UNIT 3 - COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Time Allotment: Week 6-9

Intended outcomes:
at the end of the unit, the students can:
a. discuss the concepts and theories related to the cognitive development of children
and adolescents;
b. make connections, using knowledge on current research literature, between
cognitive development theories and developmentally appropriate teaching
approaches suited to students’ gender, needs, strengths, interests and
experiences.

A. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

1. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

It explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He
disagreed with the idea that the intelligence was a fixed trait and regarded
cognitive development as a process which occurs due to the biological
maturation and interaction with the environment.

His common assumption was that children are merely less competent
thinkers than adults. They think in strikingly different ways compared to
adults.

Children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically

inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge are
based.

The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by

which the infant, and then the child develops into an individual who can
reason and think using hypotheses.

To Piaget, cognitive development was progressive organization of

mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental
experience. Children construct an understanding of the world around them,
then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what
they discover in their environment.

2. Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development

His theory stresses the fundamental role of social interaction in the

development of cognition (1978) as he believed strongly that community
plays a central role in the process of “making meaning.”
 He asserts that complex forms of thinking have their origins in social
interaction rather than in child’s private explanations as Piaget thought.
Children’s learning of new cognitive skills is guided by an adult such as an
older sibling who structures the child’s learning experience, a process he
called scaffolding. Vygotsky used this term to signify tasks that are too hard
for the child to do alone but he can manage with guidance.

He placed more emphasis on the following which effect cognitive

development:
a. Culture
- that cognitive development varies across cultures.

b. Social factors
- that cognitive development stems from social interactions
from guided learning within the zone of proximal development
as children and their partner’s co-construct knowledge. The
environment in which children grow up will influence how
they think and what they think about.

c. Role of language
- that language depends on thought for its development
(thought comes before language). Cognitive development
results from an internalization of language.

B. INTELLIGENCE and INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

1. Concept of Intelligence (Binet)

During the early 1900s, the French government asked Alfred Binet to
help decide which students were most likely to experience difficulty in
school. The government had passed laws requiring that all French children
attend school, it was important to find a way to identify children who would
need specialized assistance.

Binet and his colleague, Theodore Simon began developing questions

that focused on areas not explicitly taught in schools, such as attention,
memory, and problem-solving skills. Using these questions, Binet
determined which ones served as the best predictors of school success.
He quickly realized that some children were able to answer more
advanced questions that older children were generally able to answer, and
vice versa. Based on this observation, Binet suggested the concept of
mental age, or a measure of intelligence based on the average abilities of
children of a certain age group.
2. General Intelligence (by Spearman)
General intelligence also known as g factor, refers to the existence of
a broad mental capacity that influences performance on cognitive ability
measures.

Charles Spearman first described the existence of general intelligence

in 1904. According to him this factor was responsible for overall
performance on mental ability tests.

He noted that while people certainly could and often did excel in
certain areas, people who did well in one area tended also to do well in
other areas.
Ex - A person who does well on a verbal test would probably also do
well on other tests.

According to him all mental performances could be conceptualized in

terms of a single general ability factor which he labeled g.

3. Primary Mental Abilities

Refers to 7 factors identified by Louis Leon Thurstone. These are:
verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, number facility, associative
memory, reasoning, perceptual speed, and word fluency.

a. Verbal comprehension - ability to define and understand words.

b. Word fluency - ability to produce words rapidly.
c. Number facility - ability to solve arithmetic problems.
d. Spatial visualization - ability to visualize relationships.
e. Associative memory - ability to memorize and recall.
f. Perceptual speed - ability to see differences and similarities among
objects.
g. Reasoning - ability to find rules.

After deciding that these 7 factors made up intelligence,

Thurstone rearranged the existing subtests and devised some new
ones. He referred to these sets as: Tests of Primary Mental Abilities,
which he used to investigate the question as to whether there was such
a thing as “general” intelligence.
He concluded that each primary factor is composed of an
independent primary factors and a general (G) that is shared by all of
the primary factors; in other words, intelligence consists of both general
ability and a number of specific abilities.

4. Multiple Intelligence
 The theory of multiple intelligence (MI) was first described by Howard
Gardner in his 1983 book Frames of Mind.

He defines intelligence as “an ability or set of abilities that allows a

person to solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued in one or
more cultures.

He believes that different intelligences may be independent abilities –

a person can be low in one domain but high in another. All of us passes the
intelligences but in varying degrees of strength and skill.

Gardner proposed 8 abilities. In 2009 he suggested that spirituality or

existential intelligence may also be worthy of inclusion, hence there are 9
distinct forms of intelligence.

a. Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence (Word Smart)

- learning through the spoken and written word; ability to use
language effectively.

Careers: Poet, journalist, writer, teacher, lawyer, politician, etc.

b. Mathematical/Logical (Number/Logic Smart)

- learning through reasoning and problem solving. It affords
individuals to learn the science of numbers more easily and
come up with logical solutions to different problems.

