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Instant Access to Practical Quantum Computing for Developers: Programming Quantum Rigs in the Cloud using Python, Quantum Assembly Language and IBM QExperience 1st Edition Vladimir Silva ebook Full Chapters

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Practical Quantum
Computing for
Developers
Programming Quantum Rigs in the
Cloud using Python, Quantum Assembly
Language and IBM QExperience

Vladimir Silva
Practical Quantum
Computing for Developers
Programming Quantum Rigs in the
Cloud using Python, Quantum
Assembly Language and IBM
QExperience

Vladimir Silva
Practical Quantum Computing for Developers: Programming Quantum Rigs in the
Cloud using Python, Quantum Assembly Language and IBM QExperience
Vladimir Silva
CARY, NC, USA

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-4217-9 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-4218-6


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-4218-6
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018966346

Copyright © 2018 by Vladimir Silva


This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the
material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
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The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not
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proprietary rights.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication,
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omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the
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Printed on acid-free paper
Table of Contents
About the Author����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ix

About the Technical Reviewer��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xi


Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xiii

Chapter 1: The Bizarre and Awesome World of Quantum Mechanics���������������������� 1


The Golden Age of Physics in the Twentieth Century�������������������������������������������������������������������� 2
Max Planck and the Ultraviolet Catastrophe Started It All������������������������������������������������������������ 2
Bohr’s Quantum Jump������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 4
Clash of Titans: Quantum Cats and the Uncertainty Principle������������������������������������������������������� 5
Enter the Almighty Wave Function������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 7
Probabilistic Interpretation of ψ: The Wave Function Was Meant to Defeat Quantum
Mechanics Not Become Its Foundation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 8
The Quantum Cat Attempts to Crash Born’s Probabilistic Party���������������������������������������������� 9
Uncertainty Principle������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 10
Interference and the Double Slit Experiment������������������������������������������������������������������������� 11
Einstein to Bohr: God Does Not Throw Dice�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 13
Bohr to Einstein: You Should Not Tell God What to Do����������������������������������������������������������������� 14
Entanglement and the EPR Paradox: Spooky Action at a Distance��������������������������������������������� 15
Bell’s Inequality: A Test for Entanglement����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
EPR Paradox Defeated: Bohr Has the Last Laugh����������������������������������������������������������������������� 18
Reality Playing Tricks on Us: Is Everything Interconnected?������������������������������������������������������� 21

iii
Table of Contents

Chapter 2: Quantum Computing: Bending the Fabric of Reality Itself�������������������� 23


The Transistor Is in a Collision Course with the Laws of Physics������������������������������������������������ 24
Five-Nanometer Transistor: Big Problem������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 26
Quantum Scale and the Demise of the Transistor����������������������������������������������������������������������� 29
Electron Tunnelling���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 29
Slit Experiments�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 37
Possible Futures for the Transistor��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 38
Enter Richard Feynman and the Quantum Computer������������������������������������������������������������������ 38
The Qubit Is Weird and Awesome at the Same Time������������������������������������������������������������������� 40
Superposition of States��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 41
Entanglement: Observing a Qubit Reveals the State of Its Partner��������������������������������������� 42
Qubit Manipulation with Quantum Gates������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 43
Qubit Design�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 49
Quantum Computers vs. Traditional Hardware���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57
Complex Simulations������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 58
Molecular Modelling and New Materials������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 58
Sophisticated Deep Learning������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 59
Quantum Neural Networks (QNN) and Artificial Intelligence (AI)������������������������������������������� 61
Pitfalls of Quantum Computers: Decoherence and Interference������������������������������������������������� 62
Decoherence (Longevity)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 62
Quantum Error Correction (QEC)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64
The 50-Qubit Processor and the Quest for Quantum Supremacy����������������������������������������������� 66
Quantum Annealing (QA) and Energy Minimization Controversy������������������������������������������������� 68
2000 Qubits: Things Are Not As They Seem��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 69
Quantum Annealing: A Subset of Quantum Computing��������������������������������������������������������� 70
Universal Quantum Computation and the Future������������������������������������������������������������������������ 73
Google and Quantum Artificial Intelligence��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 73
Quantum Machines in the Data Center���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 74
The Race Is Going Global������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75
Future Applications���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 76

iv
Table of Contents

Chapter 3: Enter the IBM Q Experience: A One-of-a-Kind Platform for


Quantum Computing in the Cloud��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 77
Getting Your Feet Wet with IBM Q Experience����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 78
Quantum Composer��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 79
Quantum Gates���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 79
Quantum Backends Available for Use������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 82
Opus 1: Variations on Bell and GHZ States���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 89
Bell States and Spooky Action at a Distance������������������������������������������������������������������������� 89
Even Spookier: GHZ States Tests������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 94
Super Determinism: A Way Out of the Spookiness. Was Einstein Right All Along?���������������� 98
Remote Access via the REST API���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 101
Authentication��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 102
List Available Backends������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 103
Get Calibration Information for a Given Processor�������������������������������������������������������������� 106
Get Backend Parameters����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 108
Get the Status of a Processor’s Queue�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 111
List Jobs in the Execution Queue���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 112
Get Account Credit Information������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 114
List User’s Experiments������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 115
Run Experiment������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 117
Run a Job���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 123
Get the API Version�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 126
A Node JS Client for the IBMQuantumExperience��������������������������������������������������������������������� 127
Build a Node Module for IBMQuantumExperience��������������������������������������������������������������� 128
Export API Methods������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 129
Authenticate with a Token��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 130
List Backends���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 133
List Calibration Parameters������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 134
Run the Experiment������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 136
Debugging and Testing�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 138
Share with the World: Publish Your Module������������������������������������������������������������������������� 140

v
Table of Contents

Chapter 4: QISKit, Awesome SDK for Quantum Programming in Python�������������� 143


Installing the QISKit������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 143
Setting Up in Windows�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 144
Setting Up in Linux CentOS�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 145
Qubit 101: It’s Just Basic Algebra��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 149
Algebraic Representation of a Quantum Bit������������������������������������������������������������������������ 151
Changing the State of a Qubit with Quantum Gates������������������������������������������������������������ 153
Universal Quantum Computation Delivers Shortcuts over Classical Computation�������������� 160
Your First Quantum Program����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161
SDK Internals: Circuit Compilation and QASM��������������������������������������������������������������������� 166
Running in a Real Quantum Device������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 175
Quantum Assembly: The Power Behind the Scenes������������������������������������������������������������������ 188

Chapter 5: Start Your Engines: From Quantum Random Numbers to


Teleportation, Pit Stop at Super Dense Coding����������������������������������������������������� 193
Quantum Random Number Generation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 193
Random Bit Generation Using the Hadamard Gate�������������������������������������������������������������� 194
Putting Randomness Results to the Test����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 200
Super Dense Coding������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 201
Circuit for Composer������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 204
Running Remotely Using Python����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205
Looking at the Results��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 208
Quantum Teleportation�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 210
Circuit for Composer������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 212
Running Remotely Using Python����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 213
Looking at the Results��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 219

Chapter 6: Fun with Quantum Games������������������������������������������������������������������� 223


Quantum Battleship with a Twist���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 224
Setup Instructions��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 225
Initialization������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 225
Set Ships in the Board��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 227
Main Loop and Results�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 229
vi
Table of Contents

Cloud Battleship: Modifying for Remote Access����������������������������������������������������������������������� 236


Exercise 1: Decouple the User Interface from the Game Logic������������������������������������������� 237
Exercise 2: Build a Web Interface for the Ship-Bomb Boards���������������������������������������������� 238
Exercise 3: Deploy and Troubleshoot in Apache HTTPD������������������������������������������������������� 241
Solution 1: A Reusable Python Program������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 241
Solution 2: User Interface���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 248
Solution 3: Deploy and Test������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 262
Troubleshooting������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 265
Further Improvements��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 267

Chapter 7: Game Theory: With Quantum Mechanics, Odds Are Always in


Your Favor������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 283
Counterfeit Coin Puzzle������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 284
Counterfeit Coin, the Quantum Way������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 286
Step 1: Query the Quantum Beam Balance������������������������������������������������������������������������� 287
Step 2: Construct the Quantum Balance������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 289
Step 3: Identify the False Coin��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 290
Generalization for Any Number of False Coins�������������������������������������������������������������������� 292
Mermin-Peres Magic Square���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 293
Mermin-Peres Magic Square Exercise�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 295
Quantum Winning Strategy�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 296
Shared Entangled State������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 296
Unitary Transformations������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 298
Measure in the Computational Basis����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 305
Answers for the Mermin-Peres Magic Square Exercise������������������������������������������������������ 310

Chapter 8: Faster Search plus Threatening the Foundation of Asymmetric


Cryptography with Grover and Shor��������������������������������������������������������������������� 313
Quantum Unstructured Search�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 314
Phase Inversion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 315
Inversion About the Mean���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 316
Practical Implementation���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 318
Generalized Circuit�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 321

vii
Table of Contents

Integer Factorization with Shor’s Algorithm������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 325


