordingly.

(iii) Determine the interval in a whole number, such as 5, 10, 15, etc., based on Range.

Formula of Isopleth: The exact point of drawing an Isopleth is determined by using the following formula:

Point of isopleth =Distance between two points (in cm)× Interval

Difference between the two values of corresponding points

The interval is the difference between the interpolated value and the real value on the map.
 PRACTICAL 4
Spatial Information
Technology
The word spatial is derived from space. It refers to live the features and the phenomena distributed over a
geographically definable space. Thus having physically measurable dimensions. The Spatial information
technology related to the use of the technological inputs in collecting , storing , retrieving , displaying
manipulating, managing and analyzing the spatial , GPS, GIS, Digital Cartography and Database management
systems.

A System for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analyzing and displaying data, which are
spatially reference to the earth.

This is normally considered to involve a spatially reference computer database and appropriate applications
software. It is an amalgamation of computer assisted cartography and database management system and draws
conceptual and methodological from both spatial and allied science such as computer science, statistics,
cartography remote sensing, Database Technology, Geography, Geology, Hydrology ,Resource

Forms of Geographical Information

The two types of the data represent the geographical information. These are spatial and non – spatial data.
The spatial are characterized by their potential, linear and areal forms of appearances.

Spatial and non – Spatial Data

Stock Register of a cycle shop Literate population in states
Part No Quantity Description State % Male % Female
101435 54 Wheel Kerala 75.3 65.7
Spoke
100943 68 Ball Maharashtra 58.8 34.8
bearing
105956 25 Wheel Rim Gujarat 54.4 32.3
129545 108 Type Punjab 47.2 33.7
Geographic Database: A Database contains attributes and their value or class. The non – spatial data on the
left display cycle right is spatial because one of the attributes, the name of the different states, which have a
definite locations in a map. The date can be used in GIS.
These data forms must be genetically registered to a generally accepted and properly dined coordinate system and
coded so that they can be stored in the internal data base structure of GIS. On the other hand, the Date

Those describe the spatial date are called as Non – Spatial or attract data the spatial data are the most important
pre- requisites a spatial or geographical information system. In a GIS Core, it could be built in several ways. These
are :

The choice of a source of geographical data for a GIS application is, however largely governed by :

 The application area in itself .

 The available budget, and
 The type of data structure i.e. vector/ raster.

For Many users, the most common source of spatial data is topographical or thematic maps in hard copy (paper)
and soft

 A definite scale which provides relationship between the map and the surface it resents.
 Use of symbols and colour which define attributes of entities mapped, and .
 An agreed coordinate system. Which define the location of entities on the earth’s surface.
 Limitation of Manual Methods

(i) Map information is processed and presented in a particular way.

(ii) A map shows a single or more than one predetermined themes.
(iii) The Alteration of the information depicted on the maps requires a new map to be drawn .

Advantages of G/S over Manual Methods

1. Users can interrogate displayed spatial features and retrieve associated attribute information for analyses.

2. Maps can be drawn by querying or analyzing attribute data.

3. Spatial operations (polygon overlay or buffering) can be applied and integrated database to generate new sets
of information.

9. Different items of attribute data can be associated with on another through shared location code.

COMPONENTS OF GIS
GIS constitutes five key components. These are :

(i) Hardware: The machine that a GIS run on is called hardware. GIS run on is called hardware. GIS
software can now be run on a wide range of hardware form centralized computer servers to stand – alone
on networked desktop computers.
(ii) Software : A GIS must have application software that includes the following functional modules :
(a) Software related to data entry, editing and maintenance.
(b) Software related to analysis/ transformation / manipulation.
(c) Software related to data display and output.

(iii) Data: All GIS software is built to work with spatial data. Information regarding location, linkages with
other elements, and specifics of non-spatial qualities characterize spatial data. Geographical data spatial
reference is critical and should be considered from the start of every GIS project.
 (iv) People: Hardware and software engineers as well as resources and environment scientists, policymakers,
and monitoring and implementing agencies, are all GIS users. GIS is used by a diverse group of people to
develop a decision support system and solve real – time challenges, No GIS exists outside of the context of
the company. And humans must constantly be present to develop, execute, and run the system, as well as
make decisions based on the output.

(v) Procedures: Data will be retrieved, entered into the system , saved, managed, transformed, analyzed, and
eventually displayed in a final output, according to the procedures.

SPATIAL DATA FORMATS

Spatial data are represented in two formats: raster format and vector format.

Raster Data Format

A graphical characteristic is represented by a pattern of grids of squares in raster data, whereas vector data is
represented by a set of lines or arcs drawn between specified points in vector data. Consider a diagonal line drawn
on a piece of paper.
This image would be represented as raster file by subdividing the paper into a matrix of small rectangles.
Comparable to the cells on a sheet of graph paper. Each cell in the data file is given a position and a value based on
the attribute at that location . Its row and column coordinates can be used to identify any single pixel . The user
can simply rebuild or visualize the original image using this data format.