Careers: Scientist, engineer, accountant, mathematician.

c. Musical (Music Smart)

- ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timber.

Careers: Musician, disc jockey, singer, composer

d. Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart)

- Capacity to think in images and pictures to visualize accurately
and abstractly; ability to “see” things in one’s mind in planning
to create a product or solve a problem.

Careers: Sculptor, artist, inventor, architect, mechanic, engineer

e. Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence (Body Smart)

- ability to control one’s body movements and to handle objects
skillfully; ability to move in coordinated way.
 Careers: Athlete, PE teacher, dancer, actor, fire fighter

f. Interpersonal Intelligence (People Smart)

- capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods,
motivations and desires of others. People who have this
intelligence are called “Helping Professionals.”

Careers: Politician, business person, counselors, social workers,

ministers, sales persons

g. Intrapersonal Intelligence (Self Smart)

- ability to understand one self; capacity to be self-aware and in
tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs and thinking process.

Careers: Researchers, theorists, philosophers

h. Naturalist (Nature Smart)

- ability to be attached to the natural world, to recognize and
categorize plants, animals and other objects in nature.

Careers: Scientist, naturalist, landscape architect

i. Existential Intelligence (Spirit Smart)

- sensitivity to tackle deep questions about human existence,
such as the meaning of life, why do we die, and how did we
get here.

Careers: Scientist, philosopher, theologian

5. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

This is also known as Three Forms of Intelligence which was
formulated by Robert Sternberg.

Sternberg triarchic theory of intelligence describes three district types

of intelligence that a person can possess.

a. Practical Intelligence
- relates to how you react to your environment and your ability
to adapt to it or change it to suit your needs. It involves the
ability to understand how to deal with everyday tasks; ability
to use common sense.

b. Creative Intelligence
 - relates to the way a person approaches new information or a
new task. It involves a person’s ability to apply his existing
knowledge to new problems; involves imagining and devising
new ways of addressing issues and concerns including present
demands; also referred to as experiential intelligence.

There are 2 categories of creative intelligence:

a. Novelty - concerns how a person reacts the first time he

encounters something new.
b. Automatization - concerns how a person learns to
perform
repeated tasks automatically.

c. Analytical Intelligence
- relates to how a person processes and analyzes information;
also referred to as componential intelligence; the power to
apply logical reasoning (sound reasoning) to arrive at the best
answer to a question.

6. Cognitive Information Processing Theory (Atkinson and Shiffrin)

Information processing theory is the approach to the study of
cognitive development. This is based on the idea that humans process the
information they receive rather than merely responding to stimuli. It
equates the mind to a computer which is responsible for analyzing
information from the environment.

The mind’s machinery includes attention mechanisms for bringing

information in, working memory actively manipulating information, and
long term memory for passively holding information so that it can be used
in the future. This theory addresses how as children grow their brains
likewise mature leading to advances in their ability to process and respond
to the information they received through their senses. The theory
emphasizes a continuous pattern of development.

Multi Store Model (Atkinson and Shiffrin Model)

The Atkinson and Shiffrin model was proposed in 1968 by John
Williams Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin. This model illustrates their theory of
the human mind. The human mind can be broken into three subsections:
sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory.

Sensory memory is responsible for holding information that the mind

receives through the senses such as auditory and visual information. For
 example if someone were to hear a bird chirp, he knows that it is a bird
because the information is held in the brief sensory memory.

The short term memory lasts for about 30 seconds. It retains

information that is needed for only a short period of time such as
remembering a phone number that needs to be dialed.

The long term memory has an unlimited amount of space. In the long
term memory, there can be memory stored in these from the beginning of
our life time. The long term memory is tapped into when there is a need to
recall an event that happened in an individual’s previous experiences.

C. FACTORS AFFECTING COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. Nutrition
Iodine deficiency is the main cause of preventable mental
impairment in childhood. Severe iodine deficiency during pregnancy can
lead to cretinism.

Iron-deficiency anemia may result in impaired motor development

coordination and scholastic achievement in children.

Low birth weight is associated with poor cognitive development.

Mass fortification of food stuffs can address iodine and iron

deficiencies. Breastfeeding could benefit child development through
improved nutrition, reduced infant morbidity or mother-child
interactions.

2. Environment
Malaria, lead exposure, and HIV are major environmental factors
for poor child development. In severe or cerebral malaria, organisms
can directly damage the brain and central nervous system, causing
neurological impairment.

Lead is a neurotoxin which has been associated with decreased

intelligence and impaired neurobehavioral development. Because lead
fuel has been a major source of lead exposure worldwide, shifting to
unleaded fuel is primary intervention to address toxic lead exposure.

HIV affected children are at increased risk for poor health

development outcome. Infants born to HIV-infected mothers will be
infected during pregnancy, birth or breastfeeding.
 3. Paternal-Child Interactions
Poor maternal health is associated with poor child growth and
development. Depressed women interact differently with their children
than mothers without depression, leading to poorer cognitive, social-
emotional and behavioral outcomes.