Challenging Asymmetric Cryptography with Quantum Factorization���������������������������������� 325
Period Finding��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 327
Shor’s Algorithm by ProjectQ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 331

Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 339

viii
About the Author
Vladimir Silva holds a Master’s degree in Computer science from Middle TN State
University. He worked for 5 years for IBM as a Research Engineer where he acquired
extensive experience in distributed and Grid computing.
He holds numerous IT certifications, including OCP, MCSD, and MCP, and has
written many technical articles for IBM developerWorks. His previous books include Grid
Computing for Developers (Charles River Media), Practical Eclipse Rich Client Platform
(Apress), Pro Android Games (Apress), and Advanced Android 4 Games (Apress).
An avid marathon runner, with over 16 races completed all over the state of NC
(by the time of this writing), when not coding, writing or running he enjoys playing his
classic guitar and pondering about awesome things like Quantum Mechanics.

ix
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About the Technical Reviewer
Jason Whitehorn is an experienced entrepreneur and
software developer and has helped many oil and gas
companies automate and enhance their oilfield solutions
through field data capture, SCADA, and machine learning.
Jason obtained his Bachelor of Science in Computer Science
from Arkansas State University, but he traces his passion
for development back many years before then, having first
taught himself to program BASIC on his family’s computer
while still in middle school.
When he’s not mentoring and helping his team at work,
writing, or pursuing one of his many side projects, Jason enjoys spending time with his
wife and four children and living in the Tulsa, Oklahoma region. More information about
Jason can be found on his website: ­https://jason.whitehorn.us

xi
Introduction
I wrote this book to be the ultimate guide for programming a quantum computer in the
cloud. Thanks to the good folks at IBM Research, this is now possible. IBM has made
their prototype quantum rig (known as the IBM Q Experience) available not only for
research but for individuals in general interested in this field of computing.
Quantum computing is gaining traction, and now is the time to learn to program
these machines. In years to come, the first commercial quantum computers should be
available, and they promise significant computational speedups compared to classical
computers. Consider the following graph showing the time complexities for two large
integer factorization algorithms: the best classical algorithm, the Number Field Sieve, vs.
the quantum factorization algorithm developed by Peter Shor.

xiii
Introduction

Shor’s algorithm provides a significant speedup over the Number Field Sieve for a
problem, that is, the foundation of current cryptography. A practical implementation of
this algorithm will render current asymmetric encryption useless!
All in all, this book is a journey of understanding. If you find the concepts explained
throughout the chapters difficult to grasp, then you are not alone. The great physicist
Richard Feynman once said: If somebody tells you he understands quantum mechanics, it
means he doesn’t understand quantum mechanics. Even the titans of this bizarre theory
have struggled to understand what it all means.
I have tried to explore quantum computation to the best of my abilities by using real-­
world algorithms, circuits, code, and graphical results. Some of the algorithms included
in this manuscript defy logic and seem more voodoo magic than a computational
description of a physical system. This is the main reason I decided to tackle this subject.
Even though I find it hard to understand the mind-bending principles of quantum
mechanics, I’ve always been fascinated by this awesome theory. Thus when IBM came
up with its one-of-a-kind quantum computing platform for the cloud, and opened it up
for the rest of us, I jumped to the opportunity to learn and create this manuscript.
Ultimately, this is my take on quantum computing in the cloud, and I hope you find
as much enjoyment reading it as I got writing it. My humble advice: Learn to program
quantum computers; soon they will be ever present in the data center, doing everything
from search and simulations to medicine and artificial intelligence. You name it. In
general terms, the manuscript is divided into the following chapters:

C
 hapter 1: The Bizarre and Awesome World
of Quantum Mechanics
It all began in the 1930s with Max Planck, the reluctant genius. He came up with a
new interpretation for the energy distribution of the light spectrum. He started it all by
unwillingly postulating that the energy of the photon was not described by a continuous
function, as believed by classical physicists, but by tiny chucks he called quanta. He was
about to start the greatest revolution in science in this century: quantum mechanics. This
chapter is an appetizer to the main course and explores the clash of two titans of physics:
Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr. Quantum mechanics was a revolutionary theory in the
1930s, and most of the scientific establishment was reluctant to accept it, including the
colossus of the century: Albert Einstein. Fresh from winning the Nobel Prize, Einstein
never accepted the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics. This caused a rift with
xiv
Introduction

its biggest champion: Niels Bohr. The two greats debated it out for decades and never
resolved their differences. Ultimately, quantum mechanics has withstood 70 years
of theoretical and experimental challenges, to emerge always triumphant. Read this
chapter and explore the theory, experiments, and results, all under the cover of the
incredible story of these two extraordinary individuals.

C
 hapter 2: Quantum Computing: Bending the Fabric
of Reality Itself
In the 1980s, another great physicist – Richard Feynman – proposes a quantum
computer, that is, a computer that can take advantage of the principles of quantum
mechanics to solve problems faster. The race is on to construct such a machine. This
chapter explores, in general terms, the basic architecture of a quantum computer:
qubits, the basic blocks of quantum computation. They may not seem like much, but
they have almost magical properties: superposition; believe it or not, a qubit can be
in two states at the same time: 0 and 1. This concept is hard to grasp at the macroscale
where we live. Nevertheless, at the atomic scale, all bets are off. This fact has been proven
experimentally for over 70 years. Thus superposition allows a quantum computer to
outmuscle a classical computer by performing large amounts of computation with
relatively small numbers of qubits. Another mind bender is qubit entanglement:
something that, when explored, seems more like voodoo magic than a physical
principle. Entangled qubits transfer states, when observed, faster than the speed of light
across time or space! Wrap your head around that. All in all, this chapter explores all
the physical components of a quantum computer: quantum gates, types of qubits such
as superconducting loops, ion traps, topological braids, and more. Furthermore, the
current efforts of all major technology players in the subject are described, as well as
other types of quantum computation such as quantum annealing.

C
 hapter 3: Enter the IBM Q Experience: A One-of-a-
Kind Platform for Quantum Computing in the Cloud
In this chapter, you will get your feet wet with the IBM Q Experience. This is the first
quantum computing platform in the cloud that provides real or simulated quantum
devices for the rest of us. Traditionally, a real quantum device will be available only for

xv
Introduction

research purposes. Not anymore, thanks to the folks at IBM who have been building this
stuff for decades and graciously decided to open it up for public use.
Learn how to create a quantum circuit using the visual Composer or write it down
using the excellent Python SDK for the programmer within you. Then execute your
circuit in the real thing, explore the results, and take the first step in your new career as a
quantum programmer. IBM may have created the first quantum computing platform in
the cloud, but its competitors are close behind. Expect to see new cloud platforms in the
near future from other IT giants. Now is the time to learn.

C
 hapter 4: QISKit, Awesome SDK for Quantum
Programming in Python
QISKit stands for Quantum Information Software Kit. It is a Python SDK to write
quantum programs in the cloud or a local simulator. In this chapter, you will learn how
to set up the Python SDK in your PC. Next, you will learn how the quantum gates are
described using linear algebra to gain a deeper understanding of what goes on behind
the scenes. This is the appetizer to your first quantum program, a very simple thing
to familiarize yourself with the syntax of the Python SDK. Finally you will run it in a
real quantum device. Of course, quantum programs can also be created visually in the
Composer. Gain a deeper understanding of quantum gates, the basic building blocks of a
quantum program. All this and more is covered in this chapter.

C
 hapter 5: Start Your Engines: From Quantum
Random Numbers to Teleportation, Pit Stop at
Super Dense Coding
This chapter is a journey through three remarkable information processing capabilities
of quantum systems. Quantum random number generation explores the nature of
quantum mechanics as a source for true randomness. You will learn how this can be
achieved using very simple logic gates and the Python SDK. Next, this chapter explores
two related information processing protocols: super dense coding and quantum
teleportation. They have exuberant names and almost magical properties. Discover
their secrets, write circuits for the Composer, execute remotely using Python, and finally
interpret and verify their results.
xvi
Introduction

C
 hapter 6: Fun with Quantum Games
In this chapter, you will learn how to implement a basic game in a quantum computer.
For this purpose, we use the quintessential Quantum Battleship distributed with the
QISKit Python tutorial. The first part looks at the mechanics of the game, yet we don’t
stop there. The second part of this chapter takes things to the next level by giving it a
major face-lift. In this part, you will put Quantum Battleship in the cloud by giving it a
browser-based user interface, an Apache CGI interface to consume events and dispatch
them to the quantum simulator, and more. Impress your friends and family by playing
Quantum Battleship with your web browsers in the cloud.

C
 hapter 7: Game Theory: With Quantum Mechanics,
Odds Are Always in Your Favor
This is a weird one, even for quantum mechanics standards. This chapter explores
two game puzzles that show the remarkable power of quantum algorithms over their
classical counterparts: the counterfeit coin puzzle and the Mermin-Peres Magic Square.
In the counterfeit coin puzzle, a quantum algorithm is used to reach quartic speedup
over the classical solution for finding a fake coin using balance scale a limited number of
times. The Mermin-Peres Magic Square is an example of quantum pseudo-telepathy or
the ability of players to almost read each other’s minds achieving outcomes only possible
if they communicate during the game.

