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Table of Contents
I
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Family—Essential for
a Child’s Development
From Chapter 1 of Parents as Partners in Education: Families and Schools Working Together, 8/e.
Eugenia Hepworth Berger. Mari Riojas-Cortez. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
1
Family—Essential for
a Child’s Development
2
This chapter stresses the importance of families, schools, and communities understanding, re-
specting, and valuing one another to assist children in their healthy overall development. After
completing the chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Discuss the concept of funds of knowledge as it relates to families and how this helps to
increase collaboration between families, communities, and schools.
• Explain how the Family Ecological Systems Theory provides opportunities for all families to learn to use
the teachers, school, and community as resources to assist them in the development of their children.
• Identify and explain research on attachment that illustrates the need for early attachment of
children with a parent or significant caregiver.
• Discuss breakthroughs in neuroscience research on brain development and what it means
for families.
3
FAMILY—ESSENTIAL FOR A CHILD’S DEVELOPMENT
Strong families nurture, socialize, and educate. Mari Riojas-Cortez (top left); Cinthia Salinas (top right); Krista Greco/Merrill (bottom left); Todd Yarrington/
Merrill (bottom right)
differences is not sufficient to work effectively with different than theirs, and this creates a dissonance
families. Awareness implies knowledge but no ac- that prevents teachers from truly collaborating with
tion. When working with culturally and linguisti- parents. We must remember that parents are a
cally diverse children, teachers must know about child’s first teacher, and the learning and teaching
the children’s families, including but not limited that occur in the home are great assets for children
to their cultural practices, childrearing practices, in school as long as teachers value the children’s
traditions, and each individual family’s funds of funds of knowledge.
knowledge.
Really, families are a child’s first teachers, pass-
Examples of Funds of Knowledge
ing on their concepts, or funds of knowledge, to
help them grow and thrive (Moll et al., 1992). These I (Mari Riojas-Cortez) have seen funds of knowledge
concepts can be passed along from generation to “in action” in different settings. For example, while
generation, and new ones can be developed as new eating at a local restaurant, a father was observing his
families are formed. son (who had Down syndrome) figure out the amount
For early childhood educators, the importance of of tip to leave for the server. This teaches the young
understanding the concept of funds of knowledge man an important social skill while fostering his in-
is crucial because they must understand why fami- dependence. In my husband’s experience, his father,
lies do the things they do. Often educators criticize who was a carpenter, had my husband sort the screws
parents if their ways of raising their children are needed when they worked on a project. This simple
4
FAMILY—ESSENTIAL FOR A CHILD’S DEVELOPMENT
5
FAMILY—ESSENTIAL FOR A CHILD’S DEVELOPMENT
in this chapter focus on the role that the family has historical backgrounds. When a family undergoes
on child development, therefore making the theories a transitional event such as the birth of a child, a
relevant to the child’s schema or experience. move to a new location, or an illness of a family
member, the system will need to adapt to accommo-
date the change. Change occurs in a variety of ways.
Family Ecological Systems Theory
It may be sudden or gradual, positive or negative.
Both children and parents are affected by the family The change may be minimal or shattering. Divorce
system in which they participate. Family systems is one common change that causes children to lose
are guided and influenced by their cultural and the family system as they knew it and adapt to an
FIGURE 1–1
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory.
Macrosystem
National
Exosystem government
Mesosystem
osystem
Micr
Social service
Parents’
agencies
workplaces Family
Chronosystem
Peers
Migration
and other Child
social trends
Child-care
Neighborhood center
Re
lat
oni
hi
s
ps
School
with
in the Microsystem War and
political strife
Recreational
facilities
Cultural values
and practices
Source: Based on Making Human Beings Human: Bioecological Perspectives on Human Development by U. Bronfenbrenner, 2005,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
6
FAMILY—ESSENTIAL FOR A CHILD’S DEVELOPMENT
entirely new one. Teachers need to know what is of how the mesosystem and exosystem have helped
happening in a student’s family so that they can Native American children.
respond in an appropriate manner and be helpful A criticism of this theory is that for culturally
to the child. and linguistically diverse children, the mesosys-
tem and the exosystem often do not value their
Levels of Ecological Systems. The child’s de- culture, and their funds of knowledge are con-
velopment is related to experiences in the entire en- sidered deficits.
vironment. Bronfenbrenner (1979, 1986) recognized
five levels, as shown in Figure 1–1. Attachment Theory
1. The microsystem includes face-to-face relations Ecological systems should be nurturing environ-
with family and peers, with parents as the ments where children have opportunities to develop
major influence on a child’s interactive eco- socially and emotionally. A nurturing environment
logical system (O’Callaghan, 1993). Examples allows children to create bonds and attachments.
include interactions with parents, peers, or The development of positive parent–child relation-
teachers. ships is based on the quality of attachments that the
2. The mesosystem involves face-to-face rela- child has developed. Attachment is defined as a form
tionships with more formal organizations. of behavior that has its “own internal motivation
Examples include school, family, peers, health-
care services, religious institutions, and the
playground.
3. The exosystem, which if further removed from
personal interaction, still influences children
through their parents and the parents’ employ-
ment and government actions.
4. The macrosystem includes the attitudes and
ideologies of the culture. Examples include
environmental events and cultural traditions,
laws, and customs.
5. The chronosystem includes the element of time
as it relates to changes in a child’s environ-
ment. Examples of the chronosystem include
the child getting older and the aging or death
of a parent or family member.