Environment with inadequate stimulation and opportunities for

learning are associated with poor cognitive development outcomes.

Maternal education is associated with higher child development.

Better educated women are more likely to delay pregnancy until after
adolescence, leading to better birth and early life outcome in their
offsprings, children of young mothers are more likely to suffer from low
birth weight, under nutrition and poor physical and cognitive
development.

D. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Language is a communication system that involves using words and

systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one
individual to another. While language is a form of communication, not all
communication is language. It is language that makes humans unique.

Language development is a higher level. Cognitive skill involving audition

and oral abilities in humans to communicate verbally individual’s wants and
needs.

Steps in producing language:

1. Cooing
Infants begin to vocalize and repeat vocalizations within the first
couple of months of life. The gargling, musical vocalization called cooing
can serve as a source of entertainment to an infant who has been laid down
for a nap or seated in a carrier. Cooing initially involves making vowel
sounds like “oooo”.

2. Babbling and gesturing

At about 4-6 months, consonants are added to vocalizations, such as
“nanana”. Deaf babies also gestures to communicate wants, reaction and
feelings.

3. Halophrasic speech
Children begin using their first words at about 12 to 13 months of age
to convey thoughts. This one word expression is referred to as halophrasic
 speech – the first stage of language acquisition. Usually the words are
nouns that the child observes or wants.

4. Underextension
A child who learns that a word stands for an object may initially think
that the word can be used for only that particular object.

5. Vocabulary growth spurt

One year olds typically have a vocabulary at about 50 words. By the
time they become toddlers, they have a vocabulary at about 200 words and
begin putting those words together in telegraphic speech.

Ex. Baby bye-bye.

Words needed to convey messages are used but the articles and other
parts of speech necessary for grammatical correctness are not yet used.
These expressions sounds like a telegraph or text message where
unnecessary words are not used.

Ex. Give baby ball.

6. Child-directed speech
This is also known as motherese or parentese. This involves
exaggerating the vowel and consonant sounds, using a high pitch voice, and
delivering the phase with great facial expression. This is done to clearly
articulate the sounds involved.

Theories of Language Development

1. Chomsky and the language acquisition device.

The view known as nativism advocated by Noam Chomsky

suggests that infants are equipped with a neurological construct
referred to as the language acquisition device or LAD that makes infants
ready for language. No teaching, training, or reinforcement is required
for language to develop.

2. Skinner and reinforcement

B.F. Skinner suggests that language develops through the use of
reinforcement (strengthening with new forces, aid, material or
support). Sounds, words, gestures and phrases are encouraged through
by following the behavior with words of praise or anything that
increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.
 3. Social pragmatics

The child seeks information, memorizes terms, imitates the

speech heard from others and learns to conceptualize using words as
language is acquired.

All these three theories foster the acquisition of language.

E. FACTORS AFFECTING LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

1. Health and physical development

a. Illness can affect hearing which, in turn, will cause problems
with understanding spoken language or other auditory ones.
b. Children who are ill also lack enthusiasm to speak and
communicate non-verbally.
c. Physical development can influence language. Vocal cords and
speech related facial muscles must be developed in order for a
child to orally communicate effectively. Fine motor skills are
also necessary to draw or write letters and symbols.

2. Environment
Children who are spoken to and read to are more likely to want
speak and learn to read. Social environment can be a hindrance to
language development where there is lack of example on which
children can base their understanding of language and all that it entails.

3. Cognitive ability
Children who pick up on the language easily show an increased
level of cognitive development. They tend to develop early use of
proper sentence structure and strong vocabulary.

4. Gender
Gender plays a role in a child’s language development around the
age of two, girls tend to start developing language at a faster rate than
boys. They begin to communicate more fluently and understanding of
the spoken language develops quicker.

5. Number of siblings
Children who came from one child homes tend to know a strong
grasp on the understanding and use of language. This is because there
is no competition for the attention of parents or caregivers, and adults
tend to communicate with single children in a more fluent manner,
thereby setting better example. However, more siblings can mean more
 opportunities for language use, which can result in quicker and stronger
language development.

6. Motivation
If a child has no desire to communicate or understand the world
around him, there will be a lack of language development. Until he sees
the value and need for use of the language, development may be slow.

7. Bilingualism
Children who begin the process of learning a second language
early in life may develop their first language at a slower rate than
expected. Learning of two languages at once can cause confusion in
children who are not yet of school age. This confusion may cause
frustration that affects motivation. Most specialists recommend that
second language learning must not begin until a child officially begins
school (around the age of 5 or 6).

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
1. Write a reflection paper discussing your thoughts on the effect of
modern technology on language development.
2. Prove that social interaction and language play a very important role
in cognitive development.
3. Which ha s a greater influence on the child’s cognitive development,
his genetic factor or his social environment? Support your answer.

Prepared by:
BERNARDITA B. MANALO
Instructor