C
 hapter 8: Faster Search plus Threatening the
Foundation of Asymmetric Cryptography with
Grover and Shor
This chapter brings proceedings to a close with two algorithms that have generated
excitement about the possibilities of practical quantum computation: Grover’s search, an
unstructured quantum search algorithm capable of finding inputs at an average of square
root of N steps. This is much faster than the best classical solution at N/2 steps. It may not
seem that much, but, when talking about very large databases, this algorithm can crush it
in the data center. Expect all web searches to be performed by Grover’s in the future. Shor’s
integer factorization: The notorious quantum factorization that experts say could bring
current asymmetric cryptography to its knees. This is the best example of the power of
quantum computation by providing exponential speedups over the best classical solution.
xvii
CHAPTER 1

The Bizarre and


Awesome World of
Quantum Mechanics
The story of quantum mechanics is a fable of wonder and bewilderment. It has elements
of science, philosophy, religion, and dare I say magic. It’ll turn your mind upside down,
and sometimes it’ll make you question the existence of an all-powerful creator out there.
Even though I find its concepts difficult to grasp, I’ve always been fascinated by it. Some
of the concepts presented in this chapter are hard to understand; however don’t be
troubled. Nobody has been able to fully describe what this all means, not even the titans
of physics fully understand quantum mechanics. However that doesn’t mean we can’t be
fascinated by it. The great physicist Richard Feynman once said: If somebody tells you he
understands quantum mechanics, it means he doesn’t understand quantum mechanics.
This chapter is my take on this fascinating fable and how the struggle of two titans of
science shaped its past, present, and future.
It all began in the 1930s, after Albert Einstein rose to world fame with the theory of
special relativity which built upon Newtonian physics to unify the heavens and the earth.
While Einstein was looking to the heavens, a new breed of scientists were looking at the
very small. Spearheaded by giants of physics such as Max Planck, Ernest Rutherford, and
Niels Bohr, it started a clash of titans and one of the greatest debates of physics in the
twentieth century – on one side, Albert Einstein, fresh from winning the Nobel Prize for
his groundbreaking discoveries on the nature of light and special relativity and, on the
other side, Niels Bohr, whose contributions to the field of quantum mechanics would
earn him a Nobel Prize in 1922 and the prestigious Order of the Elephant, a Danish
distinction normally reserved for royalty. Let’s take a look how the struggle between
these two greats shaped the science masterpiece, that is, quantum mechanics.

1
© Vladimir Silva 2018
V. Silva, Practical Quantum Computing for Developers, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-4218-6_1
Chapter 1 The Bizarre and Awesome World of Quantum Mechanics

The Golden Age of Physics in the Twentieth Century


At the beginning of the twentieth century, British scientist Ernest Rutherford made a
startling discovery about the nature of the atom. He postulated that atoms look like
tiny solar systems, made of a tiny nucleus with positive charge and electrons negatively
charged rotating like tiny planes around it. This was a remarkable insight as it was
previously believed that the atom was a simple spherical blob of mass with positive and
negative charges.
Bohr arrived at Rutherford’s lab in Cambridge in 1920 and fell in love with
Rutherford’s model of the atom, but there was a problem, and a big one. If classical
Newtonian physics are applied to Rutherford’s model where negatively charged
electrons rotate around a positively charged nucleus, the electron will eventually fall
inside and crash against the nucleus creating a catastrophic paradox. Nothing should
exist, as electrons will crash in a matter of seconds. Bohr saw this, and with undeterred
excitement, he delayed his marriage and canceled his honeymoon in an effort to save
Rutherford’s model. Bohr postulates in a paper that electrons move in fixed orbits that
cannot change. This goes against the basis of Newtonian physics but draws upon new
ideas from the father of quantum mechanics, Max Planck.

 ax Planck and the Ultraviolet Catastrophe


M
Started It All
Planck suggested that heat and light come in units that cannot be divided, which he
called “energy quanta.” Planck’s idea came from his efforts to solve the black-body
radiation experiments where a body that completely absorbs all radiation (heat) inside
it has a cavity that allows some radiation to escape (see Figure 1-1). As the heat increases
inside the box, the frequency of the radiation reaches ranges visible to the human eye,
glowing at different colors. It was well known by porcelain makers at the time that all
bodies produce fixed colors at given temperatures (see Table 1-1).

2
Chapter 1 The Bizarre and Awesome World of Quantum Mechanics

Figure 1-1. Black-body radiation experiment results

Table 1-1. Light Colorization at


Different Temperatures

Temperature (°C) Color

500 Dark red


800 Cherry red
900 Orange
1000 Yellow
1200 White

3
Chapter 1 The Bizarre and Awesome World of Quantum Mechanics

Figure 1-1 shows the black-body radiation experiment along with the results
provided by the classical theory of radiation curves collected from experiments in the
1890s. Classical physicist’s experiments predicted infinite intensities for the ultraviolet
spectrum. This became known as the ultraviolet catastrophe and was the product of
dubious theoretical arguments and experimental results. If true, this would mean, for
example, that it will be dangerous to seat anywhere close to a fireplace! Planck sought to
find a solution to the ultraviolet catastrophe.
Planck used the second law of thermodynamics also known as entropy to derive a
formula for the experimental results derived from the black-body radiation problem.

S = k log W

This is Boltzmann’s entropy (S), where k is known as the Boltzmann’s constant and
W is the probability that a particular arrangement of atoms will occur for an element be
that a solid, liquid, or gas.
Using Boltzmann’s statistical method to calculate entropy, Planck sought a formula
to match the results of the black-body experiment. By dividing the total energy (e) in
chunks proportional to the frequency (f ), he came up with the equation:

e = hf

where e is a chunk of energy, h is known as the Planck constant, and f is the frequency.
Yet, he faced an obstacle; Boltzmann’s statistical method demanded the chunks
decrease to zero over time. This will nullify his equation and thus defeat its validity. After
much struggle, Planck was forced reluctantly to postulate that the energy quantity must
be finite. And here comes Planck’s incredible insight; if this is correct, it meant that is not
possible for an oscillator to absorb or emit energy in a continuous range. It must absorb
or emit energy in small indivisible chunks of e = hf which he called “energy quanta,”
hence the term quantum mechanics.

Bohr’s Quantum Jump


Bohr applied Plank’s groundbreaking idea of energy quanta to the atom, the smallest
unit of matter. He provided a bold description of the relationship of the atom and light
where the electron which rotates around the nucleus will emit or absorb light causing a
quantum jump. A quantum jump was therefore a transition between two states; however
Bohr was incapable of fully describing it.

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Chapter 1 The Bizarre and Awesome World of Quantum Mechanics

This idea was met with skepticism by other scientists who labelled his theory as
nonsense, a cheap excuse for not knowing, or too bold, too fantastic to be true. The
result was a rift in the physics community with one camp around Bohr believing in the
quantum nature of matter and those supporting the classical view. Einstein will soon
join the fight in the classical side of the struggle.

 lash of Titans: Quantum Cats and the Uncertainty


C
Principle
By the mid-1920s the new theory about the quantum nature of matter is in shaky
ground facing the real prospect of an early demise. It will take two new groundbreaking
discoveries to solidify its foundation.
The first came around 1926 when German physicist Werner Heisenberg sought
to legitimize Bohr’s view by creating a mathematical description of the atom for
what is now known as matrix mechanics. This idea was considered too complex
to imagine even for the seasoned physicist. Nevertheless, Heisenberg’s greatest
contribution to the field is his famous uncertainty principle, which we will explore
next. A second discovery came from Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger who came
up with a new description of the atom not as a particle but as a wave. This idea built
upon arguments of Louis de Broglie, a French prince who postulated that particles
may exhibit wave properties and that duality may be necessary to understand the
nature of light (see Figure 1-2).

Figure 1-2. Duality of the nature of the photon. It behaves as both a particle and
wave.

5
Chapter 1 The Bizarre and Awesome World of Quantum Mechanics

de Broglie used both Einstein’s famous equation for energy E = mc2 and
Planck’s energy quanta e = hf to find a relation between the wavelength (λ) and the
momentum (P) of a photon:
E = mc2 = (m c) * c
Given that (mc) is the momentum (P) of the photon and c (speed) = f
(frequency) * λ (wavelength), the equation becomes:
E = (P) (f λ)
But wait, Planck’s relation states that energy E = (h)(f); thus using basic algebra,
de Broglie concluded:
h * f = P * (f λ)
h=P*λ
λ=h/P

de Broglie showed that the wavelength of a photon decreases as the momentum


increases (see Figure 1-3). By analogy, he proposed that this relation was true not only
for photons but for all particles. Given that at the time, the momentum of the electron
P = (mass)*(velocity) could be easily determined via experiment; this meant that
the wavelength could be calculated from de Broglie’s equation! The idea seemed
preposterous at the time, as classical physicists knew that the electron was a particle, a
discovery made long ago by J. J. Thomson in 1897.

