Foreword

The Ministry of Public Works, Housing and Water Resources (MOPHRH) in Mozambique is
responsible for the National Road Administration of Mozambique, Administração Nacional
de Estradas (ANE) and custodian of the standards and specifications for roads in the
Mozambique Road Sector. This manual provides guidance to all practitioners in the
provision of appropriately designed drainage systems for all roads and particularly high-
volume roads. The content adequately covers all relevant technical areas and where
more details are required users may consult other documents referenced by the author.
This manual is tailor-made for Mozambique and ANE will apply it as mandated by the
Ministry.

© Copyright Administração Nacional de Estradas (ANE) 2019

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Preface

The procedures for the geometric design of roads presented in this manual are applicable
to roads carrying more than 300 motorised vehicles per day, or the design traffic
exceeding 1 million cumulative equivalent standard axles (MESA) over the design life of
the road. If the traffic is less than 300 vehicles per day or the design traffic is less than 1
MESA over the design life, then ANE’s Manual for the Provision of Low Volume Roads
must be used.

This manual covers three basic design situations. Upgrading from a lower class of road to
a higher class; designing a road to replace an existing track; and designing a completely
new road where nothing existed before. This manual does not deal in detail with the
design of major grade-separated interchanges between restricted-access freeways
(motorways) although the topic is introduced sufficiently for some of the simpler designs
to be carried out.

In order to improve road safety, the geometric design should take into account the road
environment, road characteristics and human factors which are explained under various
chapters. This holistic approach is aimed at reducing the probability of ‘failure’ to the
lowest possible level and should minimise the adverse consequences should failure
occur.

It is recognised that every highway project is unique. The characteristics of the area, the
values of the surrounding community, the needs of the highway users and the physical
challenges are unique factors that highway designers must consider. The corollary of this
is that designers must exercise flexibility and, most importantly, to understand the
safety and operational impacts of various design features and modifications.

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Acknowledgements

This manual was prepared through the concerted effort from many stakeholders within
and outside Mozambique. The immense contributions from ANE, the Technical Working
Group (WG) members, the World Bank Expert Reviewer, the MOPHRH and other key
stakeholders which included academia, consultants, municipal engineers, Institute of
Meteorology, Ministry of Water Resources, etc. are acknowledged and greatly
appreciated. ANE provided leadership and guidance including management of the project
in general. They also provided information and support required for the successful
delivery of the manual. The WG members, World Bank reviewer, academia, consultants
and municipal engineers reviewed the manual in its different stages of development and
provided invaluable inputs through technical deliberations, comments, edits and
additions.
The production of this manual was financed by the Government of Mozambique through
the Ministry of Finance and the Road Fund with support from the World Bank.
ANE
Eng. Marcos Vaz Dos Anjos General Director
Eng. Luis Fernandes Director of Emergency Works and Project Coordinator
Eng. Irene Simeos Director of Maintenance
Eng. Migel Coanai Director of Planning
Eng. Rubina Normahomed Head of Maintenance
Eng. Anibal Nuvunga Head of Planning
Technical Working Group ANE Engineers, MOPHRH Engineers, Municipal Engineers,
Consultants, Academia,

TRL Consortium – Research Consultant

Piouslin Samuel Team Leader
Dr. John Rolt Lead Author
Andrew Otto Co-Author
Kenneth Mukura Assistant Author
Dr. Rodgers Mugume Reviewer

Financiers
Gov. of Mozambique MOPHRH, Min of Finance, Road Fund
World Bank Representative Kulwinder S. Rao
World Bank Reviewer Eng. Carlos Matias Ramos

