40 Eléctronic Devices

ÉXAMPLE 1.13
the e Saturation current of a silicon PN junction diode is 10 uA. Caleulate the diode current for
forward-bias voltage of 0.6 V at 25°C.
Solyhon Given Vr = 0.6 V, T= 273 +25 298K

The 10 uA = Ix 10° A and n =

2 for silicon.
volt-equivalent of the temperature (7) 1s
V r .600
11,600 i6025.7
11,600
298
10 v x

Therefore, the diode current, I =

I,\
0.6
I =
1032x25.7 x10 t13x1D 1,
= 1.174 A

EXAMPLE 1.14
The diode current is
0.6 mA when the
applied voltage is 400 mV, and 20 mA when the applied voltage
is 500 mV. Determine
n. Assume =
25 mV.

Solution
The diode current,
I=i,eT-_ 1 k 86S Xo°eV
Therefore. 0.6 x
10 =1,\enkT- 1= I,eR
400 6
=
I, e25n =1, en
500 (1)
Also, 20x 10 =I, e25n =1,
20
en

Dividing Eq. (2) by Eq. (1), we get (2)

20x 103_1, e7 5
0.6 x 103
en
16
kT 8625XIO Xa18gN/
4
Therefore,
Taking natural logarithms on both sides, we get 251

3.507

Therefore, 3.507 1.14

3.507
 Semiconductor Diode 41

EXAMPLE 1.15
Find the voltage at which the reverse current in a germanium PNjunction diode attains a value of 90%
of its saturation value at room temperature.

Solution We know that the current of a PNjunction diode is

I=1,le-)
Therefore, -0.90 1, =I,le-1)
where T 26 mV
r1.600

-0.9 =eo026-1

0.1 e0.026

erefore, V=-0.06 V
1.16 IDEAL VERSUS PRACTICAL-RESISTANCE LEVELS (STATIC AND
DYNAMIC)
ideal diode should offer zero resistance in forward bias and infinite resistance in the revers
. But in practice no diode can act as an ideal diode i.e., an actual diode does not behave a
rfect conductor when forward biased and as a perfect insulator when reverse biased. Let u
ider four resistance of the diode (a) DC or static resistance, (b) AC or dynamic resistance, (-
age AC resistance and (d) reverse resistance.
r static resistance (R) It is defined as the ratio of the voltage to the current, VII, in th
ard bias characteristics of the PN junction diode. In the forward bias characteristics of th
asshown in Fig. 1.17, the DC or static resistance I (mA) A
atthe operating point can be determined by using
rrespondinglevels of voltage Vand current Ji.e.,
Here, the DC resistance is independent of the
of the characteristics in the region surrounding
int of interest. The DC resistance levels at the
nd below will be greater than the resistance levels >V{V
 Semiconductor Diode 41

EXAMPLE 1.15
attains a value of 90%
Find the voltage at which the reverse current in a germanium PNjunction diode
of its saturation value at room temperature.

Solution We know that the current of a PN junction diode is

I =1,le-1

Therefore, -0.901, =,leF-1.

T =
26 mV
where VT1.600
Vr

-0.9 eo026-1
V
0.1=e0.026
V = -0.06V
Therefore,
PRACTICAL-RESISTANCE
LEVELS (STATIC ANND
1.16 IDEAL VERSUS
DYNAMIC)
resistance in the reverse
forward bias and infinite
offer zero resistance in does not behave as
should an actual diode
An ideal diode act as an ideal
diode i.e.,
no diode can biased. Let us
But in practice insulator when reverse
bias. and as a perfect
forward biased resistance, (c)
conductor when resistance, (b) AC or dynamic
a perfect DC or static
resistance of the diode (a)
consider four resistance.
resistance and (d) reverse in the
average AC the voltage to the current, VII,
It is defined asthe ratio of characteristics of the
resistance (R) forward bias
DC or static PN junction diode. In the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
forward bias resistance (mA) A
in Fig. 1.17, the DC or static
shown
diode as determined by using
can be
at the operating point
(R) current Ji.e.,
corresponding levels of voltage Vand
the
f the
 44 Electronic Devices

