MR.CONFIDENCE, O.

COMPUTER STUDIES - SS1 1ST TERM

Week Topics
1-3 OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
· Definition of computer
· Constituents of a computer
· Computer hardware
· Computer software
· Characteristics of a computer
4 DATA AND INFORMATION
· Definition of data and information
· Differences between data and information
· Examples of data and information
5-6 COMPUTING DEVICES 1(Pre-computer age to 19thcentury)
· Features, components and uses of:
Abacus, Slide rule, Napier’s bone, Pascal’s calculator, Leibniz multiplier, Jacquard’s
loom, Charles Babbage difference and Analytical engine, Hollerith machine `
7-8 COMPUTING DEVICE II (20TH century to date)
· Features, components and uses of:
ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC 1, Desktop PC, Laptop and Notebook computer,
Palmtop computer.
9 INPUT DEVICES

TOPIC ONE: OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

Definition of a Computer

A computer can be defined as an electronic machine (device) which under the control of a stored program
accepts data, stores the data, processes the data and brings out the results as information.

Computer as an IPOS system

Computer performs 4 key operations on data

A. Input: data are entered into the computer through the input unit. Data are raw facts that are to be processed
into meaningful form.

B. Processing: Computer performs certain operations on data entered into it; the Central Processing Unit
(CPU) handles this operation.

C. Output: The result of what has been processed will be displayed by the output device such as the monitor.

D. Storage: Inputted data and processed information are stored in the memory and permanent storage on the
computer.
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Constituents of a Computer System

The computer is referred to as a system because it is made up of several components that work together to enable
it to function properly. There are two main constituents of the computer system:

1. The Hardware

2. The Software

Hardware: These are the physical components of the computer system. They are the tangible parts that can be
seen and touched such as monitor, keyboard, hard drive disk, mouse, CPU (graphic cards, sound cards, memory,
motherboard and chips) etc.There are two major parts, namely:

A. The System Unit: The system unit is the rectangular casing that houses (contains) several important
components that control the operation of the computer system such as the motherboard, CPU
(Microprocessor), RAM, Sound card, video card, CD drive, Floppy disk drive, etc. It also provides an
interface for connection of the peripherals.

B. Peripherals: These are the devices connected to the system unit for the purpose of input, output, and
storage operations. Examples of peripheral devices are keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer, scanner,
DVD, CD, USB flash drive, etc.

Software: It is a set of instructions or programs that direct the operation of the computer and devices attached to
it. Computer software is any set of machine-readable instructions that directs a computer’s processor to perform
specific operation. Software is a term used to describe the collection (or set) of programs that can be run on a
computer system. A program is a set of instructions that tells the computer what to do, when to do it, and how to
do it.

Types of software

1. System Software
2. Application Software

System Software: This software controls the computer hardware and the internal operations of the computer
system. The system unit is the electronic components such as CPU, primary memory and other devices that are
used to process and store data. It is the computer casing or cabinate that contains the Central Processing Unit
(CPU) and many other electronic components. It contains many hardware componentns that can be seen only
when the case or cabinet is open.

Examples include Windows OS (Windows XP, Windows ME, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8,
Windows 10), Linux OS(Redhat, Fedora, Ubuntu etc.), MAC OS, basic input-output systems, device drivers.

Application software: These are software that enables the user to perform specific operation or task on the
computer. Examples include:

S/n Application software (packages) Functions / Uses

1 MS Word, WordPad, WordPerfect Used for word processing
2 MS Excel, Lotus1-2-3, Quattro Pro Used for spreadsheet, calculation and analysis
3 Corel draw, Paint, Photoshop, PageMaker, Used for graphic works
Corel Graphics
4 Front page, Publisher, Dreamweaver, cold For web designing
fusion
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5 MS Access, Oracle, Postgre sql, Fox pro, For database management

Dbase, Ingress, MySQL
6 MS outlook, Outlook express, MS For email management
exchange, Sendmail
7 MS PowerPoint, Impress, Prezi, Harvard Used for presentation of seminars and lectures
Graphics
8 Maths, MATLAB, SPSS, Mintab Create and edit mathematical formulae/statistical
analysis
9 Internet explorer, Mozilla firefox, chrome, Internet/Web browsing
Opera mini, UC browser, Netscape
Navigator, Safari , Mosaic,

Characteristics of a Computer

1. Speed: Computer performs its data processing operation at a very high speed. The speed of the computer
is measured in Hertz (Hz). A computer with speed rating of Mega Hertz (MHz) can perform millions of
cycle of operation per second.