Figure 1-3. de Broglie relation between the wavelength and the momentum of a photon
6
Chapter 1 The Bizarre and Awesome World of Quantum Mechanics

Schrödinger used de Broglie’s ideas to find an approach that was more acceptable
to the status quo, marking a return to the continuous, visualizable world of classical
physics. He was right about his wave function but dead wrong about appeasing the
status quo.

Enter the Almighty Wave Function


Schrödinger sought to find a function that could be applied to any physical system
for which a mathematical form of energy is known, thus creating his notorious wave
function denoted by the Greek symbol ψ (pronounced Psi - see Figure 1-4). The wave
function uses Fourier’s method of solving equations by expressing any mathematical
function as the sum of an infinite series of other periodic functions. This technique is
called the method of eigenvalues (eigen being the German word for “certain” – a term
that is commonplace in quantum physics). Schrödinger wave function was immediately
accepted as a mathematical tool of exceptional power for solving problems related to the
atomic structure of matter and is considered to be one of the greatest achievements of
the twentieth century.

Figure 1-4. Schrödinger famous wave function sought to describe any physical
system with known energy

7
Chapter 1 The Bizarre and Awesome World of Quantum Mechanics

Bohr and Heisenberg joined forces with Schrödinger given the incredible power
of his wave function, but they needed to work out their differences first. It all took
place in 1926 at a newly formed institute in Copenhagen where the three giants met to
discuss.
Schrödinger rejected the Bohr/Heisenberg concept of discontinuous quantum
jumps in the atom structure. He wanted to use his new discovery as a pathway back to
the continuous process of physics undisturbed by sudden transitions. He was in fact
proposing a classical theory of matter based entirely on waves, even to the point of
doubting the existence of particles. Schrödinger proposed that particles are in fact a
superposition of waves, a claim that was later proved wrong by Hendrik Lorentz who
brought him to his senses, proving that you can’t win them all after all. Schrödinger
will later waver in his conviction on the importance of wave motion as the source of all
physical reality.
Bohr, Heisenberg, and Schrödinger argued relentlessly until the point of exhaustion.
Bohr demanded absolute clarity in all arguments, trying to force Schrödinger to admit
that his interpretation was incomplete, Schrödinger clinging to his classical view,
sometimes bemoaning his work on atomic theory and quantum jumps (something that
he probably didn’t mean).
Schrödinger loathed Bohr interpretation of the atomic structure. A final piece was
required before these two could come to terms on a solid quantum theory.

 robabilistic Interpretation of ψ: The Wave Function


P
Was Meant to Defeat Quantum Mechanics Not Become Its
Foundation
Just like when the great rock guitarist Jimi Hendrix heard the tune Hey Joe, released a
cover, and made it his own, thus creating arguably one of the greatest tune covers, so
did the fathers of quantum mechanics. They realized the tremendous power of the
wave function and made it their own. A little factoid about this story is that Schrödinger
detested Planck’s noncontinuous interpretation of energy and heat. He wanted to use
his smooth and continuous wave function to defeat Planck’s energy quanta. It is hard to
believe, but in the 1930s, Planck’s discovery was so revolutionary that most physicists
thought he was nuts. Nevertheless, just as Hendrix did with that tune, the founders of
quantum mechanics will make the wave function theirs.

8
Chapter 1 The Bizarre and Awesome World of Quantum Mechanics

A breakthrough came from German physicist Max Born, who developed the idea of
the wave function as the probability of an electron for a given state to scatter in some
direction. Born stated that the probability (P) of the existence of a state is given by the
square of the normalized amplitude of the wave function, that is, P = |ψ|2. This was
groundbreaking at the time as Born claimed no more exact answers; all we get in atomic
theory are probabilities. This brand new idea took Bohr interpretation of the atom in an
entirely new direction (see Figure 1-5).

Figure 1-5. Bohr vs. Max Born probabilistic view of the wave function

T he Quantum Cat Attempts to Crash Born’s


Probabilistic Party
As Born’s idea about the probabilistic nature of ψ gained traction, Schrödinger
through his wave function was being misused, and that originated the famous thought
experiment that will be later known as the quantum cat, a story that you probably heard
of. In the experiment, Schrödinger sought to rebuff Born’s probabilistic interpretation
of ψ. It goes like this: a live cat is placed in a box with a radioactive source that triggers
the release of a hammer that breaks a flask with poison that will kill the cat. Assuming
a 50% probability of radioactive decay per hour, after one hour the mechanism
will be triggered, thus killing the cat. Schrödinger claimed that according to Born’s
interpretation, quantum theory will predict that after one hour, the box would contain

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the wound appears united, you may try each thread with a pair of
forceps; should any appear loose, then withdraw it, for after division
it can be of no use, and may provoke irritation; however, should it be
retained, employ no force; have patience, and it will come forth
without man's interference.
Feed liberally, regulate the
bowels by mashes and green
meat; smear the wound with oil
of tar to dispel the flies; for
should the accident happen
during the warmer months,
these pests biting and blowing
upon so delicate a part as the
eye may occasion more harm
than our best efforts can rectify.
When the lid is bitten through,
the operation is precisely THE LID, WHEN
DIVIDED BY THE
similar; the divided edges are to TEETH,
be brought together by sutures. BROUGHT
To prevent needless repetition, TOGETHER BY
an engraving of the bitten lid, MEANS OF
after the operation has been SUTURES.
performed, is here presented.

IMPEDIMENT IN THE LACHRYMAL DUCT.

The lachrymal duct in the horse is a small canal leading from


the eye to the nostril; it commences by two very minute openings
near the terminations of the upper and lower lids, at the inner
corner of the eye; it emerges upon the dark skin which lines the
commencement of the horse's nostril, being on the inner side of the
internal membrane. Its use is to carry off the superflux of tears;
hence, with human beings, who have a like structure, "much
weeping at the theaters provokes loud blowing of noses."
The channel being so minute, any substance getting into it soon
becomes swollen with the moisture and closes the passage. The
tears cannot escape, and being secreted, flow upon the cheek. The
perpetual stream pouring over a part not designed for such uses,
causes the hair to fall off, and thus forms gutters, along which the
fluid continues to run. The flesh at length excoriates, and numerous
sores are established; the lids swell and become raw at the margins;
the conjunctiva reddens, and the transparency of the cornea is
greatly lessened by the spread of inflammation.
The wretched animal in this
condition presents a very
sentimental appearance to a
person ignorant of the facts of
the case. The swollen lid,
because of its weight, is
permitted to close over the eye,
while the tears, flowing fast
upon the cheek, with the
general dejection, gives the
creature an aspect of weeping
over some heavy affliction.
Like the late William
Percivall, whose works on
A HORSE'S HEAD, veterinary subjects remain a
DISPLAYING monument to his memory, the
OBSTRUCTION author has encountered but a
OF THE single case of this description; it
LACHRYMAL
GLAND.
was in a matured but not a very
aged animal. The report was,
that a year ago it had been
attacked by influenza; the lid then enlarged, and the near cheek had
been wet ever since.
Referring to the pages of Percivall's "Hippopathology," the author
procured a thin, elastic probe, about twelve inches long; the horse
being cast, and an assistant holding the upper lid, the probe was
introduced at the inner corner of the eye, by the lower opening to
the duct; the entrance was easy enough, but the passage was soon
obstructed; then the probe was inserted at the opening of the duct
within the nostril. The way in this direction was longer, but the end
came at last, without any good being effected. Next, a syringe being
charged, the fine point was introduced up the nasal termination of
the duct, the power of the jet effectually removing every
impediment; the water streamed through the upper openings, and
the horse was sent home cured.
The writer saw the animal six months subsequent to the
operation; it was apparently in excellent health, and obviously in
amended condition. The owner said the horse soon got well after it
reached home; but, being pressed to say how great a duration
"soon" represented, he rejoined "about six weeks, perhaps."
Three months afterward, however, the horse was once more
brought with "watery eye," and again operation was successful. The
proprietor then received back and soon sold the creature, which
being past the age when horses are most valuable, seemed likely to
become an expensive retainer.
CHAPTER III.
THE MOUTH—ITS ACCIDENTS AND ITS
DISEASES.

EXCORIATED ANGLES OF THE MOUTH.