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Abbreviations

AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic

ADT Average Daily Traffic
ANE Administracao Nacional de Estradas
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
AASHTO
Officials
BC Beginning of Curve. Also designated called PC or TC
BVC Beginning of the Vertical Curve
CADD Computer-Aided Design and Drafting
CEF Car Equivalence Factor
CS Circular Curve to Spiral Transition point
CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
DFL Design Flood Level
DHV Daily High Volume or Design High Volume
EC End of Curve
EF Equivalence Factor
EDM Electricidade de Moçambique
EOD Environmental Optimised Design
EP Edge of Pavement
ESA Equivalent Standard Axles
EVC End of the Vertical Curve
FH Free Haul
GDP Gross Domestic Product
HDM Highway Development and Management Model
HMA Hot Mixed Asphalt
IMT Intermediate Forms of Transport
LVR Low Volume Road
MESA Million Equivalent Single Axle
NC Normal Crossfall or Camber
NMT Non-motorised Traffic
PC Point of Curvature. Point on the Tangent where the Circular
Curve begins. Also designated BC or TC
PCU Passengers Car Units
PI Point of Intersection - where the line of two Tangents meet
PIARC World Road Association
PRC Point of Reverse Curvature
PSD Passing Sight Distance

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PT Point of Tangency. Where a Circular Curve ends. Also
designated EC
RC Reverse Camber
SANRAL South African National Roads Agency Limited
SATCC Southern Africa Transport and Communications Commission
SC Spiral to Circular Curve Transition point
SE Super-Elevation

TC Telecommunications Corporations
TC Tangent to Curve. Also designated BC or PC
TRL Transport Research Laboratory
TS Tangent to Spiral Transition point
VPI Vertical Point of Intersection
vph Vehicles per Hour

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Glossary of Terms
Acceleration lane An auxiliary lane to enable a vehicle to increase its speed so
that it can merge safely with through traffic.

Access Control The condition where the road agency controls the right of
landowners to direct access to and from a public highway.

Arterial A highway designed to move relatively large volumes of traffic

at high speeds over long distances. Arterials offer little or no
direct access to abutting properties.

Auxiliary Lane Part of the roadway adjoining the carriageway for parking,
speed change, turning, storage for turning, weaving, truck
climbing, and for other purposes supplementary to through
traffic movement.

Average Annual The total yearly traffic volume in both directions divided by the
Daily Traffic number of days in the year.
(AADT)

Average Daily The total traffic volume during a given time period in whole days
Traffic (ADT) greater than one day and less than one year divided by the
number of days in that time period.

Average Running The total distance travelled by all the vehicles divided by the
Speed running time of all the vehicles; also referred to as the space
mean speed. [The time mean speed is the average of all
recorded speeds.

Axis of Rotation The line about which the pavement is rotated to super-elevate
the roadway. This line normally maintains the highway profile.

Broken-back Two curves in the same direction connected by a tangent

Curve shorter than 500 m.

Bus Lay-bys Lay-by reserved for public service vehicles.

Camber The convex shape given to the curved cross-section of a

roadway.

Capacity The maximum sustainable flow rate at which vehicles or persons

reasonably can be expected to traverse a point or uniform
segment of a lane or roadway during a specified time period
under given roadway, geometric, traffic, environmental, and
control conditions; usually expressed as vehicles per hour,
passenger cars per hour, or persons per hour.

Carriageway Portion of the roadway including the various physically

contiguous traffic lanes and auxiliary lanes, serving one or both
directions of traffic, and not including shoulders.

Catchwater Drain Located above a cut face to ensure that storm water does not
flow down the cut face causing erosion and deposition of silt on
the roadway.

CEF Car Equivalence Factors. To convert all non-motorised traffic and

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 motorcycles to a common unit for judging road width
requirement for safety purposes. Note that they are not the
same as PCU values that are used for capacity and congestion
estimates for heavily trafficked roads.

Channelisation The use of pavement markings or islands to direct traffic through

an intersection.

Circular Curve Usual curve configuration for horizontal curves.

Clear Zone Unencumbered roadside recovery area.

Climbing Lane An auxiliary lane in the upgrade direction for use by slow moving
vehicles and to facilitate overtaking, thereby maintaining
capacity and freedom of operation on the carriageway.

Clover-leaf An interchange with four loop ramps and four diagonal ramps,
interchange with no traffic control on either crossing roadway.

Coefficient of Ratio of the frictional force on the vehicle and the component of
Friction the weight of the vehicle perpendicular to the frictional force

Collector A standard of road that is characterised by an approximately

even distribution of access and mobility functions.

Collector- A road used at an interchange to remove weaving from the

Distributor through lanes and to reduce the number of entrances to and
exits from the through lanes.