The parents’ role in their children’s early years is
significant in many ways, but it requires the support
of different systems as stated by Bronfenbrenner.
This perspective seems to help families who face
different types of stress like violence, homelessness,
and chemical dependence (Swick & Williams, 2006).
Although this perspective has many positive fac-
tors, it is important to note that for children from
culturally and linguistically diverse families, some
of the systems may not work so successfully. For
example, a study found that resiliency in nine Native
American teenagers was influenced by individual
and environmental factors related to the family
and extended family support (Reclaiming Children Eye contact between father and child fosters human attachment, a
and Youth, 2009), but there was no mention necessary component for healthy development. Thinkstock
7
FAMILY—ESSENTIAL FOR A CHILD’S DEVELOPMENT
distinct from feeding and sex, and of no less impor- The control group of children in the orphanage,
tance for survival” (Bowlby, 1988, p. 27). however, received traditional care with no special
Since the 1930s, there has been increasing re- treatment. When retested, after varying periods
search on bonding and attachment. Experts rec- from 6 to 52 months, the children in the institution
ognize attachment as an essential ingredient for for mental retardation had gained 27.5 IQ points,
a healthy personality. Attachment behavior is the but those left in the orphanage had lost an average
behavior that a person exhibits to obtain and main- of 26.2 IQ points.
tain proximity to the attachment figure, generally Although the research could be criticized because
the mother but also the father, and in their absence, variables were not controlled—there were more
someone the child knows; in many culturally and girls than boys placed in the wards—and changes
linguistically diverse families, the grandparents may in IQ can be partially explained by statistical regres-
take that role. This attachment is strongest when sion, the results were so dramatic and unexpected
the child is sick, tired, or frightened but is crucial that the effect of early environment had to be con-
throughout the life cycle. sidered. Skeels (1966) followed up on the subjects
Psychoanalysts Skeels, Spitz, and Bowlby recog- of this research almost 20 years later and found
nized the importance of the first few years in the evidence to reinforce his initial findings. Of the 13
development of attachment, as evidenced through children in the experimental group who had been
studies of children who did not thrive. These psy- transferred to the mental institution, 11 had been
choanalysts did not conduct controlled studies that adopted and reared as “normal” children. Twelve of
gave some children love and withheld it from oth- the 13 had become self-supporting adults, achiev-
ers, but instead they looked at what had happened ing a median education level of 12 years of school-
to children who had failed to thrive. Why had this ing. Of the control group children who had been
happened? What did these children lack that the left in the orphanage, 4 were still in institutions,
other children had? 1 was a gardener’s assistant, 3 were employed as
dishwashers, 1 was a floater (performed different
Skeels. During the 1930s, questions about the types of jobs as needed), 1 was a part-time worker
importance of human attachment in the young in a cafeteria, and 1 had died. Only 1 individual had
children were raised. Harold Skeels, a member achieved an educational level similar to that of the
of the Iowa Group of child researchers, studied experimental group—a man who as a child had re-
the effect of environment on the development of ceived different treatment from the others. He had
children during a period when most researchers been transferred from the orphanage to a school for
(e.g., Gesell and Watson) were studying matura- the deaf, where he received special attention from
tion or behaviorism. One study, a natural history his teacher.
investigation, had startling findings (Skeels, 1966). The children who had been placed in a men-
Skeels placed 13 infants and toddlers from an tal institution and later adopted received love
orphanage in an institution for people with men- and developed human attachments; they had
tal retardation. The 13 children—10 girls and 3 achieved a lifestyle more typical of children
boys—ranged from 7.1 to 35.9 months and had outside the orphanage, whereas those left in
IQs from 36 to 89, with a mean IQ score of 64.3. the orphanage had only a marginal existence.
Children in the control group of 12—also chosen Evidence strongly supports the importance of a
from children in the orphanage, between 12 and nurturing early environment and also indicates
22 months old—had IQs of 50 to 103, with a mean that a poor initial environment can be reversed
IQ of 86.7 points. The children placed in the wards by enriched personal interaction (Skeels, 1966).
for mental retardation were showered with atten- Interestingly, these findings also support (indi-
tion by the attendants and supervisors. They were rectly) the importance of funds of knowledge,
cared for, played with, loved, and allowed to go which are gained through nurturing interactions
along on excursions. Almost every child developed between child and immediate and/or extended
an attachment to one person who was particularly family in a caring environment (regardless of
interested in the child and his or her achievements. income level and mental ability).
8
FAMILY—ESSENTIAL FOR A CHILD’S DEVELOPMENT
9
FAMILY—ESSENTIAL FOR A CHILD’S DEVELOPMENT
demonstrates attachment to others as well, primar- childrearing practices and a good environment
ily the father, siblings, and caregivers. Attachment would help the child, but early deprivation con-
to others does not reduce the attachment to the tinued to be a problem, and deprived infants often
mother or primary caregiver. At 9 months, most remained detached. Tizard and Hodges (1978)
children try to follow primary caregivers when they studied children raised in an institution to see if
leave the room, greet them on return, and crawl to the lack of personal attachment had lasting effects.