2. Accuracy and Precision: Computer gives accurate result as long as the correct data is keyed into it.

3. Versatility: computer can be used to perform various kinds of task e.g. graphic design, word processing,
web development etc.

4. Reliability/Durability: Computers do not get tired like human; they can work continuously for days and
weeks without any error.

5. Memory and storage: Computer can store large amount of data and information. The capacity of the
memory/storage device is measured in bytes. A byte is a group of eight bits. A kilobyte (KB) is 1024
bytes. A megabyte (MB) is 1,000,024 bytes.

6. Programmable: The computer hardware is useless without the program that controls it. Thus, all tasks
and activities performed by a computer are made possible by means of a program.

7. It is electronic in nature

TOPIC TWO: DATA AND INFORMATION

Definition of Data

Data are raw/unprocessed facts and figures without any added interpretation. Data can be defined as a
representation of facts or concepts in a formalized manner which should be suited for interpretation or processing
by human or electronic machine.

Examples of data include:

1. Symbols: $, @, &, /, # etc.

2. Figures/Numbers: 1, 2, 34, 0.12 2 etc.
3. Alphabets: A-Z or a-z
4. Words: Tunde, Facts, Ibadan etc.
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Definition of Information
Information can be defined as data that have been converted into a more meaningful and useful form. Information
is the end-product of processed data. Information is an organized or classified data which has some meaningful
values for the receiver. It can also be defined as the processed data on which decisions are based.

Examples of information include:

a. Computer is a representation of modern life
b. 2 x 7 = 14
c. 10% of N1000 = N 100

Sources of data and information

Sources of data
Data are used for information generation and this can be obtained from different sources. Some of the sources of
data include:
1. Observations
2. Questionnaires
3. Interviews, survey and fieldwork
4. Registrations
5. Experiments
6. Form filling

Sources of information
Information can come from virtually anywhere — media, blogs, personal experiences, books, journal and magazine
articles, expert opinions, encyclopedias, database, television, newspapers and web pages — and the type of
information you need will change depending on the question you are trying to answer.

Differences between data and information

S/N DATA INFORMATION
1 Differences between data and information Information is the output of data.
2 Data is unprocessed facts and figures. Information is processed data.
3 Data doesn’t depend on Information Information depends on data.
4 Data is not specific. Information is specific.
5 Data doesn’t carry a meaning Information must carry a logical meaning.
6 Data is the raw material. Information is the product.
7 Data cannot be used for decision making. Information is used for decision making

Qualities of good information

1. Relevance: It must be suitable for the purpose it is required for.
2. Accurate: It be free from errors
3. Availability: It should be easy to obtain or access
4. Timely: It should be available at the right time
5. Comprehensive/Completeness: It should contain all necessary details
6. Reliability: It should come from a reliable source.
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TOPIC 3: COMPUTING DEVICES I

1. ABACUS

Features and components

Abacus was invented around 500 BC. It was made up of strings or wires, frames and beads. Modern Abacus uses
sliding beads in columns that are divided into two by a center bar. The upper part is called the heaven and each of
the two beads (representing the two hands) is worth 5 when moved to the center. The lower part is called the
“earth”, where each of the 5 beads (representing the 5 fingers) is worth 1 when moved towards the center. The
Abacus is really just a representation of the human fingers.

Use
 For addition and subtraction

2. Napier’s Bone

Features and components

John Napier in 1617 invented the Napier’s bone. The device involves a collection of moveable numbered rods and
a board.