Compound Curve Curve consisting of two or more arcs of different radii curving in
the same direction and having a common tangent or transition
curve where they meet.

Connector A collective term for interchange links, link roads, ramps and
loops.

Crest Peak formed by the junction of two gradients.

Crest Curve Convex vertical curve.

Critical Length of The maximum length of a specific upgrade on which a loaded

Grade truck can operate without an unreasonable reduction in speed. A
speed reduction of 15 km/h or more is often considered
“unreasonable”.

Critical Slope Side slope on which a vehicle is likely to overturn. Slopes with
inclinations greater than 1V:3H are considered critical.

Crossfall The transverse slope with respect to the horizon, measured

in % transversely across the surface of the roadway.

Culvert A structure, usually for conveying water under a roadway but

can also be used as a pedestrian or stock crossing, with a clear
span of less than six metres.

Cycle Lane A portion of the roadway which has been designated by road
markings, striping and signing as being exclusively for the use of
cyclists.

Cycle Path Also known as a bike way. A path physically separated from

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 motorised traffic by an open space or barrier and located either
within the road reserve or an independent reserve.

Deceleration Lane An auxiliary lane to enable a vehicle leaving the through traffic
stream to reduce speed without interfering with other traffic.

Decision Sight Allows for circumstances where complex decisions are required
Distance by a driver or unusual manoeuvres have to be carried out. As
such, it is significantly longer than Stopping Sight Distance.

Deflection Angle Successive angles from a tangent subtending a chord and used
in setting out curves.

Depressed A median lower in elevation than the travelled way and

Median designed to carry a portion of the storm water falling on the
road.

Design Capacity Maximum number of vehicles that can pass over a lane or a
roadway during a given time period without operating
conditions falling below a pre-selected design level.

Design Period of The period of time that an initially constructed or rehabilitated

a Pavement pavement structure will perform before reaching a level of
deterioration requiring more than routine or periodic
maintenance.

Design Hour The hour in which the condition being designed for, typically the
anticipated flow is expected to occur. This is often the thirtieth
highest hour of flow in the design year.

Design Speed An index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain to the
design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that
a driver is presented with a reasonably consistent speed
environment. It is now defined as the 85th percentile speed of
passenger cars travelling in free flow conditions. In practice,
most roads will only be constrained to minimum parameter
values over short sections or on specific geometric elements.

Design Traffic Number of vehicles that pass over a given section of a lane or
Volume roadway during a given time period.

Design Vehicle Vehicle whose physical characteristics and proportions are used
in setting geometric design.

Design Year The last year of the design life of the road or any other facility,
often taken as twenty years although, for costly structures such
as major bridges, a longer period is usually adopted.

Directional The percentages of the total flow moving in opposing directions,

Distribution e.g. 50:50, 70:30, with the direction of interest being quoted
first.

Diverging The opposite of merging. When a traffic stream splits into two or
more streams.

Divided Highway A highway with separate carriageways for traffic moving in

opposite directions.

Eighty-fifth The speed below which 85 % of the vehicles travel on a given

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percentile speed road or highway.

Equivalent A measure of the potential damage to a pavement caused by a

Standard Axles vehicle axle load expressed as the number of equivalent 80 kN
(ESA) single axle loads that would cause the same amount of
damage. The ESA values of all the traffic are combined to
determine the total design traffic for the design period.

Equivalency Used to convert traffic volumes into cumulative equivalent

Factors standard axle loads.

Eye Height Assumed height of a driver's eyes above the surface of the
roadway used for the purpose of determining sight distances.

Footway The rural equivalent of the urban sidewalk.

Free Haul Maximum distance through which excavated material may be

transported without added cost above the unit bid price.

Freeway A multilane, divided highway with a minimum of two lanes for

the exclusive use of traffic in each direction and full control of
access without traffic interruption.

Gap The space or time between two vehicles, measured from the
rear bumper of the front vehicle to the front bumper of the
second vehicle.

Ghost Island An area of the carriageway suitably marked to separate lanes of

traffic travelling in the same direction on both merge and
diverge layouts.

Grade Line The line describing the vertical alignment of the road or
highway.

