Performance Characteristics

of Measurement Systems
• Choosing the Right Instrument
 Performance
 Qualitative Comparison
• Performance of Instrument
 Response of instrument for given input
 Response of instrument for same input at
different times and / or different circumstances
 Response of instrument for different inputs

Static Characteristics
• Static Characteristics
• Dynamic Characteristics

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Static Characteristic
• Measurement of quantities that are
constant or vary only quite slowly.
• It
is the steady state relationship between
input and output of an instrument.
• Does not involve differential equations.
• Allthe static performance characteristics
are obtained by static calibration.

Static Characteristics
 Static Calibration gives all the Static
Characteristics of the Instrument

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Dynamic Characteristics
• Measurement of rapidly varying
quantities.
• Dynamic relationship between input and
output is studied (using differential
equation).
• Static
Characteristics influence the
dynamic performance. Differential
equations become non-linear and complex.

Static Characteristics
 Dry Fiction, Backlash, Hysteresis ignored
• Overall performance
 Semi-quantitative superposition of static
and dynamic characteristics
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 Principle Characteristics of an
Instrument
Linearity Range
Hysteresis Span
Resolution Sensitivity
Static Characteristics
Drift Dead Band
Threshold Backlash
Instrument Error Accuracy
Repeatability Reliability
Reproducibility Sensitivity
Dynamic
Characteristics Time Constants

Static Characteristics
Frequency Response
Transient Response
Frequency

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Accuracy and Inaccuracy
• Accuracy of an instrument is defined as
closeness of the instrument output to the
true value of the measured quantity.
• It
is normally expressed as % deviation or
inaccuracy of the measurement from true
value.
• Inaccuracy is the extent to which a
reading might be wrong.

Static Characteristics
• The term measurement uncertainty is
also used in place of inaccuracy.
• Itis often quoted as a percentage of the
full-scale (FS) reading of an instrument.
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Accuracy and Inaccuracy
• Percentage of Full Scale is common but some times
Percentage True Value is also used.
 Percentage true value = 100 x (measured value -
true value)/ (true value)
 Percentage Full scale Deflection = 100 x (measured
value - true value ) / (maximum scale value )
• If, for example, a pressure gauge of range 0 – 10
bar has a quoted inaccuracy of ±1.0% full scale,
then the maximum error to be expected is ….
 10 bar - ±0.1 bar, 5 bar - ±0.1 bar
 1 bar - ±0.1 bar 0.5 bar - ±0.1 bar
• If, for example, a pressure gauge of range 0 – 10

Static Characteristics
bar has a quoted inaccuracy of ±1.0% true value,
then the maximum error to be is ….
 10 bar - ±0.1 bar, 5 bar - ±0.05 bar
 1 bar - ±0.01 bar 0.5 bar - ±0.005 bar

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 Static Characteristics
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Bias and Precision
• Accuracyis expressed in terms of bias
and precision.
• Errors
are due to systematic errors (Bias)
and random errors (Precision).
• Inaccuracy is due to both the errors.
• Inaccuracydue to systematic errors is
called as Bias.
 Bias can be removed by proper
calibration.

Static Characteristics
• After removal of bias, the error is entirely
due to random errors.
 This is imprecision or non-repeatability .
 This can be removed by multiple readings.
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Precision
• Precision is defined as ability of the instrument to
reproduce a certain set of readings within a given
accuracy.
• Highly precise equipment will give same output
for given input when reading is repeated number
of times.
• If precision or precision error is 1 % then repeated
readouts of same input information will lie with
±1% .
• Precision of instrument depends upon factors

Static Characteristics
causing random/accidental errors.
• Extent of random errors or precision of given set of
measurement can be quantified by statistical methods
only.
 Averaging of multiple readings eliminates imprecision.
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Precision
• If a large number of readings are taken of the same
quantity by a high precision instrument, then the spread of
readings will be very small.
• Precision is often, though incorrectly, confused with
accuracy. A highly precise instrument may have a low
accuracy.
• Precise instrument need not be accurate and vice-versa.
• Low accuracy measurements from a high precision
instrument are normally caused by a bias in the
measurements, which is removable by recalibration.

Static Characteristics
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Interpretation of accuracy & precision

(d) Low precision,

high accuracy

Static Characteristics
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Repeatability & Reproducibility
• Repeatability describes the closeness of output
readings when the same input is applied
repetitively over a short period of time, with
the same measurement conditions, same
instrument and observer, same location and
same conditions of use maintained throughout.
• Reproducibility describes the closeness of
output readings for the same input when there
are changes in the method of measurement,
observer, measuring instrument, location,
conditions of use and time of measurement.

Static Characteristics
• Associated with studies rather than
instruments. An universally accepted
phenomenon is always reproducible.
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Resolution / Discrimination
• It is defined as smallest increment in measured
quantity that can be detected with certainty by the
instrument.
• Indicates fineness of measurement.
• Normally least count is equal to the resolution.
• High resolution can detect smallest possible
variation in input.
• Threshold is Particular case of resolution where
smallest measurable input over zero.

Static Characteristics
• Digital readout resolution is the smallest displayed
digit or value of the last digit. Needs attention in
analogue devices.