Use
Used to perform multiplication

3. Slide rule
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Features and components

William Oughtred invented the slide in 1632. The Slide rule is a mechanical analog computer. In its most basic
form, the slide rule uses two logarithmic scales to allow rapid multiplication and division of numbers.

Uses
The slide rule is used mainly for multiplication and division, and also for "scientific" functions such as roots,
logarithms and trigonometry, but usually not for addition or subtraction.

4. Pascal’s calculator

Features and components

Blaise Pascal invented the Pascal’s calculator otherwise called PASCALINE in 1642. It is a gear or dial driven
(just as that on analogue telephone) calculating device.

Use
It could only be used for addition and subtraction operations. It’s use is evident in odometer and electricity meter.

5. Leibniz multiplier

Features and components

Leibniz multiplier or (Stepped Reckoner) was invented by Gottfried William Leibniz in 1671. It was an
improvement on the PASCALINE. It contains a special kind of gear called “Leibniz wheel”.
Uses
It could add, subtract, multiply and divide.

6. Jacquard’s loom
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Features and components

In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard invented the Jacquard’s loom. This machine was controlled by a number of
punched cards, put together into a continuous sequence.

Use
Used for producing fabrics with beautiful patterns
7. Difference engine
Features and components
In 1822, An English mathematics professor called Charles Babbage invented the Difference engine. It was
composed of 25000 parts, weighed 15 tons and stood 8 feet (2.4m) high.

Use
Used for calculating differential equations.

8. Analytical engine

Features and components

In 1832, Charles Babbage designed another machine called Analytical engine which was deemed to be the first
mechanical computer. The machine was steam-powered, though never completed, outlined the basic elements of
a modern day general purpose computer. It contains input in the form of punched card containing operating
instructions and a "store" for memory of 1,000 numbers of up to 50 decimal digits long. It also contained a "mill"
with a control unit that allowed processing instructions in any sequence, and output devices to produce printed
results. Augusta Ada, Countess of Lovelace (1815-1842) created the instruction routines to be fed into the
computer, making her the first female computer programmer.
Use
It could store 1000 numbers of up to 50 decimal digits long. It was programmable.

9. Herman Hollerith machine

Features and components

Herman Hollerith invented the Herman Hollerith machine which used punch card to store information which he
fed into the machine to compile the results mechanically.
Use
It was used for collating, sorting and summing the data gotten from 1890 US census.
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10. Burrough’s Machine

In 1885, William Seward Burroughs from American Arithmometer company invented this mechanical adding
machine. the early Burroughs models were large machines characterized by having glass panels in the sides, so the
mechanism could be seen. Common components of the Burroughs machine: keypads, Levers, Registers, and
Printer.

TOPIC FOUR: COMPUTING DEVICES II

1. ENIAC

In 1946, John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert completed the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical integrator and
Computer). It was the first general purpose computer. ENIAC contained 18,000 vacuum tubes, weighed 30 tons,
occupied 1800 square feet of floor space and required 160 kilowatts of electrical power. The ENIAC used punched
card for input and output. ENIAC was used by US for hydrogen bomb project and programming.

2. EDVAC

Features and components

The EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) is the successor of the ENIAC and was made by
the same designers: John Mauchly and Presper Eckert in 1949.
Unlike its predecessor the ENIAC, it was binary rather than decimal. It was the first designed stored program
computer with memory capacity of 1000 words (later set to 1,024 words, thus giving a memory, in modern terms,
of 5.5 kilobytes). It contains 6,000 vacuum tubes and consumed 56 KW of power and covered 490 square feet of
floor space.

3. UNIVAC 1

Features and components

The UNIVAC 1 (Universal Automatic Computer 1) was invented by John Mauchly and Presper Eckert in 1951.
The machine was 25 feet by 50 feet in length, contained 5,600 tubes, 18,000 crystal diodes, and 300 relays and
had an internal storage capacity 1,000 words or 12,000 characters. It utilized a Mercury delay line, magnetic tape,
and typewriter output. Magnetic tape was still used for input and output. It was the first commercial computer.