Let no man punish a horse for want of obedience; the sole use of
the creature and its only delight is to obey. Let no person abuse it
for having a hard mouth, or for not answering to the rein. Man had
the formation of the mouth, and its condition can be no fault in the
possessor; the horse's pleasure is the gratification of its master.
Observe the antics of the nag thoroughly trained and perfectly up to
the rider's point of jockeyship. Does not every fiber seem to quiver
with excess of happiness? There is a tacit understanding between
man and horse; the pretty arts and graceful prancings of the animal
tell how joyful it is made by the conviction that it is sharing man's
amusement. But let the equestrian dismount, and another, above or
below the horse's educational point, assume the saddle, that
understanding no longer exists. The harmony is destroyed; there is
no intelligence between horse and man. All the playfulness
disappears; the entire aspect of the animal is changed, and it sinks
to a commonplace "ugly brute."
The majority of drivers are very particular about the horse's
mouth; yet they all abuse the animal as though it was their desire to
destroy that which each professes to admire. Every supposed error
is punished with the lash, but the whip can convey no idea; the lash
does not instruct the animal; beat a horse all day, and it will only be
stupid at sunset. All the horse can comprehend from the smart is a
desire that the pace should be quickened; that wish it endeavors to
comply with. The person who guides the vehicle generally becomes
fanatic at such perversity; he begins "jagging" and "sawing" the
reins. The iron is violently pulled against the angles of the mouth, or
rapidly passes from one side to the other. Would the owner or driver
take the trouble to instruct his dumb servant in his wishes, the poor
drudge would rejoice to exhibit its accomplishments. But no
information is communicated by first urging and then checking; the
timidity is increased by the one, the angles of the mouth are
excoriated by the other.
Ladies' horses invariably have admirable mouths; ladies generally
are very poor equestrians, yet they encounter few accidents. Men,
who ride better, are oftener thrown and hurt. The gentleness of the
woman, or the sympathy existing between two gentle beings,
produces this effect The horse is never dangerous when not
alarmed; the feminine hand pats the neck of the steed; the feminine
voice assures the timidity; the whip never slashes; the reins are
never converted into instruments of torture; the weight is light and
the pace is easy. A perfect understanding is soon established
between the two, and the rider, notwithstanding her weakness, her
indifferent jockeyship, and her flapping dress, sits the saddle in
safety, while the animal increases in value under her care.
VARIOUS MODES OF FORMING THAT WHICH ALL MEN SPEAK OF WITH
ADMIRATION, AS A "GOOD MOUTH."

Man certainly does not gain by the contrast; the male treatment
does not improve the animal. The horse's memory, like that of most
dumb creatures, is very tenacious; the quadruped is not made more
steady by ill usage; the sore corners of the mouth oblige the animal
to be laid up "for a time," and the expense of medical treatment
increases the sacrifice consequent upon loss of services.
Trouble attends the circumstance, at which the favorite groom is
sure to grumble, even if the master does not receive "notice." The
food must be prepared; a few oats thrown into the manger, and a
little hay forked into the rack will not now suffice; all the provender
must be carefully prepared. At first, good thick gruel and hay tea
must be the only support. In a few days, boiled and mashed roots
may be introduced; these may be followed by cut roots boiled, but
not mashed, the whole being succeeded by scalded hay with bruised
and mashed oats. When all is
done however, the horse's
temper is not improved, and its
mouth is decidedly injured.
Such results will vex the temper
of any good groom, and very
many it will anger to the
throwing up of their situations.
They "will not get a horse into
beautiful condition for master
only to spoil."
EXCORIATED ANGLES OF THE
When the horse is thus MOUTH.
injured, ignore all filthy
ointments; such things consist
of verdigris, carbonate of zinc, horse turpentine, blue, green or white
vitriol, mixed up with dirty tallow or rank lard. Now, to grease a
horse's teeth is not much worse than to tallow its lips; if the former
prevent it from feeding, the latter is not calculated to improve the
appetite.
Discarding all unguents, have the following lotion prepared:—
Chloride of zinc Two scruples.
Water Two pints.
Essence of aniseed A sufficiency.
Pour some of this into a saucer, and, with anything soft, apply
the lotion to the sore places; do not rub or scrub; do your
ministering gently; so the parts are wet, no further good can be
accomplished; use this wash after every feeding or watering. In a
little while amendment is generally perceptible; where violence has
been used, it is impossible to foretell the extent of the injury. A
superficial slough may be cast off; this process is attended with
fetor; that the lotion will correct, and thus add to the comfort of the
horse. The cure, however, will possibly leave the horse of a lessened
value; where the skin has been destroyed it is never reproduced; the
wound will, therefore, probably
blemish, and may lead a future
purchaser to suspect "all sorts
of things." The horse is
certainly deteriorated; with the
skin the natural sensibility of
the part is lost. A cicatrix,
consisting only of condensed
cellular tissue, must form upon
the spot; this structure is very
feebly, if at all, nervous, and
PERMANENT when compared to the smooth
BLEMISH AND and soft covering of the lips,
DESTRUCTION OF may be said to be without
THE NICE
feeling, and is very liable to
SENSIBILITY OF
THE MOUTH. ulceration.

PARROT-MOUTH.

This, strictly speaking, is not a disease; it is a malformation; the


upper incisors, from those of the lower jaw not being sufficiently
developed, meet with no opposing members; they consequently
grow very long, and from their form are likened to the bill of a
parrot.
This formation is not unsoundness, but it cannot be a
recommendation; the horse can only gather up its corn imperfectly;
much falls from the mouth during mastication. The animal which
requires four feeds and a half daily to support the condition another
maintains upon four feeds, must be the more expensive retainer of
the two. Moreover, it is a virtue in a horse to thoroughly clear out
the manger; a healthy animal not only licks out corners to catch
stray grains, but hunts among the straw for any corns that may have
fallen. This duty the parrot-mouth disables a horse from performing;
the good feeder alone is equal to the work.
Besides, a rider is always
pleased, when sauntering down the
green lanes during the spring of the
year, to see the horse's neck
stretched out to catch a twig of the
shooting hedge; this can do no
harm; but it is hard alike upon
horse and man to always have a
tight hold of the rein when the
fresh scent of the budding thorn
tempts the mouth to its enjoyment.
And yet, in the majority of COPIED FROM
THE AUTHOR'S
instances, it would be cruelty to WORK,
yield and permit the parrot-mouth ENTITLED "THE
to bite; the under teeth very often HORSE'S
rest against the palate. No more MOUTH,"
need be said to caution owners PUBLISHED BY
MESSRS.
possessed of an animal thus FORES,
afflicted, against a natural PICCADILLY.
indulgence. The parrot-jaw is a
deformity for the perpetuation of
which man is responsible; dispositions and formations are hereditary.
Would the owners of stock only exercise some judgment in their
selections, this misfortune might speedily be eradicated.

LAMPAS.

The horse's lot is, indeed, a hard one; it is not only chastised by
the master, but it also has to submit to the fancies of the groom.
"Lampas" is an imaginary disease, but it is a vast favorite among
stable attendants. Whenever an animal is "off its feed," the servant
looks into the mouth, and to his own conviction discovers the
"lampas." That affection is supposed to consist of inflammation,
which enlarges the bars of the palate and forces them to the level of
or a little below the biting edges of the upper incisor teeth.
Would the groom take the
trouble to examine the mouths
of other young horses which
"eat all before them," the THE LAMPAS IRON.
"lampas" would be ascertained
to be a natural development; but the ignorant always act upon faith,
and never proceed on inquiry. Young horses alone are supposed to
be subject to "lampas;" young horses have not finished teething till
the fifth year. Horses are "broken" during colthood; they are always
placed in stables and forced to masticate dry, artificial food before all
their teeth are cut; shedding the primary molars is especially painful;
of course, during such a process, the animal endeavors to feed as
little as possible. A refusal to eat is the groom's strongest proof that
lampas is present. But, putting the teeth on one side, would it be
surprising if a change of food and a total change of habit in a young
creature were occasionally attended with temporary loss of appetite?
Is "lampas" necessary to account for so very probable a
consequence? The writer has often tried to explain this to stable
servants; but the very ignorant are generally the very prejudiced.
While the author has been talking, the groom has been smiling;
looking most provokingly knowing, and every now and then shaking
his head, as much as to say, "ah, my lad, you can't gammon me!"
Young horses are taken from the field to the stable, from juicy
grass to dry fodder, from natural exercise to constrained stagnation.
Is it so very astonishing if, under such a total change of life, the
digestion becomes sometimes deranged before the system is
altogether adapted to its new situation? Is it matter for alarm should
the appetite occasionally fail? But grooms, like most of their class,
regard eating as the only proof of health. They have no confidence
in abstinence; they cannot comprehend any loss of appetite; they
love to see the "beards wagging," and reckon the state of body by
the amount of provision consumed.
The prejudices of ignorance
are subjects for pity; the
slothfulness of the better
educated merits reprobation.
The groom always gets the
master's sanction before he
takes a horse to be cruelly
tortured for an imaginary
disease. Into the hands of the
BURNING FOR LAMPAS.
proprietor has a Higher Power
intrusted the life of His
creature; and surely there shall
be demanded a strict account of the stewardship. It can be no
excuse for permitting the living sensation to be abused, that a
groom asked and the master willingly left his duties to another. Man
has no business to collect breathing life about him and then to
neglect it. Every human being who has a servant, a beast or a bird
about his homestead, has no right to rest content with the
assertions of his dependents. For every benefit he is bound to confer
some kindness. His liberality should testify to his superiority; but he
obviously betrays his trust and abuses the blessings of Providence
when he permits the welfare of the creatures, dependent on him, to
be controlled by any judgment but his own.
The author will not describe the mode of firing for lampas. It is
sufficient here to inform the reader that the operation consists in
burning away the groom's imaginary prominences upon the palate.
The living and feeling substance within a sensitive and timid animal's
mouth is actually consumed by fire. He, however, who plays with
such tools as red-hot irons cannot say, "thus far shalt thou go." He
loses all command when the fearful instrument touches the living
flesh: the palate has been burnt away, and the admirable service
performed by the bars, that of retaining the food during mastication,
destroyed. The bone beneath the palate has been injured; much
time and much money have been wasted to remedy the
consequence of a needless barbarity, and, after all, the horse has
been left a confirmed "wheezer." The animal's sense being confused,
and its brain agitated by the agony, the lower jaw has closed
spasmodically upon the red-hot iron; and the teeth have seized with
the tenacity of madness upon the heated metal.
When the lampas is reported to you, refuse to sanction so
terrible a remedy; order the horse a little rest, and cooling or soft
food. In short, only pursue those measures which the employment
of the farrier's cure would have rendered imperative, and, in far less
time than the groom's proposition would have occupied, the horse
will be quite well and once more fit for service.