Grade Separation A crossing of two highways or roads, or a road and a railway, at

different levels.

Gradient Rate of rise or fall on any length or road, with respect to the
horizontal. It is typically expressed as a percentage or as the
vertical rise or fall in m/100 m. In the direction of increasing
stake value, upgrades are taken as positive and downgrades as
negative.

Hairpin Curve A bend in a road with a very acute inner angle at or near
minimum radius, making it necessary for a vehicle to turn
sharply almost 180°. Sometimes also called switchback curves.

Hairpin Stack Sequence of hairpin curves employed to traverse a

mountainous or escarpment terrain section.

High Occupancy A special lane open only to vehicles carrying two or more
Vehicle (HOV) passengers.
Lane

High Speed Speeds above 80km/h

Horizontal Lateral clearance between the edge of shoulder and

Clearance obstructions.

Horizontal sight The sight distance determined by lateral obstructions alongside

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distance. the road and measured at the centre of the inside lane.

Interchange A system of interconnecting roads (referred to as ramps) in

conjunction with one or more grade separations providing for
the movement of traffic between two or more roadways which
are at different levels at their crossing point.

Intersection sight The sight distance required within the quadrants of an

distance intersection to safely allow turning and crossing movements.

Jug Handle A ramp where a right turn is made at an at-grade intersection

by taking traffic off to the left.

Kerb Concrete, often precast, element adjacent to the travelled way

and used for drainage control, delineation of the pavement
edge or protection of the edge of surfacing. Usually applied only
in urban areas.

Kerb Ramp The treatment at intersections for gradually lowering the

elevation of sidewalks to the elevation of the street surface.

K value The distance over which a one % change in gradient takes

place.

Lane Gain A layout where a merging connector road becomes a lane or

lanes of the downstream main carriageway

Lane Drop A layout where a lane or lanes of the upstream carriageway

becomes the diverging connector road.

Left Hand Lane On a dual roadway, the traffic lane nearest to the verge or
shoulder (in countries where traffic moves on the left).

Left Turn Lane An auxiliary lane to accommodate deceleration and storage of

left-turning vehicles at junctions (in countries where traffic
moves on the left).

Level of Service A qualitative concept, from LOS A to LOS F, which characterises

acceptable degrees of congestion as perceived by drivers.
Capacity is defined as being at LOS E.

Link Road In the context of junctions, a one-way connector road adjacent

to but separate from the mainline carriageway carrying traffic
in the same direction, which is used to connect the mainline
carriageway to the local highway network.

Loop A ramp requiring vehicles to execute a left turn by turning left,

accomplishing a 90-degree right turn by making a 270-degree
left turn

Mainline The primary through roadway as distinct from ramps, auxiliary

lanes, and collector-distributor roads.

Median The area in the middle of a roadway separating the opposing

traffic flows. The median thus includes the inner shoulders.

Meeting Sight Distance required to enable the drivers of two vehicles

Distance travelling in opposite directions on a two-way road with
insufficient width for passing, to bring their vehicles to a safe
stop after becoming visible to each other. It is the sum of the

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 stopping sight distances for the two vehicles plus a short safety
distance.

Merging Movement of a vehicle or vehicles from one or more lanes into

a traffic stream.

Non-recoverable Transverse side slope whose gradient is sufficiently steep that a

Slope motorist running onto it from the main road is unable to make
a sufficiently controlled manoeuvre.

Normal Crown The typical cross-section on a tangent section of a two-lane

(NC) road or four-lane undivided road.

Normal Traffic Traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if
no new pavement were provided.

Nose A paved area, approximately triangular in shape, between a

connector road (ramp) and the mainline at a merge or diverge,
suitably marked to discourage drivers from crossing it.

Object Height Assumed height of a notional object on the surface of the

roadway used for the purpose of determining sight distance.

Operational The first unintended action within a chain of driving actions

mistake which may result in a driving mistake. It may be caused by the
interaction of the characteristics of the road and the reactions
of the driver.

Operating Speed Highest overall speed at which a driver can travel on a given
road under favourable weather conditions and under prevailing
traffic conditions without at any time exceeding the safe speed
as determined by the design speed on a section-by-section
basis, neither exceeding at any time the speed limit.