TOPIC 5: INPUT DEVICES

These are the hardware devices that are used for entering data and instructions into the computer system. The input
devices allow human to interact with the computer system.

Examples of Input Devices

1. Keyboard: Most important input device. The keyboard is very much like a typewriter keyboard with a
few additional keys. The keys when pressed send an input signal into the computer.
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2. Mouse: A mouse is a small object you can roll along a hard or flat surface. It controls the movement of
the cursor on a display screen.
3. Light pen: An input device that utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select, create and modify object on a
display screen.
4. Touchpad: A touchpad is used for pointing on a computer display screen. It works by sensing the user’s
finger movement and downward pressure. It is often rectangular in shape and found mostly on laptops. It
is an alternative to mouse.
5. Touch screen: It allows the user to operate / make selections by simply touching the display screen. The
display screen is sensitive to touch of a finger or stylus. Widely used on ATM machines and most mobile
phones.
6. Microphone: A device that is used to capture and record sound.
7. Bar code reader: These are photo-electric scanners that read bar codes printed on product containers.
They are generally used in super markets.
8. Scanner: Scanner reads texts, images or illustrations printed on paper and translate the information into a
form that the computer can use. It works by digitizing an image.
9. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): MICR can identify character printed with a special ink
that contains particles of magnetic material. This device is widely used in banking industry.
10. Optical Mark Recognition (OMR): Also called mark sense reader is a technology where an OMR device
senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as pencil mark. OMR is widely used in tests such as aptitude
test.
11. Joystick: Is an input and pointing device used in computer games.
12. Digital camera: An input device used to capture images and moving pictures.

Differences between Mouse and Keyboard

Keyboard
1) Used to enter instructions
2) Keys are pressed
3) Combination of keys can be pressed
4) Cannot drag and drop text
5) It has keys
6) Requires no mouse pad

Mouse
1. Used to point and select
2. Buttons are clicked
3. Left or right button is clicked
4. Drags and drops text
5. It has buttons
6. Requires a mouse pad
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COMPUTER STUDIES – SS2 1ST TERM

Week Topics
1 Introduction/Scheme of work
2 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 The CPU
 Components of the CPU
 Functions of:
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
 Control Unit (CU)
 Register
3-4 Memory Unit
 Computer memory
 Types of memory
 Description of the types of memory
 Unit of storage
 Conversion from one unit of storage to another`
5 Logic Circuits I
 Definition of Logic gate
 Types of logic gate and their description
 Equation and truth table for each logic gate
6-7 Logic circuits II
 Types of alternative logic gate
 Description of the alternative logic gate
 Equation and truth table for each alternative logic gate
 Uses of logic gate
8-9 Computer data conversion
 Definition of register, address and bus
 Types of registers and their functions
 Fetch – execute cycle
 Factors affecting speed of data transfer
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WEEK 2

TOPIC ONE: THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the computer component that's responsible for interpreting and executing
most of the commands from the computer's other hardware and software. All sorts of devices use a CPU, including
desktop, laptop, tablet computers, and smartphones, even your flat-screen television set.

Intel and AMD are the two most popular CPU manufacturers for desktops, laptops, and servers, while NVIDIA
and Qualcomm are big smartphone and tablet CPU makers.

CPU has different names including processor, microprocessor or the “brain of the computer”.

A modern CPU is usually small and square, with short, rounded, metallic connectors on its underside. Some have
pins instead of metallic connectors.

The CPU attaches directly to a CPU ‘socket’ (or sometimes a ‘slot’) on the motherboard. The CPU is inserted into
the socket pin-side-down.

The clock speed of a processor is the number of instructions it can process in any given second, measured in hertz
(Hz). A CPU with a clock speed of 3.0 GHz can process 3 billion instructions each /per second. Some devices have
a single-core processor while others may have a dual-core (or quad-core, etc.) processor.