EXAMPLE 1.18
Calculate the
is 0.25 V at T dynamic forward and reverse resistance of a PN junction diode when the
025 =
300 K given
, 2 HA. applied voltage
voltage
Solution Given:
At V=0.25 V, T= 300 K, 1,=2 uA
T 300 K,
Assuming it to be silicon diode, 2 V7= 26 mV.
n=
Therefore
I=1e1)=2x 10- 025 |= 0.24 mA
e2X 26 x10
nVT 2x 26 x
t 10=216.67 2
0.24 x 10-3
For germanium diode,
n=1.
I= 2x 10 2610
.25
=0.03 A
0.03 A

r. =T - 26x 103 = 0.867 Q2

0.03
Reverse resistance 0,25
10-6 125 k2

EXAMPLE 1.19
A
PN-junction diode has a reverse saturation current of 30
temperature, find the dynamic resistance for 0.2 V HA at a
bias in forward temperature,
of 125°C. At the
same
and reverse
directions.
Solution Given: The reverse saturation current, I, =
30 x 10° A and V= 0.2 V
We know that the nr
dynamic resistance = -

env

Here, n = l
for germanium and T
= 125+273
T1.600 11,600 34.3 mV

Therefore, forward dynamic resistance 34.3 x 10-3

r= 30 x 10- (O.2/34.3x10-33.356Q

Reverse dynamic resistance, r, =- nVr 34.3 x 10-3

eVinVr 30x 10- (e-0.2/34,3 x 10-3 389.5 kQ
EXAMPLE 1.20
If two similar Germanium diodes are connected back to back and the
voltage V is impressed upon
calculate the voltage across each diode and current through each diode.
Assume similar value ot
1 uA for boththe diodes and n=1.
 Semiconductor Diode 45

Solution The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 1.20. D D2

As D, is reverse biased, the total current flowing in the circuit is
h= luA. The diode D, is forward biased and its forward current
Vp Vo
is equal to the reverse current lo = 1 pA, which can flow as D, is
reverse biased.
For diode D, I= 1,= I uA and voltage across D, is Vp,
Fig. 1.20
Therefore,

or

Hence, e = 1+1 =2
V2 In 2
nT
D, T x In 2 = | x 26 x 10'x 0.6931 =0.01802 V
Therefore, D= V-Vp, =V-0.01802 V
The current through the diodes D, and D, is I = I, = I uA

EXAMPLE 1.21
Determine the forward resistance of a PN junction diode, when the forward current is 5 mA at

T 300 K. Assume silicon diode.

Given: For a silicon diode, the forward current, / = 5 mA. T= 300 K
Solution

Forward resistance of a PNjunction diode, r= where V= u0 and n= 2 for silicon

2 T
T1.600
2x 300
Therefore, 10.34
11,600 x 5 x 103
2
5x10
TRANSITION OR SPACE CHARGE (OR DEPLETION REGION)
1.17
CAPACITANCE (C7)
Under reverse bias condition, the majority carriers move away from the junction, thereby
uncovering more immobile charges. Hence the width of the space-charge layer at the junction
increases with reverse voltage. This increase in uncovered charge with applied voltage may be
considered a capacitive effect. The parallel layers of oppositely charged immobile ions on the
two sides of the junction form the capacitance, Cr which is expressed as

Ca
where dQ is the increase in charge caused by a changein voltage dV. A change in voltage d'in
a Lime dt will result in a current /= dQ/di given by
 Semiconductor Diode 53

EXAMPLE 1.22
flows
The voltage across a silicon diode at room temperature (300 K) is 0.7 volts when 2 mA current
through it. If the voltage increases to 0.75 V, calculate the diode current (assume Pr= 26 mV).

Solution Given data

Room temperature = 300 K

Voltage across a silicon diode, Vpi = 0.7 V

Current through the diode Ipi = 2 mA

When the voltage increases to 0.75 V, Vp2, then

I L(e"'D2T-1) 7/26*10xx2-1-2615
pI L(e'piT-1) 07/26 10 x 2-1
Therefore, p22.615 x Ipi
= 2.615 x 2 x 10 = 5.23 mA

EXAMPLE 1.23
the saturation
A silicon diode has a saturation current of 7.5 HA at room temperature 300 K. Calculate
current at 400 K.

Solution Given: 11 = 7.5 x 10 A at T1 = 300 K = 27°C and T2 = 400 K = 127°0

Therefore, the saturation current at 400 Kis

02oX 27-7no
= 7.5 x 10-6x 2(127-27)/10
= 7.5x 10-°x 20 = 7.68 mA

EXAMPLE 1.24
of 25°C and increases
The reverse saturation current of the Ge transistor is 2 uA at room temperature
10C. Find the reverse saturation carrent of the
by a factor of 2 for each temperature increase of
ransistor at a temperature of 75°C.

2 uA at 7 =25°C, T = 75°C
Solution Given: 1 =

75°C is
Therefore, the reverse saturation current of the transistor at T2
=

(75-25
2 X 22-710 =2x 10 x 2 10
2 x 10 x2 = 64 uA

1.20
1.20 JUNCTION DIODE SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS

Diodes are often used in a switching mode. When the applied bias voltage to the PN diode is

suddenly reversed in the opposite direction, the diode response reaches a steady state after
an interval oftime, called the recovery time. The forward recoverytime, is defined as the
time required for forward voltage or current to reach a specified value (time interval between
54 Electronic Devices

the instant of 10% diode voltage to the instant this voltage reaches within 10% of its finaj
value) after switching diode from its reverse-to forward-biased state. Fortunately, the forward
recovery time possess no serious problem. Theresore. only the reverse recovery lime, , has to
be considered in practical applications.
When the PNjunction diode is forward biased. the minority electron concentration in the P-region
is approximately linear. Ifthe junction is suddenly reverse biased. at , then because of this stored
electronic charge, the reverse current (lp) is initially of the same magnitude as the forward current
) . The diode will continue to conduct until the injected or excess minority carrier density
P-P) or (n-n,) has dropped to zero. However, as the stored electrons are removed into the
N-region and the contact, the available charge quickly drops to an equilibrium level anda stead,
current eventually flows corresponding to the reverse bias voltage as shown in Fig. 1.23(c).