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Threshold
• If the input to an instrument is
gradually increased from zero, the input
will have to reach a certain minimum
level before the change in the
instrument output reading is of a large
enough magnitude to be detectable.
• This minimum value of input necessary
to cause detectable output is known as
the threshold of the instrument.

Static Characteristics
• Main cause of threshold is friction.

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Resolution & Threshold
• Detectable
 Reading should change
 Value can be defined confidently
 Normal Scale & Vernier

• Both are specified in absolute value or % of full

scale deflection.
• Manufacturer may quote absolute values or as a
percentage of full-scale readings.
 Car speedometer with threshold of about 5 km/h.
This means, if the vehicle starts from rest and

Static Characteristics
accelerates, no output reading is observed on the
speedometer until the speed reaches 5 km/h

• Both are not zero

 friction, backlash, inertia, parallax
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Static Sensitivity / Scale factor /
Gain
• Ratio of the magnitude of response (output
signal) to the magnitude of the quantity being
measured (input signal).
• Units of input signal - quantity measured
• Units of output signal - actual scale being read
 Linear / angular displacement and pointer etc.,
 Sensitivity of spring balance - xxxx mm / N
 Thermocouple - xxx µ V/ºc

Static Characteristics
• Reciprocal of sensitivity - Inverse sensitivity /
Deflection factor

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• Static sensitivity is determined from the result of
Static Calibration.
Change in output signal
• Static sensitivity, K =
Change in input signal

Δqo
=
Δqi
• Static sensitivity is slope of input-output curve if the
ordinates are represented in actual units.
• If instrument is linear static sensitivity is constant
otherwise varies with input value.

Static Characteristics
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 Static Characteristics
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Linearity

• An element is said to be linear if corresponding values of I

and O lie on a straight line.

Static Characteristics
• The ideal straight line connects the minimum point
A(IMIN, OMIN ) to maximum point B(IMAX, OMAX) and
therefore has the equation:
 OMAX − OMIN 
O − OMIN =   (I − I MIN )
 I MAX − I MIN  19
Linearity
• If instruments calibration curve is not linear,
it can still be highly accurate.
• Linearity is always desirable.
 Scale conversion.
 In control system - design and analysis is easy.
• Linearity is a measure of the maximum
deviation of any calibration points from the
reference best fit straight line.
 % of the actual reading ±A OR

Static Characteristics
 % of full scale reading ±B

• Combination of the above methods.

 ±A and ±B whichever is greater

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 Static Characteristics
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Hysteresis
• It is the magnitude of error caused in the output
for a given value of input, when this value is
approached from opposite directions.(ascending
order and then descending order).
 Backlash
 Elastic deformation
 Magnetic characteristics
 Friction - main cause
 Anelasticity (Internal Friction)
 Time varying relationship

Static Characteristics
• Hysteresis effects are eliminated by taking
observations both for ascending and descending
values of input and then taking Arithmetic
Mean.

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 Static Characteristics
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 Static Characteristics
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Range and Span
• Range is defined by lower and upper
limits in which the instrument is
designed to work.
 Unidirectional
 0 to 1000 C
 Bidirectional
 -10 to 1200 C
 Over-range
 Recovery Time

• Spanis algebraic difference between

Static Characteristics
upper and lower limits.
• Dynamic Range
 Ratio of largest to smallest limit
 60 dB → (1000 / 1) = N → 20 log (N)
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• Dead Band
 It is defined as the largest change of measurand
to which the instrument does not respond.

• Backlash
 It is defined as the maximum distance or angle
through which any part of the mechanical
system may be moved in one direction without
causing motion of next part.
 Input-Output characteristics are similar to
hysteresis (coulomb’s Friction).

Static Characteristics
 Errors can be minimized by close tolerances and
minimum clearances.

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Dry Friction / Backlash

Static Characteristics
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Drift
• It is defined as the variation of output for a
given input, caused due to change in
sensitivity of the instrument to certain
interfering inputs.
 Temperature changes
 Component instability
 Humidity
• Electronic instrument with electron tubes
drift considerably for first 15 minutes.

Static Characteristics
 This error can be minimized by switching on
instrument 30 minutes , before use.
Temperature of all component is stabilized
and drift is minimized.

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Environmental effects
• All calibrations and specifications of an
instrument are only valid under controlled
conditions of temperature, pressure etc.
• These standard ambient conditions are usually
defined in the instrument specification.
• As variations occur in the ambient temperature,
etc., certain static instrument characteristics
change, and the sensitivity to disturbance is a
measure of the magnitude of this change.
• Such environmental changes affect instruments
in two main ways, known as zero drift and

Static Characteristics
sensitivity drift.
• Zero drift is sometimes known by the alternative
term, bias.

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 Static Characteristics
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Zero drift or bias
- the zero reading of an
instrument is
modified by a change in
ambient conditions.
- causes a constant error
that exists over the full
range of measurement of
the instrument.

Sensitivity drift or scale

factor drift

Static Characteristics
- defines the amount by
which sensitivity of an
instrument varies as
ambient conditions change.
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