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6 Sample Size
A sample is a subset of a population selected to

represent the entire population in a study. It is used

because while the study is interested in learning

more about the population, it may not always be

feasible to study every member of that population.

The reasons can be, for example, unfeasible

61
incurred costs or, it may just be impossible due

to geographical distribution or availability.

6.1 Factors Affecting the Size of the Sample

For any study, the sample size depends on a few

elements:

Level of significance (what is acceptable as an

error rate). This is the p-value, such as 95% (α =
0.05) which indicates the researcher’s readiness
to accept a certain probability that the obtained
result is due to chance and not to the
intervention or researcher’s intention.
Power, discussed in the context of Type II error,
the failure to detect a difference when one
doesn’t exist, or the chance of false negatives.
The power of the study increases with the
decrease in the chance of committing a Type II
error. Usually 80% is an acceptable level for the
power of a study. It means that the researcher is
accepting the study misses a real difference in
 one in five times. For more strict studies, power
can be increased to 90% or more.
Expected effect size, represents the difference

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between a variable’s value in one groups and its
value in another group. It is inversely
proportional with the sample size. There is no
formula to determine the effect size. Most often
is determined based on prior studies reported in
the literature.
Effect prevalence in the population, estimated
from previous studies.
Population standard deviation, a measure of
dispersibility.

When estimating sample size a researcher should

consider other elements as well, such as

administrative issues, costs, possible participant

response rate, and so forth. Each study should be

considered from all angles and all potential

elements that could participate in determining the

sample should be studied carefully.

6.2 Methods of Determining the Sample Size

A cursory review of the literature shows that

sample size can be determined in many ways

using formulas and/or tables and that there is no

universal “formula” for sample size calculations.

Each of the methods has a recommended use.

For example, an approach to make a rough

determination of a sample size for an experimental

design using effect size and power was discussed

in the Controlling Power Through Sample Size

section. You will also find many sample size

calculators available online, many of them based

on Cochran’s Sample Size Formula.

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6.2.1 Cochran’s Sample Size Formula

Used to compute an ideal sample size for a desired

level of precision, it is recommended to be used for

studies with infinite populations (Cochran ⊕1977).

2
z ⋅ p ⋅ (1 − p)
n0 =
2
e

e: desired level of precision, the margin of error

p: the fraction of the population (as percentage)

that displays the attribute

z: the z-value, extracted from a z-table 62.

Figure 6.1: Area represented by the z-value.

Let’s consider an example. Think of a study of

students in a large university campus for which we

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don’t know the campus size . We are interested in

finding the percentage of students who eat lunch

at the campus dinner halls but we do not have

insider information. The question is how many

students would we need to ask that question to be

able to determine, with reasonable confidence,

what percentage of students conform to the

sought behavior. Given the lack of information we

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start by considering that 50% of the students eat

lunch at the school dining halls, which provides the

largest variability. Then we consider a 95%

confidence level (leading to an α=0.05) and a ±5%

precision. From the z-tables, the value for z is 1.96.

Therefore, the theoretical sample would be:

2
1.96 ⋅ 0.5 ⋅ (1 − 0.5)
n0 = = 384.16 ≈ 385
2
0.05

How to find the value of z from a z-table. The

procedure is:

1. Convert the confidence level from percent form

to decimal form as value between 0 and 1. (95%
→ 0.95)
2. Subtract the value from 1 and divide by 2 to find
out how much is half (1 - 0.95 = 0.05; 0.05/2 =
0.025)
3. Add the value from 2) to the value from 1) (0.95
+ 0.025 = 0.975)
4. Look for the value obtained in step 3) in table
values. In Table 6.1 the value sits at the
intersection of row labeled 1.9 and column
labeled 0.06.
5. Determine the value of z by adding the value for
the column with the value for the row obtained
in step 4 (1.9 + 0.06 = 1.96).

6.2.2 Cochran’s Modified Formula for Finite Populations

A slightly modified formula can be used if the size

of the population is known.

 n0
n =
n0 − 1
1 +
N

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n0: Cochran’s PDF using the
sample size computed

formula for ideal sample size;

N: the size of the population 64.

As an example, let’s look at the same problem as

before but for a much smaller campus of N = 600

students. While we can still use the theoretical

sample of 385 participants computed before, do

we need to? The necessary sample size may be

smaller.

385
n = = 234.76 ≈ 235
385 − 1
1 +
600

The result of this computation indicates that for

smaller populations the number of subjects

(sample size) can be smaller (235 vs. 385) for the

researchers to be reasonably confident of the

findings.