INJURIES TO THE JAW.

Save when needless severity urges timidity to madness, the


horse is naturally obedient. This is the instinct of the race. The
strong quadruped delights to labor under the command of the
weaker biped. Its movements are regulated by him who sits above
or behind it. It often waits for hours with its head pulled backward,
its mouth pained, and its eyes blinded. All its learning is attention to
the sounds of the human voice. It is guided by touches. It submits
to the whip when it might easily destroy the whipper. It eats, it
drinks, it rests only by man's permission. Yet there are such words
as "vice" and "spite" connected with the horse; but there remains to
be spoken the word which shall fitly characterize the self-sacrificing
life of the noble animal.
Man could not endure such tyranny, nor does the horse,
notwithstanding its submissive instinct, live under it very long. The
majority perish before they are eight years old. They are worked to
an early grave—often they are distorted before the body's growth is
completed. Is there any other life so serviceable? Is there any other
life which reads so sad a moral? For the time it is allowed to breathe
and labor, the horse patiently obeys its tyrant. It aids his vanity; it
conforms to his pleasure; it devotes strength, will, and life to man's
service.
Let every owner of a horse treat his slave with gentleness. Above
all things, let no individual employ the reins as instruments of
torture. The horse will neither be wiser nor better for such a mode
of punishment. Besides, the man may deteriorate his own or
another's property. With the bit a jaw has been broken; and with the
snaffle the bone has been injured. An animal with a good neck
carries the chin near to the chest. The iron of the snaffle, therefore,
cannot pull against the angles of the mouth. It rests upon the gums,
and because this point is by some disputed, the following illustration
of the fact is inserted.
The cruel bit is, however, in
general use with carriage
horses. Fashion delights in a
vehicle stopped smartly at a
door. The greatest noise
possible then announces the
new arrival. The wheels grate—
the horses struggle. The
coachman pulls hard—the
vehicle sways to and fro. The
footman jumps down and pulls
at the bell as though life and
death depended on a speedy
answer to his summons.
All this is, doubtless, very
THE SNAFFLE BEARING UPON THE pleasant, but how does it
LOWER JAW.
operate upon the poor horses?
These, to be pulled up
suddenly, must be thrown upon their haunches by the unscrupulous
use of the bit. The pressure often wounds more than the gums;
frequently the bone of the lower jaw is bruised. The gum then must
slough, and a portion of bone must be cast off. The exfoliation of
bone is a tedious process accompanied with an abominable stench.
The surgeon must be constantly in attendance; otherwise the gum
might close over the exfoliating bone and numerous sinuses might
be established within the mouth. The exfoliated substance must
come away. The abscess, which would announce its retention, would
be more painful than the open wound, and ultimately would turn to
a foul and ragged ulcer. Such an injury may occur wherever the bit
rests, before or behind the tush, and a similar injury, though not to
the same extent, will result from an unscrupulous use of the snaffle.
Supposing a case of this description is submitted to your notice
upon the day succeeding its occurrence. No change is anticipated,
such as would denote a bruise to other structures. The covering to
the gums is thick and hard, and it will conceal much that may be
taking place beneath it. If any spot be darker, redder, or whiter in
color,—if any place be more sensitive than the adjacent parts, the
knife is there inserted till it grate upon the bone. The extent of the
necessary incision is decided by the efforts made in resistance. A
thin fluid may issue from the orifice; but when the knife grates upon
the bone, then the animal's struggles announce the extent of the
bruise. Sound bone may be cut, scraped, or even burnt with
impunity; but when bruised or otherwise diseased, the structure is
most acutely sensitive.
When the wound emits its characteristic odor, a lotion composed
of chloride of zinc, one scruple; water, one pint; ess. of aniseseed a
sufficiency, should be syringed into the openings, several times
during the day. The lotion, also, has a tendency to heal the sores,
which must be counteracted by the employment of the knife.
Occasionally, however wide the incision, it may be too small for the
cast off bone to escape from. The knife again must enlarge the
orifice, and the forceps be inserted to grasp the exfoliated
substance. That taken away, the lotion is continued and the injury
left to heal at Nature's pleasure.
The late W. Percivall, in his
excellent work, entitled
"Hippopathology," describes
horses as sometimes injured
under the tongue by the port of
the bit. An engraving,
representing such an injury, is
given; but it is hoped no
gentleman of the present day
would employ the severe
THE EFFECTS invention by which alone such a
PRODUCED ON
THE LOWER JAW
hurt could be produced. The
BY THE consequences may be lasting.
ENERGETIC USE The terminations of the
OF THE SNAFFLE sublingual ducts are included in
OR BIT. the blackness. Were these
The most forward bruised and inflamed, their
and smaller mark
indicates the
delicate mouths might be
injury usually obliterated and hopeless fistula
done by pulling at be established.
the snaffle. The
more backward The bit must be sharply and
dark place strongly tugged at before it can
indicates the spot harm the roof of the mouth.
where tugging at Any one who has seen horses
the bit bruises the
pulled up before a fashionable
bone of the lower
jaw. mansion must have observed
them open wide their mouths.
They do this to escape the
wound of the bit. The animals extend their jaws to prevent it striking
the roof of the mouth. Notwithstanding the existing age is more
civilized than those which preceded it, the bits used at the present
time can, without any vast display of genius, be made to injure the
obedient animal, for whose mouth such ferocious checks are forged.
An injury thus inflicted is sufficiently serious. The bony roof not only
supports the bars, but also forms the solid floor of the nostrils. As it
is not very thick, the greater is
the danger when it is injured.
The wound, because of the
unyielding substance on which
it is inflicted, is more painful
than that of the lower jaw. It is
also for the same reason more
severe.
The last injury demands the
same treatment as has already
been described, only the
remedies are far more difficult INJURY
to apply. Should the entire SOMETIMES
portion of bone exfoliate and a ACCOMPLISHED
WITH THE PORT
hole be left behind, the OF THE BIT.
consequence is not of fatal
import. Bone can reproduce
itself, though it is somewhat
eccentric in its growth. So after
the opening is closed, the surface
toward the nostrils may be
uneven, and the horse be
rendered an inveterate wheezer.
When the animal is once
THE UPPER JAW
injured, never, for your own INJURED BY
safety, afterward employ a bit. If THE
it be ridden or driven, always use BARBAROUS
a snaffle, and use even that most USE OF THE BIT.
tenderly. The horse has vivid
recollections, and man is naturally forgetful. When power is
entrusted to the oblivious, danger is apt to be close at hand.
The inferior margin of the jaw-bone is liable to harm from the
curb chain, and some men will have the curb chain tight. Such
people are commonly very imperious. They shout, and slash, and
tug when they want obedience from an animal whose delight is to
be allowed to please. Their meaning is seldom comprehended, and
therefore their orders are rarely obeyed; whereas, they would be
humbly propitiated, were their commands only given as though the
animal had no interest to rebel.
The result of such violence is, from the curb chain being
ruthlessly jerked, the jaw-bone soon enlarges. A portion of the bone
having been bruised, has to exfoliate; a foul abscess forms; tumor
speedily succeeds to tumor; osseous structure is thrown out and a
swelling is matured, before the enlargement heals.
The treatment of such a
case is similar to that already
directed. Keep the wound freely
open, to permit the unimpeded
exit of exfoliated bone. Use the
lotion, previously directed,
liberally and constantly. The
healing process may then take
place without deformity being
left behind.

TUMOR PROVOKED BY THE ABUSE


OF THE CURB CHAIN.

APHTHA.