Components of the CPU

The components of the CPU work together to achieve its functions. The three components are:

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit

2. Control Unit
3. Registers

Functions of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

i. Executes all arithmetic operations such as ADD, SUBTRACT, DIVIDE etc.

ii. Executes logical operations (i.e. making comparison) such as AND, OR, XOR etc.

Functions of Control Unit (CU)

i. It directs the flow of data and information in the computer.

ii. It oversees the operation of the input and output (I/O) devices.
iii. Interprets instructions

Registers: Register are temporary storage location used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions
that are being used immediately by the CPU. They are special purpose memory which resides within the CPU.
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WEEK 3-4

TOPIC TWO: COMPUTER MEMORY

Computer memory is the storage space in the computer where the data to be processed and the instructions required
for processing are stored.

Types of memory
There are basically two major types of memory, which includes:

1. Primary memory (main memory)

2. Secondary memory (external storage)

PRIMARY MEMORY: Also known as the main memory is the storage in the computer in which data is stored
for quick access by the CPU and are connected via a memory bus.

Categories of primary memory

a) Random Access Memory (RAM): The RAM is the volatile memory that temporarily stores data and
instruction currently being used by the computer. It is called volatile because the content of it disappears
when the computer is turned off or there is loss of power supply.

b) Read Only Memory (ROM): The ROM is the non-volatile memory that stores small program that the
computer can use to perform some of the basic operations required to initiate the boot process. The content
of the ROM are often times stored by the manufacturer of the system and always permanent. Since the
content of it can only be read, they are called Read Only. Have you ever seen the black/blue background
with some information during the booting process? That’s the content of the ROM being displayed.

SECONDARY MEMORY: This is the permanent, non-volatile memory that is not directly accessed by the
computer/processor. Before the content of the secondary memory can be used by the computer, it must be copied
into the RAM. It has the capacity to store huge amount of data. The secondary storage is the slowest and cheapest
form of memory.

Examples of secondary storage

1. Hard Disk (Local Disk),

2. Optical disk (CD, DVD),
3. Floppy Disk,
4. USB flash drive,
5. Memory card etc.

Differences between primary and secondary memory

S/N Primary Secondary
1 It is the internal memory It is the external memory
2 It is under the direct control of the CPU It is not directly under the control of the CPU
3 It cannot be used for massive data storage It can be used for massive data storage
4 It is faster than the secondary storage It is slower than the primary storage
5 It does not supplement the secondary storage It supplements the primary storage
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Unit of storage

The storage capacity is the amount of space available for the storage of data in a particular storage media. The
storage unit includes:
1. Bits: a bit is a contraction of the word “binary digit” and is denoted with either 1 or 0. A bit is the simplest
unit of data storage.
2. Nibble: a nibble is a collection of 4 bits
3. Byte: a byte is a collection of 8 bits
4. Word: a word is 2 bytes
5. Kilobyte: a kilobyte is 1024 bytes (1000 bytes approximately)
6. Megabyte: a megabyte is 1048576 bytes i.e. 10242bytes (1 million bytes approximately)
7. Gigabyte: a gigabyte is 1073741824bytes i.e. 10243bytes (1 billion bytes approximately)
8. Terabyte: a terabyte is 1099511627776 bytes i.e. 10244bytes (1 trillion bytes approximately)

Conversion from one unit of storage to another

1. Convert 64 bits to byte
Solution:
8 bits make 1 byte
64bits
8 bits per byte
= 8 bytes

2. Convert 16384 bits to byte and kilobyte

Solution:
A. 8 bits = 1 byte
16,384 bits
8 bits per byte
= 2,048 bytes

B. Convert bytes to kilobytes

2,048 bytes
1, 024 bytes per kilobyte
= 2 Kilobytes

ASSIGNMENT
a. Explain the following units of storage
i. Petabyte
ii. Zettabyte
iii. Yottabyte
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WEEK 5
TOPIC THREE: LOGIC GATE

A logic gate is the fundamental building block of digital integrated circuits. Most logic gate takes an input of two
binary values, and output a single value of 1 or 0. Some circuits may have only a few logic gates, while others,
such as microprocessors, may have millions of them. Logic gates are primarily implemented using diodes or
transistors acting as electronic switches, but can also be constructed using vacuum tube, fluidic logic, optics,
molecules or even mechanical elements.