Outer separator Similar to the median but located between the travelled way of
the major road and the travelled way of parallel lanes serving a
local function if these lanes are contained within the reserve of
the major road. If they fall outside this reserve, reference is to
a frontage road.

Overpass Grade separation where the subject road passes over an

intersecting road or railway.

Parking Bay Area provided for taxis and other vehicles to stop outside of the
roadway.

Partial Clover An interchange with loop ramps in one, two or three (but
Leaf Interchange usually only two) quadrants. A Par-Clo A Interchange has the
loops in advance of the structure and Par-Clo B Interchange has
the loops beyond the structure. A Par-Clo AB Interchange has
its loops on the same side of the crossing road.

Passing Bay Widened section of an otherwise single lane road where a

vehicle may move over to enable another vehicle to pass.

Passenger car The number of passenger cars that will result in the same
equivalents operational conditions as a single heavy vehicle of a particular
(units) (PCE or type under specified roadway, traffic, and control conditions. In

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PCU). studies involving capacity and LS at interceptions it might be
necessary to extend the PCU concept to motorcycles.

Passing Lane A lane added to improve passing opportunities in one direction

of travel on a conventional two-lane highway. Situated on the
high-speed side of a carriageway into which high speed traffic
can divert so that slow vehicles can remain in lane and can be
easily overtaken. The alternative is a climbing (or crawler) lane
added to the slow side of the carriage into which slow traffic
must divert so that fast traffic can continue in the fast lane
without deviation.

Passing Sight Minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that
Distance must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass
another vehicle safely and comfortably without interfering with
the speed of an oncoming vehicle travelling at the design
speed, should it come into view after the overtaking manoeuvre
is started.

Pedestrian Raised platform or a guarded area so sited in the roadway as to

Refuge divide the streams of traffic and to provide a safe area for
pedestrians.

Point of Beginning of a horizontal curve, often referred to as BC

Curvature (PC) (Beginning of Curve).

Point of Point of intersection of two tangents.

Intersection (PI)

Point of Reverse Point where a curve in one direction is immediately followed by a

Curvature (PRC) curve in the opposite direction. Typically applied only to kerb
lines.

Point of Tangency End of horizontal curve, often referred to as EC (End of Curve).

(PT)

Point of Vertical The point at which a grade ends and the vertical curve begins,
Curvature (PVC) often also referred to as BVC (Beginning of Vertical Curve).

Protected Turn A turn at an intersection that is controlled by traffic signals such

that there are no conflicts with any other vehicles (i.e. no other
vehicles can cross the path of the turning vehicles.)

Vertical Point of The point where the extension of two grades intersect.
Intersection (VPI)

Point of Vertical The point at which the vertical curve ends, and the grade begins.
Tangency (PVT) Also referred to as EVC (End of Vertical Curve).

Quarter Link An interchange with at-grade intersections on both highways or

roads and two ramps (which could be a two-lane, two-way road)
located in one quadrant. Because of its appearance, also known
as a Jug Handle Interchange.

Ramp A one-way, often single-lane, road providing a link between two

roads that cross each other at different levels.

Recoverable Side slope of limited grade such that a motorist can generally
Slope return to the roadway. (Slopes < 1:4)

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Relative Gradient The slope of the edge of the travelled way relative to the grade
line.

Reverse Camber A super-elevated section of roadway sloped across the entire

(RC) travelled way at a rate equal to the normal camber.

Reverse Curve Composite curve consisting of two arcs or transitions curving in

opposite directions.

Right Hand Lane On a dual roadway, the traffic lane nearest to thecentral
reserve.

Right Turn Lane Auxiliary lane to accommodate deceleration and storage of

right- turning vehicles at junctions.

Roadside A general term denoting the area beyond the shoulder

breakpoints

Roadbed The extent of the road between shoulder breakpoints.

Road Prism The lateral extent of the earthworks.

Road Reserve Strip of land legally awarded to the Roads Authority, specifically
for the provision of public right of way, in which the road is, or
will be, situated and where no other work or construction may
take place without permission from the Roads Authority.