be near them. This behavior continues throughout Children who were adopted did form bonds as
the second year of a child’s life and on into the third. late as 4 or 6 years of age, but they exhibited the
When children reach about 2 years 9 months to same attention and social problems in school as
3 years of age, they are better able to accept a par- those who remained in the institution: “Being
ent’s temporary absence. one in a class of many other children may for the
Bowlby (1966) emphasized that the greatest child have repeated some of the elements of the
effect on personality development is during the nursery ‘family group,’ leading to a similar pat-
child’s early years. The earliest critical period was tern of competitive attempts to gain the attention
believed to be during the first 5 or 6 months, while of the teacher and poor relationships with other
the mother figure and infant are forming an attach- children” (Hodges, 1996, p. 71).
ment. The second vital phase was seen as lasting
until near the child’s third birthday, during which Ainsworth
time the mother figure needs to be virtually an Ainsworth (1973) wrote that parent–child attachment is
ever-present companion. During the third phase, necessary for the development of a healthy personality,
the child is able to maintain the attachment even but that attachment may occur beyond the early “sen-
though the nurturing parent is absent. During the sitive period.” Ainsworth identified three classifica-
fourth to fifth year, this tolerable absence might tions of attachment: avoidant/insecure, ambivalent/
extend from a few days to a few weeks; during insecure, and securely attached (Shore, 1997).
the seventh to eighth years, the separation could
be lengthened to a year or more. Deprivation in
the third phase does not have the same destructive
effect on the child as it does in the period from in-
fancy through the third year.
10
FAMILY—ESSENTIAL FOR A CHILD’S DEVELOPMENT
11
FAMILY—ESSENTIAL FOR A CHILD’S DEVELOPMENT
level of activity in response to different stimuli The brain does not develop one area and then
(Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). the next in a straight, linear pattern. It develops in
A PET scan, employed when a child is thought to an integrated and overlapping fashion. Structures
have neurological problems, requires an injection that control cognition (thinking), perception (sens-
of a tracer chemical, making it an invasive proce- ing), and action (moving) develop at the same time
dure, which researchers generally avoid. Since PET but not in lockstep fashion. They are linked by a
scans cannot be considered noninvasive, the re- network of interconnections, separate but function-
search comes from situations in which the child has ing parallel to one another (Goldman-Rakic, 1996).
needed the scan for medical reasons. By analyzing The development of the brain proceeds at an ex-
the results of PET scans, researchers have furthered hilarating rate. The number of neurons peaks before
scientific knowledge: “Scientists can visualize not birth (new neurons are produced throughout life
only the fine structures of the brain, but also the though far less rapidly). Brain size also increases
level of activity that is taking place in its various more gradually. A newborn’s brain is only about one-
parts” (Shore, 1997, p. 9). Prior to these technologi- quarter the size of an adult’s. It grows to 80 percent
cal advances, brain research was accomplished only of adult size by 3 years of age and 90 percent by 5.
when operations were performed or people had Its growth is largely due to changes in individual
strokes, and neither situation revealed what was neurons, which are structured like trees. Thus, each
happening in the brain at specific times. brain cell begins as a tiny sapling and only gradually
sprouts its hundreds of long, branching dendrites.
Brain Development Brain growth, measured either by weight or vol-
The brain and spinal cord begin their developmen- ume, is largely due to the growth of these dendrites,
tal journey just a few days after conception and which serve as the receiving point of synaptic input
continue to develop in overlapping phases, with from other neurons. Another way of measuring brain
the brain cells multiplying and migrating accord- growth is speed processing. Newborns are consider-
ing to where they are needed: “Once nerve cells are ably slower than adults—16 times less efficient—and
formed and finished migrating they rapidly extend the brain does not reach maximum size until about
axons and dendrites and begin to form connec- 15 years of age (Zero to Three, 1998–2001).
tions with each other, called synapses” (Shonkoff &
Genes and the Environment. The environment
Phillips, 2000, p. 186). The nerve cells are able to
communicate with one another. The synapses are and the genes play a very important role in brain
refined through maturation and pruning followed development. Interactions between the genes and
by myelination, a protective and supportive tissue the environment are crucial for brain development
surrounding the cells. and they play different roles:
Generally speaking, genes are responsible for the basic
wiring plan—for forming all of the cells (neurons) and
general connections between different brain regions—
while experience is responsible for the fine-tuning of
these connections, helping each child adapt to the partic-
ular environment (geographical, cultural, family, school,
and peer group) to which he belongs. (Zero to Three,
1998–2001, p. 1)
12
FAMILY—ESSENTIAL FOR A CHILD’S DEVELOPMENT
brain is two and one half times more active than the
brain of an adult. It is estimated that by age 3, the
child’s brain has a quadrillion synapses. The number
holds steady for the first decade. After the child
reaches 19, the synapses decline in density, and by
late adolescence, half of the synapses have been
discarded and 500 trillion remain (Shore, 1997). Elim-
ination varies related to the area of the brain. Hutten-
locher (1979, as cited in Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000)
researched the production of synapses and the prun-
ing that reduces the amount of synapses to adult level.
He estimated that various areas of the brain have dif-
ferent patterns of synapse development and pruning.
The visual cortex production occurs about midway of
the first year, followed by a gradual reduction by the
middle of the preschool period. The part of the brain
responsible for language and hearing is similar but
somewhat later. In the prefrontal area, which contains
higher-level cognition, the proliferation of synapses
begins around the first year, but adult level is not
reached until middle to late adolescence.
A look at the development of vision illustrates one
journey of growth. Infant vision is still developing
when the child is born. At 1 month, the infant has
poor contrast sensitivity and relatively poor color
recognition. By 2 months, the baby can distinguish
between many colors, including red, blue, and green.