As shown in Fig. 1.23(b). the applied votage = Vp for the time up to I isin the direction
to forward-bias the diode. The resistance R, is large so that the drop acros RL 15 large when

compared to the drop across the diode. Then the current is l = = l p Then. at timer =

the input voltage is suddenly reversed to the value of-VR. Due to the reasons explained above

the current does not become zero and has the value I= - I g until the time r = t. Ati=
RL
. when the excess minority carriers have reached the equilibrium state, the magnitude of the
diode current starts to decrease, as shown in Fig. 1.23(d).
During the time interval from to t, the injected minority carriers have remained stored and
hence this time interval is called the storage time (1,).
After the instant = 1, the diode gradually recovers and ultimately reaches the steady-state.
The time interval between t and the instant r; when the diode has recovered nominally., is
called the transition tinme, t,. The recovery is said to have completed (i) when even the minority
carriers remote from the junction have diffused to the junction and crossed it, and (i) when the
junction transition capacitance, C across the reverse-biased junction has got charged through
the external resistor R, to the voltage -VR
The reverse recovery time (or turn-off time) of a diode. t, is the interval from the current
reversal ati= tj until the diode has recovered to a specified extent in terms either of the diode
current or of the diode resistance i.e.. , = t, + !

For commercial switching type diodes the reverse recovery time, ranges from less than l ns
up to as high as 1 us. This switching time obviously limits the maximum operating frequeney ot
the device. If the time period of the input signal is such that T= 2 Ir then the diode conducts
as much in reverse as in the forward direction. Hence it does not behave as a one way device. In
order to minimise the effect of the reverse current, the time period of the operating frequency
should be a minimum of approximately 10 times t, For example, if a diode has ,, of 2 ns, its
maximum operating frequency is

= 50 MHz
10 x 10 x 2x 10
The , can be reduced by shortening the length of the P-region in a PN junction diode. The
stored charge and, consequently, the switching time can also be reduced by introduction of gold
impurities into the junction diode by diffusion. The gold dopant, some times called a life time
 Semiconductor Diode55

RL

(a)

V,
VF

Na
(
P-Pno
at
junction

(c)

VE

VF
(d)

Transition
Minority
- carrier interval, tt
Forward I
bias storage ts
-Va Reverse recovery time, t,
(e)
Fig. 1.23 Switching characteristics of PNjunction diode
 Semiconductor Diode 39

1.15 DIODE CURRENT EQUATION

The diode current equation relating the voltage Vand current / is given by

I = I,leinV)- 1]|
where = diode current
I= diode reverse saturation current at room temperature
V= external voltage applied to the diode
n a constant, I for germanium and 2 for silicon
V= kTq= Tll1600. volt-equivalent of temperature i.e., thermal voltage
where k = Boltzmann's constant (1.38 x 10 J/K)
q= charge of the electron (1.602 x 10-C)
T temperature of the diode junction (K) = (°C + 273°)

At room temperature. (T= 300 K), V7 = 26 mV. Substituting this value in the current equation,
we get
I= le40 Vi) - 1]

1], since = 1 for germanium. For silicon diode.

Therefore, for germanium diode, I
=
1, [e -

I=1,[e0- 1], since n= 2 for silicon. for

unity, then the equation of diode
current
If the value of applied voltage is greater than

germanium,
I=1, (e*0

and for silicon, I =I,(20

be obtained by changing the sign of
When the diode is biased, its current equation may
reverse
current with reverse bias is
the applied voltage V. Thus, the diode

termed as reverse saturation current.

If V>> Vn then the term e-VIg
Vr' << 1, therefore I= 1,, -

breakdown value.
which is valid as long as the
external voltage is below the

EXAMPLE 1.12
saturation current at
to germanium PN junction diode, the reverse
When a reverse bias is applied a is
current flowing in the diode
when 0.15 V forward bias
Determine the
room temperature is 0.3 uA.
applied at room temperature.

Solution Given ,= 0.3 x

10 A and =0.15 V
PN diode under forward
bias is
he current flowing through the
I =1,(40 Vr- 1)
0.3 x 10 (e x0.15 1)
= 120.73 uA