Logic circuit includes such devices as registers, arithmetic logic units, and computer memory, all the way up
through complete microprocessors, which may contain more than 100 million gates.

Types of logic circuit

There are mainly 3 logic gates, they are:
1. OR gate
2. AND gate
3. NOT gate

1. OR gate: the OR gate is a circuit that has two or more inputs and operates in such a way that:
 Its output is 1 when any of the input variables is 1
 Its output is 0 if when all of the input variables are 0
 Its output is 1 when all of the input variables are 0

The algebraic symbol of the OR operation is the plus sign (+).

The OR gate is represented graphically below.

The OR is represented in the truth table below

A B X=A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
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1 1 1
2. AND gate: The AND gate is a circuit that has two or more inputs and operates in such a way that:
 Its output is 1 if and only if the two inputs are 1
 Its output is 0 if any of the inputs is either 0 or 1 or both are 0

The algebraic symbol of the AND gate is * or fullstop (.).

The AND gate is represented graphically below.

The AND gate is represented in a truth table (with two inputs A and B) as shown below:

A B X=A * B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

It can also be generated using the equation: X=A.B

3. NOT gate: This is the logic gate that has one input and one output such that when the input is true (1), the
output is false and when the input is false, the output is true.

The truth table for the NOT gate (with input A): x= A’ or x= Ᾱ is shown below:

A X=A’
0 1
1 0

Assignment:
An OR gate has 3 inputs and 1 output. Show the truth table for this OR gate.
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WEEK 6-7

TOPIC FOUR: LOGIC GATES II

1. NOR GATE
The NOR gate out is the direct inverse of the OR gate output for all possible input conditions as can be seen from
the truth table below. It is short for NOT OR.

The NOR gate works like an OR gate followed by an INVERTER so that circuits in the diagram below are
equivalent.

2. NAND GATE
This is a logic gate whose output is zero (0) if both of the inputs are 1and 1 otherwise. A NAND gate is equivalent
to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The NAND gate is the complement of the AND function. The word
NAND is got from the abbreviation NOT-AND.
The NAND gate is represented graphically below.

The truth table is shown below

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DIGITAL COMPARATOR
A digital comparator is a very useful application of logic circuit.
A digital comparator is an electronic device that takes two numbers as input in binary form and determines whether
one number is greater than, less than or equal to the other number. A comparator compares two input voltages and
indicates which is higher. Comparators are used in central processing units (CPUs) and microcontrollers (MCUs).

Note: A XNOR gate is a basic comparator, because its output is "1" only if its two input bits are equal. The XNOR
gate is graphically represented below:

The analog equivalent of digital comparator is the voltage comparator. Many microcontrollers have analog
comparators on some of their inputs that can be read or trigger an interrupt

Construction of a simple comparator using XOR

One of the special logic circuit that occurs quite often in digital system is the exclusive-OR (XOR) circuits.

The XOR produces a high voltage only when the two inputs are at opposite levels. This means that the XOR yields
true (1) if and only if one of the inputs is true (1) and the other is false (0). The XOR gate is graphically represented
below.

The XOR is represented in the truth table below

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Uses of Logic Gates

Logic gates are widely used in various applications such as:

1. Electronics: Logic gates are the building blocks of digital electronics, they are formed by combining
transistors to realize some digital operations. Every digital product such as computers, mobile phones contain
logic gates

2. Decision making: The term logic is usually used to refer to a decision making process. A logic gate can give
a yes or no response based on the input it receives

3. Alarms: Logic gates are used to construct alarms used in cars and homes. Pressing the alarm button gives an
output of 1. When the bell is released, on output of 0 is recorded.

WEEK 8-9

TOPIC FIVE: COMPUTER DATA CONVERSION

Register: the term register can be defined as a high-speed storage location in the Central Processing Unit (CPU),
which is used to hold data and addresses to be processed by the computer. A register may hold a computer
instruction, a storage address or any kind of data. A register must be large enough to hold an instruction. For
example, in a 32-bit instruction computer, the register must be 32-bit wide.