While their visual acuity and sensitivity to contrast For children to achieve their potential, it is essential for families and
at this age improves, it is still about 20 times less educators to show support and caring. provided by Eugenia Hepworth
Berger
developed than adults’ and has immature focus. By
the third month, dramatic changes help the infant see
shapes clearer, although depth perception is not fully Wiring of the Brain
developed. Color vision is similar to that of an adult’s
The proliferation of synapses occurs around the
color vision. The baby has also developed a sense of
sixth month and reduces to adult amount later
recognition so that when a parent picks up and holds
in early childhood. Experience is critical in the
the infant, the child is aware and recognizes the par-
“wiring” of a child’s brain. When a stimulus acti-
ent. By 6 months of age, there is rapid improvement
vates a neural path, the synapses receive and store
in eye development. The baby can focus at different
a chemical signal. If synapses are used repeatedly,
distances as well as an adult can, and their motion
they are strengthened, reach a threshold level, and
detection continues to improve (Restak, 2001).
become permanent. If not used repeatedly, they are
As infants continue to develop, their need for
pruned and eliminated (Shore, 1997):
exploration increases. Soska, Adolph, and Johnson
(2010) indicate that the infant’s motor and per- In the first decade of life, a child’s brain forms trillions
ceptual abilities help with exploration. The more of connection synapses. Axons hook up with dendrites,
opportunities for exploration and movement the in- and chemicals called neurotransmitters facilitate the
passage of impulses across the resulting synapses. Each
fant is given, the greater the chances for acquisition
individual neuron may be connected to as many as
of new skills. Therefore, the early experiences that 15,000 other neurons, forming a network of neural
parents provide for their children are crucial for pathways that is immensely complex. This elaborate
their development, though individual experiences network is sometimes referred to as the brain’s “wiring”
for children will vary depending on their families. or “circuitry.” (p. 17)
13
FAMILY—ESSENTIAL FOR A CHILD’S DEVELOPMENT
It appears that if synapses are not used, they are Providing a safe environment is important so that
probably eliminated: “It is reasonably clear that build- infants and young children as well as families feel
ing the organized neural systems that guide sensory valued and respected. It is also important for fami-
and motor development involves the production of lies to continue to share their funds of knowledge
excess connections followed by some sort of pruning with their children because these are assets to their
that leaves the system in a more precisely organized children’s development.
pattern” (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000, p. 189).
Emotional and Cognitive Interactions with
Importance of Family Interactions Parents and Caregivers. According to Dowl-
for Brain Development ing (2010), there is a link between feelings and
Children learn and develop with their own devel- brain development that is crucial in the early years.
opmental timetable, but they need interaction with Children who have healthy emotional development
their caregivers, mothers, fathers, and others to help have supportive families that guide them through
in that development. When one realizes how rapidly different emotions in order to develop strong cogni-
the newborn infant’s brain develops, a question tive skills such as problem solving, perception, and
emerges: How should the mother, father, and care- reasoning.
givers respond to best aid the development? Six levels of developing emotional and intellec-
tual health in children are described by Greenspan
Language Interactions with Parents or Care- (2002). At the first level, when a familiar caregiver
givers. Providing a safe environment helps infants touches and talks with the infant, the child responds
and young children as well as families feel val- with interest and pleasure. This helps the child
ued and respected. It is also important to develop develop a feeling of security and also helps the child
a secure and positive relationship with the infant organize his or her senses and motor responses.
through holding him or her in a loving and comfort- When children do not receive interaction from their
ing manner. Babies need cradling, gentle touch, and caregiver, they withdraw and become apathetic and
eye contact. They also need to hear a voice, whether despondent.
singing or talking to them, while they are being The second level of development occurs by
dressed or fed. Be sure to respond to the baby’s 4 months, when infants begin to respond to a par-
sounds; they too will try to imitate the sound that ent’s smile. Emotional responses precede the child’s
they hear. This will help them to develop a sense motor ability. These emotional responses can be ob-
of language. served by watching a 4- or 5-month-old baby smile
It is also important for families to continue to share in response to another’s smile. By 9 months, there
their cultural values with their children because these are early forms of communication and thinking.
values are assets to their children’s development. Two-way communication with the mother talking
For example, parents can play culturally significant and the baby responding occurs.
music for their children. Interestingly, Soley and The emotional abilities developed earlier be-
Hannon (2010) found that infants appear to prefer come the building blocks in the third level at
music that has culture-specific meaning––music from 12 to 18 months. The child has greater ability to
their native culture. Nursery rhymes in the child’s problem solve. The fourth level focuses on the tod-
heritage language assist young children to learn the dler who needs to increasingly develop the use of
sounds of that language. For example, parents can emotional cueing, more often referred to as affect
recite Mother Goose rhymes to increase language cueing.
awareness because they are just fun to repeat. Young The fifth level includes symbols that have pur-
children also enjoy looking at colorful picture books pose and meaning, as seen in preteen play. The
and reading books with their caregivers, particularly sixth level finds the child able to use cause-and-
when they can relate to the book themselves. A great effect thinking, recognizing others’ ideas with his
example is Sandra Cisneros’s book Hairs/Pelitos, in or her own intent and feelings. This level allows
which the main character talks about the different impulse control, judgment, and reality testing
types of hair that her family has. (Greenspan, 2002).