Nothing proves the sympathy which binds nature more strongly


than the sameness or similarity of the diseases that affect man and
animals. Tetanus, pneumonia, enteritis, etc. are so alike as to be the
same in the human being and in the horse. From the cow was
derived the safe-guard from the ravages of the small-pox, and the
medical profession has, by its want of feeling, more than recognized
a likeness, linking humanity to the dog; in the motive which alone
could prompt abuse of a most affectionate animal.
It is a sad proof of the stubbornness of pride, that a unity, thus
enforced by suffering, should be ignored, as though it were an insult
to the superior. No compact, founded by nature, can be dependent
upon man's liking. The terms may be laughed at, scorned or denied,
but these exist. Man is declared in affliction to be the companion of
other life. When will this truth be acknowledged, and the entire
family of nature live in one brotherhood?
Aphtha is a human disorder as
well as an equine disease. It generally
appears in spring and autumn, being
produced by heat of body. May not a
slight attack of aphtha sometimes
explain that which the groom intends
by lampas? At all events, aphtha is
accompanied by dullness and a refusal
to feed. Both lips commonly swell as
the lethargy increases; the tongue
tumefies, becomes decidedly red, and
generally hangs out of the mouth,
partly for the sake of coolness, partly
to accommodate its enlarged size.
Around the mouth little lumps break
forth, which at first are stony hard,
and others, though of a larger size, APHTHA.
may be felt upon the tongue. Vesicles
are soon developed from these spots, and each contains a small
quantity of clear gelatinous fluid. The bladders burst; crusts form;
and by the time these fall off, the complaint has disappeared.
Some good thick gruel and a few boiled roots, which should be
repeatedly changed, must constitute the nourishment while the
disease lasts, or during the period that the mouth is sore. No
medicine; a little kindness is now worth a ship load of drugs. When
the pimples are about to burst, the following may be prepared:—
Borax Five ounces.
Boiling water One gallon.
Honey or treacle Two pints.
When the mixture has cooled, hold up the horse's head and pour
half a pint into the mouth. Half a minute afterward remove the
hand; allow the head to fall and the fluid to run out of the lips. This
mixture should be used several times during the day. Beyond this
nothing is needed, excepting a cool, loose box, a good bed, body
and head clothing, with flannel bandages, not too tight, about the
legs. Work should on no account be sanctioned until the last vestige
of the disorder has vanished, and its attendant weakness has
entirely disappeared.

LACERATED TONGUE.

Men who become proprietors of animal life undertake a larger


responsibility than the generality of horse owners are willing to
admit. They are answerable for their own conduct toward the dumb
existence over which they are legally invested with the right of
property; they are also morally accountable for the conduct of those
to whose charge they entrust their living possessions. The
appearance of those men who congregate about the stable doors of
the rich is not very prepossessing. Their looks express cunning far
more than goodness. Their long narrow heads denote none of that
wisdom which alone can comprehend and practice kindness for its
own sake. Their eyes and actions have a quickness at sad variance
with the affected repose of their manners. Their dress declares a
vanity, that is much opposed to the humility in which a wise man
loves to confide.
There is nothing about horses which should degrade men; yet it
cannot be denied, that the vast majority of stable men are rogues.
How can this be accounted for? Is it difficult to understand, when we
see the unlimited trust put into a groom's hands, and the common
abuse of confidence by the man who enjoys it? No slave proprietor
possesses the power with which the groom is invested. It is true, the
slave owner can lash the flesh he terms his property. However, there
is in humanity a voice which puts some limit to the ill usage of the
negro. The groom can beat and beat again, at any time or in any
place. No voice can be raised in appeal to nature. The groom's
charge lives beneath him, and day or night is exposed to his tyranny.
He may chastise the body and steal the food, still, so no human eye
detect, the horse will quietly look upon the wronger it never can
accuse.
A good man would seek far, before he would repose so large a
trust in another person. The gentleman generally engages the
groom after a trivial questioning. His desire is to have a servant
entirely corrupt; one who asserts a knowledge how to trick animals
into health. No examination is made into the real character of the
applicant. A vast confidence is off-hand reposed in an individual who
may be without a single moral attribute. Who deserves blame for
such an abuse of responsibility? He who has been educated into
knowingness, and, having become thoroughly degraded, esteems
himself fully qualified for the situation he demands to fill, or he who,
having the benefit of education, and being blessed with leisure for
self-inquiry, shirks his duty and transfers his authority to unworthy
hands?
STICKING TO A HORSE.

Every groom fancies he knows how to compound something he


calls a condition ball,—that is, a certain mixture of drugs, which shall
bring a living body suddenly into "tip-top" health. A bevy of
companions are invited to see "Jim give a ball." They duly arrive,
and part of the horse's tongue is speedily made to protrude from the
mouth, this portion being firmly held by "Jim's" free hand. The
condition ball is in "Jim's" other hand, and the exhibition consists in
the marvelous adroitness with which the ball can be introduced
between the animal's jaws. The horse soon sympathizes with the
excitement that surrounds it. Jim, "quick as lightning," makes a
thrust with the ball, whereupon the startled animal raises the head
and retreats. "Stick to him, Jim!" "stick to him!" shout the visitors.
Jim does stick to him until his hand is covered with blood, or, without
quitting its gripe, suddenly loses the resistance, which constituted its
hold. Should it be the former, the frœnum of the tongue is ruptured,
and a wetted sponge soon clears the hand of the groom as well as
the mouth of the horse. A general curse and a kick under the belly
of the rebellious steed end the amusements for one day. Should it be
the latter, Jim finds the larger portion of the quadruped's tongue left
in his hand. This is an awful accident. The blood is wiped off, and
the groom next morning goes to his master with, "Please, sir, see
what 'Fugleman' has done in his sleep!"
A farmer engages a pretty-looking stable boy. The young scamp
is sufficiently a groom to glory in nothing so much as deception. The
farmer, however, takes this pretty boy to the fair, where an additional
horse is purchased. With the new "dobbin" the boy is entrusted,
being cautioned to lead it gently home. With numerous protestations
boy and horse depart, but have barely reached the suburbs before
the knowing youngster stops "dobbin," and, twisting the halter in "a
chaw," leads the animal to the nearest gate, where the lad climbs
upon its back.
"A chaw" is the slang short phrase for something to chew. This is
made by twisting the halter into the animal's mouth so as to encircle
the jaw. In this position the rope is thought by some knowing people
to answer the purposes of a bridle. To this rope the boy hangs,
rolling to either side; now, nearly off—and now, jerked from his seat,
as "dobbin," after repeated urgings, starts off into the lazy pretense
at a trot.
Anything inserted into a horse's mouth provokes the curiosity of
the animal. It is felt and poked about with the tongue, till at last the
lingual organ is, by the exercise of much ingenuity, inserted beneath
the obstacle. In this state of affairs, "dobbin" and the pretty boy
finish the latter half of the journey. The youngster laughing, as the
rough action of the horse bumps him up and down, he all the time
dragging at the halter. Before home is reached, night has set in; the
boy dismounts, and with all the simplicity his face can assume leads
"dobbin" to the homestead.
The boy is protesting about being so very tired after his long
walk, when the horse's mouth is discovered to be stained with blood.
The youthful expression of surprise exceeds that of the elder's. Next
the halter is found to be rich with the same fluid. The horse's mouth
is then opened, it is full of blood, and the tongue nearly cut through.
Accusations are made against the lad; at first they are replied to
with defiance; at last they are propitiated with tears, drawn forth by
the idea of honesty being suspected. Youthful knowing, however, is
not in the long run a match for the self-interest of age; and
perseverance is rewarded by a full confession.
"The chaw" is an artifice recognized in every stable. Grooms have
their tastes. It is very unpleasant to these gentry when they behold
some unmannerly horse hang back in the halter. Stalls are drained
into a main channel, situated at the edge of the gangway. The
pavement on which the animal stands consequently slants from the
manger to the footpath. This nice arrangement obliges the horse
always to stand with the toes in the air and throws the weight of the
body upon the back sinews. To ease its aching limbs the animal is
apt to go to the extent of its rope, so as to place the hind feet upon
the gangway, and even occasionally to give the toe an opposite
direction by allowing it to sink into the open drain. Such presumption
horrifies the groom's sense of propriety. The ignorant mind's idea of
beauty is "everything to match." He thinks all is so nice when the
animals dress to a line, like soldiers on parade. To have this line
preserved, even in his absence, he puts "a chaw" into the refractory
"brute's" mouth. This chaw is to be preserved night and day. The
tongue soon gets under the rope. Timidity is rendered yet more
fearful by persecution. The voice of the groom has become a terror
to the quadruped. It hangs back for ease, and is surprised by the
vehement exclamation of the tormentor. Back goes the neck and up
goes the head. The animal runs to its manger, but something has
fallen upon the floor! The horse was luxuriating in hanging back to
the full extent when surprised. The sudden start jerked the halter
rein, and the result is the free portion of the tongue falls from the
mouth, severed by the rope.
These are lamentable instances of the general behavior of
grooms to the creatures entrusted to their care. Nothing is so
corruptive as misplaced
authority. A little mind knows no
difference between the
possession of power and the
indulgence of tyranny. The use
and the abuse are synonyms to
the ignorant; and the sins
committed principally reside
with him who places the life
Heaven has entrusted to his ABUSE OF THE HALTER.
care in such unworthy custody.