The relationship between cell size and the number of calls is expressed as the resolution of the raster .
Applications of Raster File Formats:

The followings are the most common uses raster file formats :

(i) For digital representations of aerial photographs, satellite images, scanned paper maps , etc.

(ii) When the map does not require analysis of individual map features.

(iv) When ‘backdrop’ maps are required.

Advantages of Raster Data Format:

(i) It is basic and straightforward to comprehend and programming.

(ii) It is very easy to programme on your own.

(iii) In raster data, each cell contains an attribute that aids in the representation of continuous natural features such
as land use and soil types.

(iv) A large amount of geographic diversity is effectively represented.

(v) Some data sources. Such as satellite remote sensing and digital aerial photogrammetry, give spatial data in
raster form, eliminating the need for data conversion.
Disadvantages of Raster Data Format :
(i) In raster data structures, coarse cell resolution frequently leads to the omission of tiny features.
(ii) When using generalization in mixed cells, the dimensions of features are inaccurately represented.
(iii) When employing huge cells, there is a loss of information, resulting in less accurate maps.
(iv) Each cell only stores one attribute.

Vector Data Format

Vector is a data structure, used to store spatial data. Vector data is comprised of lines or arcs, defined by beginning
and endpoints that meet at nodes. The position of the line would be recorded by simply storing the coordinates of
its starting and ending, points in a vector representation of the same diagonal line.
Depending on whether the representations was 2D or 3D, each point would be expressed as two or three numbers
(commonly) referred to as X, Y, OR X, Y, Z coordinates ) The first value, X, represents the distance between the
point and the left side of the paper , the second number, Y, represents the distance between the point and the
bottom of the paper, and the third number, Z, represents the elevation of the point above or below the paper. The
vector is formed by joining the measured locations.
The true (earth) coordinates of points are recorded in a vector data representation. Lines and regions are created by placing
points in a specific arrangement, The arranging of the points on lines has a direction . Points or lines can be used to create
polygons. Topology Information can be stored in vectors. Manual digitization is the most efficient method of vector data
entry.

Applications of Vector Data Format

(i)The Vector files are most often used when :

(ii) When file sizes are important

(iii) When individual map features require analysis

(iv) When descriptive information must be stored.

Advantages of Vector Data System

(i) The vast majority of spatial data, whether in the form of topographical maps of thematic maps, is available as line maps
requiring no data conversion.

(ii) This system is efficient for network analysis.

(iii) The system needs less memory because boundary lines and points are only stored.

(iv) The vector system has accurate map output.

Disadvantages of Vector Data system

(i) Complex data structure.

(ii) Difficult overlay operation.

(iii) High spatial variability is inefficiently represented

(iv) Not compatible with satellite imagery.

Sequence of GIS Activities

The following sequence of the activities are involved in GIS- related work :

1. Spatial Data Input

As previously stated, the spatial database for a GIS can come from a variety of places. The following two
categories can be used to summaries them.

(i) Acquiring digital data sets from a data supplies: Digital data, ranging from small –scale maps to large scale
blueprints, is now freely available thanks to modern data sources. Such data are an important source for many local
governments and business organizations, as they liberate users from the costs of digitizing of collecting their own
data.

Although it is appealing and time- saving to use pre – existing, data sets, careful consideration must be given to
data compatibility when data from many sources/ suppliers is merged in on project. Differences in projection, scale
base level and attribute description could cause issues. To guarantee that the data is compatible with the
programme on a practical level. Users must consider the following qualities of the data:

(a) The scale of the data

(b) The geo- referencing system used

(c) The data collection techniques and sampling strategy used

(d) The quality of data collected

(e) The data classification and interpolation methods used

(f) The size and shapes of the individual mapping units

(g) The length of the record.

When data is acquired from several sources across administrative boundaries, data integration becomes difficult.
As a result while computing interstate and inter- district data sets, the programmer must be particularly cautious,
Data must be moved from a media to this GIS when compatibility has been established DAT tapes, CD ROMS,
and floppy discs are often used for this purpose .

(ii) Creating digital data sets by manual input : The manual input of data to a GIS involves four main stages :

(a) Entering the spatial data . (b) Entering the attribute data.

(c) Spatial and attribute data verification and editing .

(d) Where necessary, linking the spatial to the attribute data.

The most common ways of inputting spatial data into a GIS are digitization and scanning.

(a) Digitization: Geographic data is represented by points, lines, and/or polygons defined by a set of coordinates in
the entity model. These can be found by using the map’s geographic referencing systems. The usage of digitizers
and scanners reduces the amount of time and effort required to write down coordinates.

(b) Scanners: These are used to transform analogue data from scanners into digital grid – based images . They aid
in the acquisition of spatial data by converting a line map to high – resolution raster images that can be used
directly or processed further to provide vector topology. Following are two types of scanners.

(i) Scanners that records data on a step for step basis.

(ii) Those that can scan whole document in one operation.