14
FAMILY—ESSENTIAL FOR A CHILD’S DEVELOPMENT
15
FAMILY—ESSENTIAL FOR A CHILD’S DEVELOPMENT
16
Diversity of Families
From Chapter 2 of Parents as Partners in Education: Families and Schools Working Together, 8/e.
Eugenia Hepworth Berger. Mari Riojas-Cortez. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
17
Diversity of Families
Respect and value from teachers and administrators will help diverse
families achieve emotional well-being.
Mari Riojas-Cortez
18
In this chapter on the diversity of families, you will find information that will help you examine the
strengths and needs of families and enable you to do the following:
• Define the term family.
• Identify different types of families.
• Examine different functions of families.
• List and explain parenting styles.
• Discuss the greater involvement of fathers in rearing their children.
• Discuss how poverty and homelessness affect today’s families.
FAMILIES
Definition of Family
19
DIVERSITY OF FAMILIES
DIVERSITY OF FAMILIES
Immigrant families try to maintain traditions for the socioemotional
well-being of their children. Armando Cortez The structure, stage of family development, family
size, and ages and genders of the children all figure
within the family provide not only to maintain into the makeup of each unique family. According
traditions but to help in the healthy development to Knopf and Swick (2008), families in today’s soci-
of children. ety are very different than those from previous gen-
erations. The families presented in the following
STAGES IN FAMILY LIFE vignettes represent a few examples of the diversity,
especially the diversity of structure, encountered in
The stages of family life, developed by Galinsky many families. Think about the families that you
(1987), divide parenthood into six levels of devel- work with and see if any are similar to the ones
opment, much like the child’s stages of develop- presented in these examples.
ment. Because each child has different needs for
every stage, it is important for educators to under-
Single-Parent Family
stand the stages so they can provide families with
the assistance needed to ensure healthy develop- Tina is a young divorced mother with one son,
ment of their children. Tommy, age 3. They live with Tina’s parents. In
The first stage, image making, takes place be- addition to working part-time at a department store,
fore the birth of a child. Images are formed and Tina takes 6 hours of classes at the community
preparation is made for the birth. This is where college. Each morning she prepares breakfast for
parents may get the nursery ready and buy clothes Tommy and herself, bundles him into his coat dur-
for the infant. Family members and others may help ing cold weather, hopes that her aging automobile
those parents who may not be able to provide for will start, and heads into her long day. First, she
the infant. The second stage, nurturing, is when drops Tommy off with her sister, who runs a fam-
attachment develops during infancy. Parents and ily child-care home. She feels fortunate to have a
20
DIVERSITY OF FAMILIES
relative who enjoys children to care for Tommy. It’s hard to live out of a car. Barbara worries
He has been anxious ever since his father left, and about Bob because he is missing first grade. She
the security of spending his days at Aunt Georgia’s and Jed put him in school whenever they are in
helps compensate for his loss. a city for any length of time, but schools want his
Tina’s ex-husband, Ted, does not send support permanent address. It embarrasses Barbara to say
money consistently, and Tina knows her parents their family is homeless, so she finds out the name
can help only so much. As she works as a clerk in of a street near the school and pretends they live
the department store, she dreams of the time when there. Bob doesn’t like school anyway. He says the
she will make enough to give Tommy the home and children make fun of him and the teacher gives him
opportunities he needs. Tina figures that with fam- seatwork that he doesn’t understand.
ily help and her part-time college work, she will be Jed feels as if he has failed as a father and pro-
able to graduate in a little more than 2 years, just vider for his family. If he could just find a good job,
about the time Tommy will start school. his family would not be homeless. Minimum wage
doesn’t give him enough to pay for rent, let alone
Single Teenage Mother buy clothing and food. Last month they spent time
at a church-run mission for the homeless. Jed was
As Sherrill thinks back, she can’t remember when
glad that they were in a town far from home so that
she didn’t want a baby. “When I have a baby,” she
none of his old school friends would recognize him
thought, “I’ll be treated like an adult by my mother,
and Barbara. Jed hopes that maybe a good factory
and I’ll also have a baby all my own who will love
job will turn up.
me.” At 3 months, though, Gerald has already be-
come a real handful.
Sherrill turned 15 yesterday, and instead of be- Two-Income Family
ing able to hang out with her friends, she had to
“Joe, the alarm. It’s your turn to get up and start
take care of Gerald. “If only my mother hadn’t had
breakfast,” Maria says as she turns over to get
to work,” Sherrill complained, “I would have had
10 more minutes of sleep before the drive to school.
a couple of hours between feedings just to get out.
Each day Maria teaches 28 second graders in the
I never dreamed a baby would be so demanding.
adjoining school district. Joe teaches mathematics
What makes him cry so much?”
at the local middle school. It works exceedingly
The school down the street offers a program
well for them. Their children, Karen and Jaime, stay
for teen mothers and their infants. Sherrill is on
with a neighbor until it is time for them to walk
the waiting list and plans to enroll at the end of
to school. Joe and Maria take turns dashing home
summer. “I never thought I’d want to go back to
early enough in the afternoon to supervise the chil-
school,” she says, “but they help out by caring for
dren after school.
my baby while I’m in class and my mother says
At times, the stress of work and the demanding
that I need to be able to make a living for Gerald.
days get to Joe and Maria. Some days their sched-
Temporary Assistance to Needy Families will help
ules do not blend, and they scurry to find someone
me for only 24 months. I really don’t like school,
to care for the children after school. Karen and
but I guess I’d better go. If only Gerald would start
Jaime occasionally have been latchkey children,
being more fun.”