When a tongue is partially


divided, do not insert sutures of
any kind. Metallic sutures
wound the fleshy palate, and
silk sutures soon slough out.
Neither, therefore, does good,
and each serves to confine the
food which enters the division.
Foreign matter irritates a wound THE TONGUE HEALED AFTER
and retards its healing. HAVING BEEN
Consequently, do nothing to the DEEPLY CUT BUT NOT SUNDERED.
tongue when partially divided. The jaw has been
Feed the patient on gruel until divided to show
the injured
the healing is complete, and tongue, as it
wash out the mouth thrice daily, would appear in
with some chloride of zinc the mouth.
lotion, one scruple of the salt to a. The indentation
a pint of water, after the at the seat of
manner described in the injury, and
which will remain
preceding article. so long as life
Should the tongue be shall continue.
separated to that extent which
divides the vessels, then, with a knife remove the lacerated part,
which otherwise being deprived of support, must slough off. Still do
nothing to the tongue afterward. Feed on thick gruel and wash out
the mouth with the lotion. A horse with half a tongue will manage to
eat and drink, but some food is spilt and some left in the manger.
Constant dribbling of saliva is the chief consequence of such an
injury. This is unpleasant, and arises from deglutition being injured.
A horse which has had the tongue lacerated only, but not divided,
forever retains the evidence of the injury; and as the food is apt to
accumulate at the point of union, the animal ever after demands
attention subsequent to every meal.

TEETH.

No fact is more discreditable to humanity than the small attention


it has wasted upon the beautiful lives entrusted to its charge. Mortal
pride asserts these creatures are given man for his use. Yes. But is
the full use obtained? Are not the lives sacrificed? The horse has
been the partner of mankind from the earliest period. For centuries
at least the animal has been watched throughout the day; yet, even
at this time, equine disorders are only beginning to be understood.
Does this fact denote that care which such a charge demanded?
Cutting the permanent teeth seems, in the horse, to be effected
at some expense to the system; it was a favorite custom with the
farriers of the last century to trace numerous affections to the
teething of the animal. Further inquiries have proved our
grandfathers knew positively nothing about those growths,
concerning which they assumed so much. The late W. Percivall
traced sickness in the horse to irritation, arising from cutting of the
tushes; there, however, our knowledge ends. Veterinarians have not,
as a rule, either leisure or the necessary power to observe those
animals it is their province to treat; they generally are but passing
visitors to the stables into which they are called. Those who have
studs of horses nominally placed under their charge feel they are
retained not to watch, but to physic the animals to which the groom
directs their attention.
The tushes of the upper jaw may, however, be fully up, and yet
not have appeared in the mouth; this fact is easily explained. The
advent of the tushes provoked acute inflammation of the membrane
covering the jaw. The horse was cured of the attendant
constitutional symptoms, but the cause of the disorder was
mistaken. The acute inflammation changed into chronic irritation.
The membrane, which in the first instance should have been lanced,
thickened and imprisoned the tush beneath it; an incision is even
now the only remedy, and should instantly be made.
Neither tushes nor incisors are known to be exposed to other
accidents; it is, however, different with the molar teeth. These teeth
consist of three components; bone or ivory constitutes the chief bulk
of the organ, and over that is spread a thin covering of inorganic
enamel, the whole being invested with a fibrous coating of crusta
petrosa. The enamel is the material on which the tooth depends for
its cutting properties; the manner in which the edge is preserved
deserves attention, for the brick-layer's trowel appears to have been
suggested by it. A thin coat of hard but brittle enamel is held
between the two other bulky and tough substances, just as a thin
layer of steel is protected by coatings of yielding iron in the house-
builder's instrument.
The highly organized crusta petrosa is often injured; to
understand this, we must first comprehend the vast power which
urges the jaw of the horse. The motion resides entirely in the lower
portion of the skull, which is moved by strong, very strong muscles,
going direct from their attachments to their insertions. No force is
lost by the arrangement, and no less a motor power was required to
comminute the hays and oats on which the horse subsists. The
machinery seems to be admirably adapted to its purposes; and to be
so strongly framed as to defy all chance of injury. Man, however, has
a mighty talent for evil; it does not always suit the convenience of
the groom to sift the pebbles from the grain; corn and stones are
hastily cast into the manger, and the poor horse, having no hands to
select with, must masticate all alike. The reader can imagine the
wrench which will ensue, when a flint suddenly checks the
movement of the molar teeth. The crusta petrosa is bruised upon
the large fang of the tooth. Disease is established, and sad
toothache has soon to be endured.
Then there are the effects of
the powerful acids in much
favor with most grooms and too
many veterinary surgeons;
moreover, there are the
sulphates, which in every
possible form enter into
veterinary medicine; the
nitrates, likewise, are much
esteemed, and are given in
enormous doses. All of these
much affect the crystalline
enamel of the molar tooth; a A HORSE WITH TOOTHACHE.
small hole is first formed; into
this the food enters and there putrifies; caries and toothache are the
result.

A horse with toothache upon certain days sweats and labors at


its work; saliva hangs in long bands from the under lip; the
countenance is utterly dejected; the head is carried on one side or
pressed against some solid substance, as a wall. The food is
"quidded"—that is, it is partially masticated, when, from acute
agony, the jaws relax, the teeth separate, the lips part, and the
morsel falls from the mouth, more or less resembling what is termed
"a quid of tobacco."
Upon other days the animal is bounding with life and spirits; the
movements are light, and the motions are expressive of perfect
happiness. The head is carried
jauntily; the lips are
compressed; the saliva ceases
to exude; the food is devoured
with an evident relish, and the
general health appears to be
better than it was before the
strange disease. The
continuance of such bliss is,
however, very doubtful; the A HORSE
different stages will often QUIDDING, OR
succeed one another with ALLOWING THE
vexatious rapidity. FOOD
TO FALL FROM
If nothing be done, the ITS MOUTH
horse alternates between SUBSEQUENT TO
anguish and happiness for an MASTICATION.
unascertained period, when all
acute symptoms apparently cease. The lips, though no longer
actually wet, are not positively dry; the food is often eaten; but as
time progresses a sort of gloom hangs about the animal, and
deepens every day. The horse seems never free from some
unaccountable torture; more time is now occupied in clearing the
manger; then the hay may be consumed, but the oats remain
untouched. These last are found soaked in apparent water; the fluid
turns out to be saliva; the symptoms by degrees become more
severe; a strangely unpleasant odor characterizes the breath; the
flesh wastes, and the animal ultimately exhibits hide-bound.
This stage being attained, and the proprietor becoming much
perplexed, he is one morning informed by the groom, who displays
many nods and winks, of a certain mysterious receipt for a
wonderful ball that never fails, but always cures. The potent bolus is
sent for to the chemist, and, after sundry explanations, is
compounded. The groom, stiff with pride, takes the magic morsel; it
is pushed rapidly into the horse's mouth; an exclamation from the
man follows the disappearance of the hand, which is retracted
bathed in blood.
To afford time for the writer
to explain this incident, the
reader must vouchsafe some
patience. The horse's molar
teeth are miniature grindstones.
To supply the wear and tear of
so violent a service, the molar
teeth, originally, have enormous
fangs, and, as the eating
surface is worn away, the fangs
are thrust into the mouth by the
A MOLAR TOOTH contraction of the jaw-bones.
HAS BECOME
VERY LONG FROM Caries at first pains, but at
THE WANT OF last destroys all feeling or life in
ATTRITION IN
the tooth; the dead organ
THE OPPOSING
JAW. ceases to possess any vital
quality; it loses all power of
self-preservation, and is a mere
piece of dead matter opposed to a living agent. In consequence, it
breaks away, while the opposing molar projects more forward from
the absence of attrition. The healthy tooth at last bears against the
unprotected gum, upon which it presses severely, and provokes the
greatest agony. The animal endeavors to prevent the prominent
tooth from paining the jaw by masticating entirely upon the sound
side. Hunger is slowly, and perhaps never, satisfied by such
imperfect comminution; the outside of the upper molars and the
inside of the lower molars become slanting; the first being almost as
sharp as razors, wound the membrane of the mouth and lay open
the hand which is thrust into the cavity.
If the disease be still neglected and permitted to increase, the
stench grows more formidable; nasal gleet appears; the discharge is
copious, accompanied by a putrid odor; osseous tumors commence;
the bones of the face are
distorted; the eye is imprisoned,
and ultimately obliterated within
the socket by actual pressure;
eating becomes more and more
painful, until starvation wastes
the body and reduces the horse
to a hide-bound skeleton.
If such a case be taken
early, its cure is easy and THE MOLAR
certain; the dead tooth must be TEETH HAVE
extracted, and the prominent BEEN GROUND
molar shortened by means of SLANTING,
the adjusting forceps and the AND HAVE SHARP
EDGES, FROM
guarded chisel, invented by Mr. THE
T. W. Gowing, veterinary HORSE
surgeon, of Camden Town. MASTICATING
Then the sharp edges must be ONLY UPON ONE
lowered by the tooth-file, and if SIDE.
these things appear to occupy
time, it is better done at two or even three operations, than unduly
prolong the agony of a sick animal. This being accomplished, all is
not ended; the horse's mouth must, from time to time, be again and
again operated upon; nor will the creature offer much opposition to
the proceeding, if only proper gentleness be observed.
Aged horses, from the contraction of the lower jaw, (which
change is natural to increase of years in the equine race,) frequently
have their upper molars ground to a knife-like sharpness. They
wound the inside of the cheeks, cause a disinclination to eat, and
provoke a dribbling of saliva. The cure is the tooth-file, which should
be applied until the natural level is attained. This should be followed
by the frequent use of the wash recommended for aphtha, or by the
chloride of zinc lotion.

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