Road Safety A formal systematic road safety assessment of a road scheme

Audit carried out by an independent, qualified auditor who reports on
the project’s accident potential for all kind of road users.

Roadway The area normally travelled by vehicles and consisting of traffic

lanes, including auxiliary lanes and shoulders

Rural Road or Characterised by low volume high-speed flows over extended

Highway distances. Usually without significant daily peaking but could
display heavy seasonal peak flows.

Safety Rest Area Roadside area with parking facilities for the motorist to stop
and rest.

Sag Curve Concave vertical curve

Shoulder Part of the road outside the carriageway, but at substantially

the same level, for accommodation of stopped vehicles for
emergency use, for lateral support of the carriageway and for
use by pedestrians and cyclists when no other facility has been
provided.

Shoulder The point on a cross section at which the extended flat planes
Breakpoint of the surface of the shoulder and the outside slope of the fill
and pavement intersect.

Side Friction The resistance to centripetal force keeping a vehicle in a circular

path. The designated maximum side friction represents a
threshold of driver discomfort and not the point of an impending
skid.

Side Drain Open longitudinal drain situated adjacent to and at the bottom of

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 cut or fill slopes.

Side Slope Area between the outer edge of shoulder or hinge point and the
ditch bottom.

Sidewalk The portion of the cross-section reserved for the use of

pedestrians

Sight Distance Distance visible to the driver of a passenger car measured

along the normal travel path of a roadway to the roadway
surface or to a specified height above the roadway surface,
when the view is unobstructed by traffic.

Sight Triangle The area in the quadrants of an intersection that must be kept
clear to ensure adequate sight distance between the opposing
legs of the intersection.

Simple Curve A curve of constant radius without entering or exiting

transitions.

Speed Hump Device for controlling the speed of vehicles, consisting of a

(Bump) raised area or recess on the roadway.

Speed Profile The graphical representation of the 85th percentile speed

achieved along the length of the highway segment by the
design vehicle.

Spiral Curve Transition curves between straight (tangent) sections of road and
a circular curve.

Standard Design value that may not be transgressed, e.g. an irreducible

minimum or an absolute maximum, except in unusual
conditions and with ANE’s approval. For geometric design, a
‘standard’ is not to be understood as an indicator of quality, i.e.
an ideal to be strived for.

Standard ANE Manual of standard items.

Detailed
Drawings

Stopping Sight Distance required by a driver of a vehicle, travelling at a given

Distance speed, to bring his vehicle to a stop after an object on the
roadway becomes visible. It includes the distance travelled
during the perception and reaction times and the vehicle
braking distance.

Super-elevation Inward tilt or transverse inclination given to the cross section of

a carriageway throughout the length of a horizontal curve to
reduce the effects of centrifugal force on a moving vehicle;
expressed as a percentage.

Super-elevation The super-elevation transition section consists of the super-

Run-off elevation runoff and ‘tangent runout’ sections. The super-
elevation runoff section consists of the length of roadway
needed to accomplish a change in outside lane cross slope from
zero (flat) to full super-elevation, or vice versa. See also
‘tangent runout’.
Interchange connecting two freeways, i.e. a node in the
Systems
freeway system.

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Interchange

Tangent The straight portion of a highway between two horizontal

curves.

Tangent Runout The tangent runout section consists of the length of roadway
needed to accomplish a change in outside-lane cross slope from
the normal cross slope rate to zero (flat), or vice versa.

Taper Transition length between a passing place, auxiliary lane,

climbing lane or passing lane and the standard roadway.

Traffic Capacity Maximum number of vehicles which has a reasonable

expectation of passing over a given section of a lane or a
roadway in one direction or in both directions for a two-lane
single roadway road, during a given time period under
prevailing road and traffic conditions.

Traffic Flow Number of vehicles or persons that pass a specific point in a

stated time, in both directions unless otherwise stated.

Traffic Lane Part of a travelled way intended for a single stream of traffic in
one direction, which has normally been demarcated as such by
road markings.

Traffic Island Central or subsidiary area raised or marked on the roadway,

generally at a road junction, shaped and placed to direct traffic
movement.