providing for themselves. Neither Joe nor Maria
wants their children to be left on their own. They
Two-Parent Family Experiencing
see too many children in their classrooms in similar
Homelessness
situations who feel as if no one cares. Joe tries to be
When Barbara married Jed, the future looked good. a nurturing father who helps with the home, but he
Young, handsome, and hardworking, Jed thought relies on Maria to clean, shop, and cook.
his job at the plant would last forever. Who would Summers are the best time for the family. Joe
have expected the layoffs? Jed’s father worked at works for a summer camp, but Maria is able to
the plant for 25 years before he retired. Now Jed spend more time at home, enjoying the children
and Barbara, along with Jessie, age 2, and Bob, and organizing for the coming year. Periodically,
age 6, are moving west in hopes of finding work. she thinks about how much easier it would be for
21
DIVERSITY OF FAMILIES
22
DIVERSITY OF FAMILIES
American families, speaking Ebonics is very impor- families with the same parenting style may vary.
tant (Boutte & Strickland, 2008). Whatever the rearing The style recommended by parent educators is the
process, most children learn and internalize their authoritative, democratic style because it is thought
parents’ value system. that children raised under that style will achieve, be
dependable and responsible, and feel good about
themselves.
PARENTING STYLES
Children raised with authoritative parents will be
Parents play a key role in ensuring that their fam- allowed to analyze and recognize the issues con-
ily creates a strong bond regardless of the family fronting them. Guidance will be available but will
structure. The roles that a parent plays are largely not be dictated. Children will learn to make deci-
based on his/her parenting style which is also sions. Through working and talking together, they
culturally-based. Parenting styles (some of which will be able to learn why angry, quick decisions are
are more effective than others) are often identified not effective.
as authoritative, authoritarian, or laissez-faire (see Children with authoritarian parents are expected
Table 2.1). to mind their parents without any question about
Each of these types has different ways of handling what precipitated the issue. The children do not get
issues and concerns within the family. In addition, an opportunity to resolve a conflict or learn from
depending on the circumstance, responses even in actions, except to learn that punishment will follow
no matter what the situation. They receive little
training in decision making. Under this parenting
style, children may learn to mind, but they also
TABLE 2.1 learn to avoid being caught and perhaps to lie
Parenting Styles The manner in which families socialize when they are.
their children varies. Three major styles—authoritative, Children of laissez-faire rearing often think
authoritarian, and laissez-faire—include a multitude
that their parents are not interested in them. The
of styles.
children may be depressed, act out, or take risks
because they do not feel their parents care. In
Family Type Characteristics
addition, they get little to no guidance to help
Authoritative Democratic decision making them make decisions. While children may think
Guidelines and parameters they enjoy the freedom of a laissez-faire parent-
Effective communication ing style, too much freedom makes it possible for
Problem solving children to think that they do not matter.
Self-discipline and There are also two subtypes that do not fit into the
responsibility three major types. One is the overprotective parent,
Authoritarian Demanding parent who can often become authoritarian. The other
(might be Absolute rules is the indulgent parent, who may not guide the
overprotective) Restrictive environment child. Dysfunctional families—including those that
Punitive control are abusive or that have parents who are addicted
Strong guidelines to drugs or alcohol or are mentally unstable—may
Laissez-faire Anything goes fluctuate between authoritarian (to the point of
(might be very Neglectful parent abuse) and laissez-faire, with abdication of parental
indulgent) No one cares roles. One of the most difficult issues that children
Withdrawal from parental in dysfunctional families face is the inconsistency.
responsibilities Dependable families in which children understand
the guidelines and can communicate with and rely
Dysfunctional Alcohol- or drug-addicted on their parents are extremely important to children’s
(includes Neurotic or mentally ill mental health.
authoritative, Abusive
If the types of families are multiplied by the
authoritarian, and
number of configurations of families (single, two-
laissez-faire families)
parent, and blended) and the individual personality
23
DIVERSITY OF FAMILIES
differences of each child and parent, it becomes two roles, but in the 20th century, the importance
apparent that to work effectively with parents, of fathers’ roles in their children’s development
teachers and child-care workers must individualize underwent change based on social conditions and
their suggestions and responses. beliefs as well as research in child development.
In the 21st century, fathers exhibit willingness to
provide expanded roles as companions, standard
Insights for Teachers and Administrators setters, guidance counselors, play partners, teachers,
1. Realize that all parents are going to have differ- providers, caregivers, and role models. The National
ent parenting styles, and each style will have its Center for Fathering (2010) lists the following situ-
own needs. Get to know parents in order to better ations for many fathers in the United States today:
communicate with them regarding their children. adoptive dad, at-home dad, divorced dad, noncusto-
Conduct a needs-assessment survey to identify dial dad, single dad, stepdad, traveling dad, special
the needs of parents depending on their parent- needs–kids dad, and urban dad. Also very impor-
ing style. Provide 1-hour parenting workshops that
tant but not listed is the married dad.
target all parenting styles. Provide additional
The Children’s Bureau, established in 1912, pro-
resources for those parents who need them.
