Chapter 5

Inferences: A Product of
Reasoning
CHAPTER 5
Presented by: Amparo, Althea May P.
Simple Apprehensions- enables the human mind to grasp
the essence of things. Judgement allows the intellect to
understand the relationship between these essences but the
vast complexities of reality can only be comprehensively
grasped through the process of reasoning where inference
takes place.
Reasoning is the mental act whereby the mind relates

several judgments to arrive at a new judgement that
necessarily flows from such relationship. Inference is a
reasoning process whereby the mind draws the implication or
conclusion from one or more premises.
Inductive Inference - a form of
01. reasoning that proceeds from

particular premises to a general
KINDS OF
conclusion.
INFERENCE
Deductive Inference - a form of
02. reasoning that proceeds from

universal/ general premises to a
particular conclusion.
TYPES OF INDUCTION
Essential Induction - when the mind grasps in experience the necessary link between a subject and
its property.
It makes use of formal principles, which are so clear that they do not need any proof for they are
self-explanatory and self-evident truths.
These principles are:
1. The principle of identity. Everything is itself.
Example: A school is a school.
2. The principle of excluded middle. A thing either is or is not.
Example: A school is either a school or not a school.
3. The principle of non-contradiction. Nothing can be and not be at the same time or respect.
Example: A school cannot be a school and not a school at the same time.
4. The principle of sufficient reason. Everything that exists has sufficient reasons for its existence.
Example: A school is a place of learning.

TYPES OF INDUCTION
B. Empirical Induction is the generalization of the connection between the subject and the
predicate based not on the essential link between them but on the repeated occurrence of
the observed phenomenon.
Kinds of Empirical Induction
1. Complete or perfect induction. The generalization rests on the knowledge of each

instance covered. This is otherwise known as the induction by simple enumeration because
it is simply the summation of all individual cases observed.
Example: Since Dr. Marin, Dr. Garcia, Prof. Manad, Prof. Gonzales, and the rest of the faculty
members of PNU are Master's degree holders, we can conclude that all PNU teachers are
master's degree holders.
2. Incomplete induction. The conclusion takes the instances as a sample of the class and
generalizes from the properties of the sample to the properties of the class.
Example: Since 80% of survey respondents said that they preferred LRT to jeepney as mode
of transportation, we conclude that LRT is preferred as a mode of transportation by the
public.
Kinds of Deductive Inferences
1. Immediate Inference is a kind of inference by which the mind
directly draws the implication of one proposition to arrive at a new
proposition without the use of a medium.
Kinds of Immediate Inferences
a. Eduction or logical equivalence - the process of creating a new

proposition that conveys the same meaning.
b. Oppositional inference - the process of establishing the

relationship of propositions having the same subject and predicate
but different qualities and/or quantities. The truth or falsity of an
opposite proposition is inferred from the truth or falsity of a given
proposition.
Kinds of Deductive Inferences
2. Mediate Inference is the process of drawing new proposition from the
relationship of two propositions that are related through a medium or a middle
term. Inferences are externally manifested through a syllogism.
Syllogisms are verbal expressions of arguments that are products of reasoning or

inferential thinking.
Kinds of Syllogisms
1. Categorical Syllogism is a syllogism that is made up of categorical propositions.
Examples: All books are tools for learning; But the dictionary is a book; Therefore,
the dictionary is a tool for learning
2. Hypothetical Syllogism is a syllogism wherein at least one proposition is a

hypothetical proposition.
Examples: If all books are tools for learning then they must be valued. But all
books are tools for learning; Therefore, they must be valued.
In Chapter 2, you have learned
the following:
1.A judgment is said to be true when it affirms that what is, is.
2. A judgment is false when the mind deviates from and does not
reflect the actual relationship between the two realities.
3.The validity of a reasoning process, of an argument or inference,

refers to the presence of sequence in the argument.
4.Validity does not determine the truth of the premises.
5.Soundness refers to the characteristic of the argument that is valid and with true premises.
6.An argument or syllogism may be valid but unsound for it may be based on a false premise
but a sound argument or syllogism must be valid and must be based on true premises.
7.True and correct reasoning and thinking must therefore, be both true and valid. Simply put, it
must be sound.
Therefore, while the truth of propositions and the validity
of reasoning are distinct, the relationship between them
is not entirely straightforward.
Thus an argument is sound if (and only if) all its premises

are true and its reasoning is valid; all others are unsound.
It follows that all sound arguments have true conclusions.
The validity and soundness of categorical syllogisms and

of hypothetical syllogisms will be further discussed in the
succeeding chapters.
Thank you !

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Inferences: A Product of

Reasoning is the mental act whereby the mind relates

01. reasoning that proceeds from

02. reasoning that proceeds from

These principles are:

1. The principle of identity. Everything is itself.

Example: A school is a school.

2. The principle of excluded middle. A thing either is or is not.

Example: A school is either a school or not a school.

Example: A school is a place of learning.

Kinds of Empirical Induction

1. Complete or perfect induction. The generalization rests on the knowledge of each

Kinds of Immediate Inferences

a. Eduction or logical equivalence - the process of creating a new

b. Oppositional inference - the process of establishing the

Syllogisms are verbal expressions of arguments that are products of reasoning or

1. Categorical Syllogism is a syllogism that is made up of categorical propositions.

2. Hypothetical Syllogism is a syllogism wherein at least one proposition is a

3.The validity of a reasoning process, of an argument or inference,

4.Validity does not determine the truth of the premises.

Thus an argument is sound if (and only if) all its premises

The validity and soundness of categorical syllogisms and

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