6.2.3 Yamane’s Simplified Formula for Sample Size

To make it simpler to compute the sample size

without over estimating it when the population is

known Yamane (1967) proposed the following

formula:

N
n =
2
1 + N ⋅ e

N - population size

e - level of precision
Using the same example as before, Yamane’s

formula would suggest a sample size of 240

subjects for a student population of 600.

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600
n = = 240
2
1 + 600 ⋅ 0.05

Table 6.1: z-table

0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 0.5000 0.5040 0.5080 0.5120 0.5160 0.5199 0.5239 0.5279 0.5319 0.5359
0.1 0.5398 0.5438 0.5478 0.5517 0.5557 0.5596 0.5636 0.5675 0.5714 0.5753
0.2 0.5793 0.5832 0.5871 0.5910 0.5948 0.5987 0.6026 0.6064 0.6103 0.6141
0.3 0.6179 0.6217 0.6255 0.6293 0.6331 0.6368 0.6406 0.6443 0.6480 0.6517
0.4 0.6554 0.6591 0.6628 0.6664 0.6700 0.6736 0.6772 0.6808 0.6844 0.6879
0.5 0.6915 0.6950 0.6985 0.7019 0.7054 0.7088 0.7123 0.7157 0.7190 0.7224
0.6 0.7257 0.7291 0.7324 0.7357 0.7389 0.7422 0.7454 0.7486 0.7517 0.7549
0.7 0.7580 0.7611 0.7642 0.7673 0.7704 0.7734 0.7764 0.7794 0.7823 0.7852
0.8 0.7881 0.7910 0.7939 0.7967 0.7995 0.8023 0.8051 0.8078 0.8106 0.8133
0.9 0.8159 0.8186 0.8212 0.8238 0.8264 0.8289 0.8315 0.8340 0.8365 0.8389
1.0 0.8413 0.8438 0.8461 0.8485 0.8508 0.8531 0.8554 0.8577 0.8599 0.8621
1.1 0.8643 0.8665 0.8686 0.8708 0.8729 0.8749 0.8770 0.8790 0.8810 0.8830
1.2 0.8849 0.8869 0.8888 0.8907 0.8925 0.8944 0.8962 0.8980 0.8997 0.9015
1.3 0.9032 0.9049 0.9066 0.9082 0.9099 0.9115 0.9131 0.9147 0.9162 0.9177
1.4 0.9192 0.9207 0.9222 0.9236 0.9251 0.9265 0.9279 0.9292 0.9306 0.9319
1.5 0.9332 0.9345 0.9357 0.9370 0.9382 0.9394 0.9406 0.9418 0.9429 0.9441
1.6 0.9452 0.9463 0.9474 0.9484 0.9495 0.9505 0.9515 0.9525 0.9535 0.9545
1.7 0.9554 0.9564 0.9573 0.9582 0.9591 0.9599 0.9608 0.9616 0.9625 0.9633
1.8 0.9641 0.9649 0.9656 0.9664 0.9671 0.9678 0.9686 0.9693 0.9699 0.9706
1.9 0.9713 0.9719 0.9726 0.9732 0.9738 0.9744 0.9750 0.9756 0.9761 0.9767
2.0 0.9772 0.9778 0.9783 0.9788 0.9793 0.9798 0.9803 0.9808 0.9812 0.9817
2.1 0.9821 0.9826 0.9830 0.9834 0.9838 0.9842 0.9846 0.9850 0.9854 0.9857
2.2 0.9861 0.9864 0.9868 0.9871 0.9875 0.9878 0.9881 0.9884 0.9887 0.9890
2.3 0.9893 0.9896 0.9898 0.9901 0.9904 0.9906 0.9909 0.9911 0.9913 0.9916
2.4 0.9918 0.9920 0.9922 0.9925 0.9927 0.9929 0.9931 0.9932 0.9934 0.9936
2.5 0.9938 0.9940 0.9941 0.9943 0.9945 0.9946 0.9948 0.9949 0.9951 0.9952
 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
2.6 0.9953 0.9955 0.9956 0.9957 0.9959 0.9960 0.9961 0.9962 0.9963 0.9964
2.7 0.9965 0.9966 0.9967 0.9968 0.9969 0.9970 0.9971 0.9972 0.9973 0.9974
2.8 CONTENTS
0.9974 0.9975 0.9976PDF0.9977 0.9977 0.9978 0.9979 0.9979 0.9980 0.9981
2.9 0.9981 0.9982 0.9982 0.9983 0.9984 0.9984 0.9985 0.9985 0.9986 0.9986
3.0 0.9987 0.9987 0.9987 0.9988 0.9988 0.9989 0.9989 0.9989 0.9990 0.9990
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