2. Provide a variety of opportunities for parents to vides information to families about caring for their
become involved in the school or classroom. Have infants in the publication Infant Care. Historically,
a list ready for the first day of school. although fathers were mentioned in the publication,
3. Adopt before- and after-school programs that the advice was directed to mothers. Fathers were not
offer enriching activities for the child and safe considered as important to the child’s development
child care for the family. until the 1940s. Awareness of the father as a gender-
4. Keep the parents informed on the progress of role model came about toward the end of World
their child. Set aside some time each week during War II, but it was not until the 1970s that the role
which the parents can telephone you or contact of nurturant father was emphasized (Lamb, 1997).
you via e-mail. Some advocates for fathers argue that in the
5. Initiate telephone calls at a convenient time for
20th century, fathers were viewed as superfluous:
both you and the parents to share something
positive about the child. Texting a short message
“The retreat from fatherhood began in the 1960s,
will brighten a parent’s day. Hold a get-acquainted gained momentum in the 1970s, and hit full stride
evening program for parents. Ask them to fill out in the 1980s” (Horn, 1997, p. 24). In the 1990s, how-
a chart so they may share needs with others. ever, organizations that focused on fathers emerged,
Allow parents to decide on the extent of their including the National Institute for Responsible
participation. Fatherhood and Family Development, Promise
6. Use the Internet to share class information. E-mail Keepers, National Centers for Fathering, and the
individual parents to share positive comments
about the class or the child. Take digital photos dur-
ing classroom activities and e-mail them to parents
(make sure you have permission to photograph).
7. Videotape class activities or programs that are
important to the children so that the parents who
were unable to attend may view them later.
8. Make home visits at a time convenient for the
family.
GREATER INVOLVEMENT OF
FATHERS WITH THEIR CHILDREN
From the Puritan times until industrialization, a
“good” father was the breadwinner and provider
of moral guidance. Fathers have long held these All children need a nurturing relationship with their fathers. Corbis
RF
24
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
queste discussioni, e forse anche certe gravi difficoltà incontrate in
alcuni punti più oscuri della questione l’avevano indotta a chiudere in
un cassetto i suoi voluminosi quaderni di note.
— Se però sente parlar di macchine, — conchiusi — piglia subito
fuoco anche adesso. Stia attento, avvocato, lei non sa a che cimento
si mette.
Incuriositi da questo racconto, meravigliati dall’arditezza della tesi, e
ormai dimentichi del precedente discorso, si volsero tutti verso la
nuova interlocutrice invitandola a svolgere la sua teoria.
— Avanti, signora, — incoraggiò sorridendo il Rosetti. — Vediamo se
convince anche me, che ho spesa metà della vita a insegnare la
meccanica.
Ed ella, che aveva già finito di far colazione, stava appoggiata alla
spalliera della sedia, con le mani in grembo, sorridendo, un po’
incerta e impacciata, come chi, slanciatosi troppo in principio, tituba
poi quando se ne avvede. Sinchè si risolvè e si avviò con una certa
esitanza da prima e rinfrancandosi poi, a mano a mano che
procedeva nel discorso.
— Quello che io penso della macchina.... Dirlo non è facile, così, in
poche parole.... Intendo sopratutto le macchine moderne, l’orgoglio
dei nostri tempi, quelle mosse dal vapore o dall’elettricità. Orbene:
perchè dopo averle fabbricate, dimentichiamo che sono fattura delle
nostre mani e ci inginocchiamo davanti a loro! Perchè esse
producono la ricchezza più velocemente e in maggiore abbondanza
che le mani. Non è così? Ma allora è facile argomentare quel che
occorre, perchè le macchine possano renderci servigio per davvero.
Occorre innanzi tutto che abbondino le materie greggie: se no, che
cosa trasformeranno? Secondo: che abbondi il capitale; perchè si
richiede molto capitale per fabbricarle e metterle in opera. Terzo: che
dell’oggetto fabbricato ci sia grande e urgente richiesta: vera carestia
o quasi: se no, non ci sarebbe ragione di fabbricarne tanti, con tanta
fretta, spesa e fatica. Mi sono spiegata chiaro? Carestia, dunque, ho
detto. Ma può la carestia essere permanente, eterna, continua? Io
direi di no: perchè in una maniera o nell’altra, presto o tardi, per
necessità, qualunque sia l’oggetto desiderato, consumo e bisogno si
devono adeguare.... O crescono i mezzi per soddisfare il bisogno o il
bisogno scema: di qui non si scappa, parrebbe. Quindi la macchina
non dovrebbe poter servire, a giudicare a lume di buon senso, che in
tempi di straordinaria carestia, per soddisfare in poco tempo una
richiesta grande e urgentissima. Per servire di continuo occorrerebbe
che esistesse anche la carestia permanente....
Le premesse del breve discorso erano riuscite lucidissime a tutti: ma
non così le conclusioni.
— La carestia permanente?... — disse l’Alverighi. — Ma neppur ora
capisco. Lo ha detto anche lei che la carestia non può essere eterna!
— La macchina fa l’abbondanza, non la carestia — osservò
l’ammiraglio.
— Anche questo — rispose la Gina — è un punto oscuro assai:
chiarirlo non è facile.... Bisognerebbe forse che raccontassi la storia
della macchina....
Fece una pausa, e poi risolutamente, sempre rivolgendosi
all’ammiraglio: — Per qual ragione — disse — crede lei, ammiraglio,
che la grande industria a macchina sia nata proprio in Inghilterra e
proprio alla fine del secolo XVIII?
— Perchè sino allora — rispose invece dell’ammiraglio l’Alverighi —
nessun popolo era stato così intelligente e ardimentoso da iniziare
un tanto rivolgimento. L’America riconoscerà sempre all’Inghilterra
questa gloria, anche quando l’avrà spogliata del suo impero
industriale.