Address: an address is a name, label or number that identifies a location where data or information is stored within
the computer memory. It is a particular location holding a word or a byte. Computer memory is an array of storage
boxes; each of these storage boxes is one byte in length. Each box has an address (a unique number) to it.

Bus: In digital computing, a bus is a set of physical connections (cables, printed circuits etc.), which can be shared
by multiple hardware components in order to communicate with one another. It is a transmission path on which
signals are dropped off or picked up at every device attached to the line.

The purpose of buses is to reduce the number of PATHWAYS needed for communication between the components
by carrying out all communication over a single data channel.

Types of Buses

1. Internal (System) bus: the internal bus enables communication between internal components such as the
memory and the video card. It connects the CPU to the main memory. It is also called Front Side Bus
(FSB) or memory bus.
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2. External/expansion bus: this bus is capable of communicating with the external components or peripheral
devices. These devices connect to the internal bus via a bridge implemented in the processor chipset. It is
also called input/output bus.

The lines or pins of a bus are of three types:

1. Address - the components pass memory addresses to one another over the address bus.

2. Control - used to send out signals to coordinate and manage the activities of the motherboard components.

3. Data - transferred between peripherals, memory and the CPU. Obviously, the data bus can be a very busy
pathway.

Types of registers and their functions

1. Memory Data Register (MDR): This is the register that contains the data to be stored in the computer memory
or the data fetched from memory and ready to be processed by the CPU. It acts like a buffer and holds anything
that is copied from the memory ready for the processor to use it.

2. Current Instruction Register (CIR): This is part of the CPU’s control unit that stores the instruction currently
being executed or decoded.

3. Memory Address Register (MAR): This is the CPU register that either stores the memory address from
which data will be fetched to the CPU or the address to which data will be sent and stored. In other words,
MAR holds the memory location of the data that need to be accessed. When reading from memory, data
addressed by MAR are fed into the MDR and then used by the CPU. When writing to memory, the CPU writes
data from MDR to the memory location whose address is stored in MAR.

FETCH-EXECUTE CYCLE

Most modern processors work on the FETCH-EXECUTE principle. It is based on the Von Newman Architecture.
When a set of instructions is to be executed, the instructions and data are loaded in main memory. The address of
the first instruction is copied into the program counter. The execution of an instruction by a processor is divided
in three parts. These parts are fetching, decode and execute.

A. Fetch the next instruction

The program counter (PC) contains the address of the next instruction to be executed, so the control unit goes to
the address in memory specified in the PC, makes a copy of the contents and places the copy in the Current
Instruction Register (CIR).

B. Decode the instruction

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The next step is for the CPU to interpret the instruction that has just been fetched and stored in the CIR. The CPU
is designed to understand specific set of commands called “instruction set” of the CPU. Each make of CPU has a
different instruction set.

The CPU decodes the instruction and prepares various areas within the chip in readiness for the next step.

Get data if needed

It may be that the instruction to be executed requires additional memory accesses in order to complete its task. For
example, if the instruction says to add the content of the memory to a register, the control unit must get the content
of the memory location.

C. Execute the instruction

Once an instruction has been decoded and any data fetched, the control unit is ready to execute the instruction. If
the instruction involves arithmetic operation or involves comparison, the ALU is called upon to handle this and
send the result to a special register (Accumulator) before being moved to the memory.

The control unit increment the value in the program counter by 1 and the cycle begins again.

Factors affecting speed of data transfer

1. Bus speed: The term "bus speed" refers to how quickly the system bus can move data from one computer
component to the other. The faster the bus, the more data it can move within a given amount of time. It is
measured in Hertz.

2. Bus width: The size of a bus, known as its width, is important because it determines how much data can
be transmitted at one time. For example, a 16-bit bus can transmit 16 bits of data, whereas a 32-bit bus can
transmit 32 bits of data.