2. Entering the attribute Data
Attribute data describes the non – spatial attributes of a spatial item that must be handled in a GIS. A road. For
example, could be represented in the spatial section of the GIS by a specific colour, symbol , or data location and
captured as a group of continuous pixels or as a line entity. The range of cartographic symbols may include
information describing the type of road. The road’s attribute values, such as road width, kind of surface, expected
traffic volume, and special traffic regulation, can all be saved independently. In relational databases. As spatial
information in the GIS, or as input combined with spatial description in object- oriented databases.

Attribute data obtained from sources such as public records, official censuses, primary surveys, or spreadsheets can
be manually entered or imported into a GIS database using a common transfer format.

3. Data Verification and Editing

To ensure data correctness the spatial data captured in a GIS must be verified for mistake identification and repairs.
Data omissions and under/overshoots are two examples of faults caused during digitization faults repairs. Data
omissions and under /overshoots are two examples of faults caused during digitization faults. The best technique to
check for inaccuracies in spatial data is to create a computer plot or print of the data at the same scale as the
original. Ideally on translucent sheet. On The output, missing data and location problems should be clearly marked

The following are the types of errors that can occur during the capture of spatial and attribute data:

(a) Spatial data are incomplete or double: Omissions in the input of points, lines, or polygons/ area of manually
entered data result in spatial data that is incomplete. Omissions in scanned data normally appear as gaps
between lines. Indicating that the raster vector conversion process failed to combine all parts of a line.
(b) Spatial data at wrong scale: The digitizing at the wrong scale produce input spatial data at a wrong scale. In
scanned data, the problems usually arise during the geo – referencing process when incorrect values are used.
 (c) Spatial data are distorted: If the base maps used for digitizing aren’t scaled right. The spatial data may be
affected as well. Because of lens distortions. Relief, and till displacements, aerial pictures, in particular, are
characterized by erroneous scale, Most GIS software has editing and updating functions that can be used to
remedy these issue. The procedure is lengthy and engaging and it can take longer than the data entry itself.
Minor location errors in a vector database may be corrected by moving the spatial entity through the screen
cursor. In some GIS computer commands may be used directly to move, rotate, erase, insert, stretch or
truncate the graphical entities are required. Where excess coordinates define a line these may be removed
using ‘weeding’ algorithms. Attribute values and spatial errors in raster data must be corrected by changing
the value of the faulty cells. Once the spatial errors have been corrected. The topology of vector line and
topology of vector line and polygon networks can be generated.

4. Geographic Data: Linkages and Matching

In GIS, geographical and attribute data links are crucial. As a result it must be approached with caution. In
the end, linking attribute data with unrelated spatial data will result in confusion in data analysis. Similarly,
(a) Linkages: Typically, GIS connects many data sets, let’s say we want to know the malnutrition- related
death rate among children under the age of ten in any given state. We must first merge or link the two
data files if we have one that contains the number of children in this age group and another that has the
mortality rate from malnutrition. After that, we can divide one figure by other to get the answer we want.
(b) Exact matching: When we have information in one computer file about several geographic features
(e.g. towns) and extra information in another file about the same set of feature, we call it exact matching .
Using a key that is similar to both files, namely the names of the towns, the operation to bring them
together is simple. As a result, each file, entry with the same town name is extracted and two are
combined an saved in a new files.
(c) Hierarchical matching: However, some types of data are collected more thoroughly and seldom than
others. Land use data, for example, is usually collected across a vast area. Land transformations data.
Larger ones, hierarchical matching – adding the data for the small areas together until the grouped areas
match the larger ones and then matching them exactly – is the approach to make the data match of the
same area.
5. Spatial Analysis
GIS is distinguished from other types of information system such as MIS and CAD by its ability performs
geographic analysis. By analyzing spatial and non-spatial properties in the data base, it may answer queries
about the real world. Geographic analysis, which is based on constructing and implementing models aids
real- world processes. Such models open up new possibilities for us. Geographic analysis converts data into
the following spatial analysis operation may be undertaken using GIS.

(i) Overlay analysis operation Overlay operations are a defining feature of GIS. An essential analysis
function is the integration of many layers of maps utilizing overlay technique. To put it another way.
GIS allows you to combine two or more thematic layers of maps from the same area to create a new
map layer.

GIS overlay procedures are comparable to sieve mapping, which involves. Overlaying tracings of maps on
light table to make comparisons and generate on output map.
Use of map overlay is:

(a) A map overlay can be used to compare and contrast changes in land use/cover two time periods and
analyses land transformations.
(b) By overlaying the two maps, the changes in urban land use can be shown, and the urban sprawl may be
visualized through time.
(c) Overly analysis is also important in determining if a particular land use is suitable for prospective land
uses.

(ii) Buffer Operation: A buffer of a certain length can be constructed along a point, a line, or an area. It
can be used to locate areas/ populations that have access to or have been refused access to facilities
and services such as schools, colleges, universities, hospital, post offices, roads, parks and so on. It
can also be used to investigate the consequences of point sources of pollution such as air, water, land,
and noise

Arc View /Arc GIS, Geometric, and all other GIS software give point line, and area attributes using
proper software commands. Buffers of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 km. can be created around cities with large health
or education centers. In general, neighborhoods close to these institutions received better service than
those further away.

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