— E come spiega, allora — chiese la Gina — che nessun popolo
d’Europa sia stato sino alla seconda metà del settecento più avverso
alle macchine dell’Inghilterra? Il governo le proibiva, e gli operai le
rompevano.... Perchè l’Inghilterra aspetta a convertirsi tra il 1770 e il
1790; e quando si converte si mette a filare e a tessere con le
macchine non, per esempio, la lana, che in Inghilterra era un’arte
antichissima, secolare, paesana, ma il cotone che era ancora un’arte
dell’India? «Indiennes, bengalines, calicot», che è Calcutta: i nomi
dicono chiaro donde venivano, nel seicento e nel settecento, i panni
di cotone che si consumavano in Europa e nelle colonie d’America.
La Francia e l’Olanda erano le nazioni che ne facevano il maggior
commercio con l’India: non l’Inghilterra, che anzi, a certi momenti
aveva perfino tentato di proibire ai suoi sudditi i panni di cotone, per
proteggere i panni paesani.... Ma ecco in quel ventennio l’Inghilterra
vince invece l’Olanda e la Rivoluzione lega le mani alla Francia:
l’Inghilterra resta dunque padrona dei mari e allora la vediamo fare
ad un tratto il suo repentino voltafaccia. Perchè? L’Inghilterra non è
mai stata molto originale; lascia di solito gli altri provar le cose
nuove; ma in compenso sa agguantare con risolutezza quando il
momento è giunto. E l’Inghilterra capì allora che quelle macchine
tanto odiate sino allora, che parevano dei sogni di menti bislacche,
potevano servirle in quel momento unico e passeggero, se lo sapeva
cogliere, a spogliar l’India di quella sua antica arte; a conquistare in
pochi anni i mercati dell’America e dell’Europa, che erano stati sino
allora clienti dell’India. E difatti subito, con diritti enormi, proibì
l’esportazione dei tessuti dall’India: obbligò gli Indiani a venderle il
cotone greggio; abolì tutti i divieti emanati prima contro il cotone;
vuotò con questa violenza e fece la carestia nei mercati d’Europa e
di America; monopolizzò la materia greggia. Nel tempo stesso portò
alle stelle gli spregiati inventori di macchine e li incoraggiò con ogni
sorta di premi; vide infatti apparire tra gli altri Watt e Arkwright;
moltiplicò le filature meccaniche, inchiodò al telaio di giorno e di
notte, nelle città e in campagna, nelle case loro e in laboratori,
uomini, donne, vecchi, fanciulli: si scervellò per inventar ogni sorta di
macchine; e in pochi anni l’importazione del cotone greggio e
l’esportazione delle stoffe quadruplicò, se ben ricordo. Nel 1815,
quando l’uragano della rivoluzione dileguò, il mondo si ritrovò in
grembo questa specie di nuovo mostro inaspettato — la grande
industria a macchina — che era nato in mezzo a quella tempesta.
Una delle più spaventose convulsioni della storia lo aveva vomitato
all’improvviso sulla terra.... E avrebbe dovuto sparire, quando il
mondo si ripacificò. Poichè insomma questo grande sforzo era stato
fatto per sfrattare una situazione momentanea, insolita, quasi unica,
che non poteva nè durare nè ripetersi.... Invece il mostro visse, anzi
prolificò....
Ma in quel momento la macchina del «Cordova» fischiò, roca, bassa,
rabbiosa.
— L’equatore, l’equatore! — gridammo, balzando in piedi, tutti,
fuorchè il capitano che, deponendo pacatamente il tovagliolo,
sorrideva e faceva cenno di no con il capo, mentre i camerieri si
avvicinavano sussurrando ossequiosamente:
— È mezzogiorno!
Ma ormai la conversazione era stata scompigliata da quel fischio
improvviso; chi si era levato non si sedette più: uno dopo l’altro si
avviarono tutti verso l’uscio. Andammo quasi tutti a tribordo, ad
aspettar che l’ufficiale venisse a segnare sulla carta il percorso,
discutendo intanto animatamente intorno alle macchine. Ma — oh
delusione — non eravamo giunti che a un grado e 29 minuti di
latitudine, a 30 gradi e 11 minuti di longitudine! Non c’era quindi
speranza di trapassare nell’altro emisfero prima di sera: ci disse
l’ufficiale. L’ora era caldissima: sul sole si era disteso un velo di
vapori sottile ed ardente: nell’immensa cerchia dell’orizzonte, le
nuvole si accavallavano, facevano montagne, grigie alle basi,
abbaglianti le vette: il mare e il cielo si scolorivano, nell’afa velata e
annuvolata che pesava sull’Oceano. Ad uno ad uno, ci disperdemmo
al riposo, nelle cabine, dopo aver convenuto che a pranzo, la sera,
avremmo continuato il discorso intorno alle macchine.
La mia signora spesso mi aveva ripetuto che in questo secolo si può
negar Dio, la patria, la famiglia, ma la macchina no; chè il dubitar
della macchina sembra un folle ardimento non meno che l’oppugnare
ancora la rotazione della terra o l’immoto stare del sole. Mi coricai
per la siesta, pensando che essa aveva proprio ragione. Quella sua
non premeditata interruzione era stata bastevole a suscitare di
improvviso una nuova discussione, più animata ancora e più ardente
delle precedenti.
II.
III.