Transition Curve Curve whose radius changes continuously along its length, used
to connect a tangent with a circular arc or two circular areas of
different radii.

Transition Length Length of the transition curve.

Travelled Way The lanes of the cross-section used for the movement of
vehicles. The travelled way excludes the shoulders, auxiliary
lanes, bus-bays, etc.

Trumpet A three-legged interchange containing a loop ramp and a

Interchange directional ramp, creating between them the appearance of the
bell of a trumpet.

Trunk Road International Trunk Road linking centres of international

importance and crossing international boundaries or
terminating at international ports.

Turning Lanes Lanes which separate turning vehicles from the through traffic
lanes.

Turning Roadway Channelized turning lane at an at-grade intersection.

Sometimes this includes interchange ramps and intersection
curves for left turning vehicles.

Turning A graphic representation of a design vehicle’s turning path for

Template various angles of turn. If the template includes the paths of the
outer front and inner rear points of the vehicle, reference is to
the swept path of the vehicle.

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Underpass A grade separation where the subject highway passes under an
intersecting highway.

Urban Road or Characterised by high traffic volumes moving at relatively low

Highway speeds and pronounced peak or tidal flows. Usually within an
urban area but may also be a link traversing an unbuilt up area
between two adjacent urban areas, hence displaying urban
operational characteristics.

Value A management technique in which intensive study of a project

Engineering seeks to achieve the best functional balance between cost,
reliability and performance.

Verge The area between the edge of the road prism and the reserve
boundary.

Vertical Direction of the centreline of a road in side profile.

Alignment

Vertical Curve Curve on the longitudinal profile of a road, normally parabolic.

Warrant A guideline value indicating whether or not a facility should be

provided. Once the warranting threshold has been met, this is
an indication that the design treatment should be considered
and evaluated and not that the design treatment is
automatically required.

Weaving Movement in the same general direction of vehicles within two

or more traffic streams intersecting at a shallow angle so that
the vehicles in one stream cross other streams gradually.

(xv)
Contents
FOREWORD ........................................................................................................ I
PREFACE............................................................................................................. I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... II
ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................. III
GLOSSARY OF TERMS ......................................................................................... V
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................... XXII
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................... XXV
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1
1.1 SCOPE ....................................................................................................... 1
1.2 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES ................................................................................ 1
1.2.1 Dealing with Human Factors .................................................................. 1
1.2.2 Other Road Users ................................................................................. 3
1.2.3 Flexibility in Design ............................................................................... 3
1.2.4 Design Speed ....................................................................................... 4
1.3 THE DESIGN DOMAIN CONCEPT ........................................................................... 4
1.4 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS ...................................................................................... 4
1.5 PRIMARY DESIGN CRITERIA ............................................................................... 5
1.5.1 Road Hierarchy .................................................................................... 5
1.5.2 Traffic Hierarchy ................................................................................... 5
1.5.3 Road environment ................................................................................ 6
1.6 DESIGN CLASSES........................................................................................... 6
1.7 DESIGN STEPS .............................................................................................. 7
2 DESIGN DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS .................................................. 9
2.1 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY .................................................................................... 9
2.2 TRAFFIC SURVEY ........................................................................................... 9
2.2.1 Design Situations ................................................................................. 9
2.2.2 Conducting Traffic Surveys .................................................................. 10
2.3 INITIAL DATA REVIEW ................................................................................... 11
2.4 DATA ANALYSIS .......................................................................................... 11
2.4.1 Determine Non-motorised Traffic Composition ........................................ 11
2.4.2 Determine AADT ................................................................................. 12
2.4.3 Designing for Peak Flows ..................................................................... 12
2.4.4 Estimating Traffic Growth .................................................................... 12
2.5 SELECTION OF THE DESIGN TRAFFIC CLASS .......................................................... 13
3 DESIGN OF CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS ...................................................... 15
3.1 TERRAIN ................................................................................................... 15
3.2 CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE. .................................................................... 16
3.2.1 Highway Capacity ............................................................................... 16
3.2.2 Level of Service .................................................................................. 17
3.3 ROAD WIDTHS ............................................................................................ 20
3.3.1 Additional Width for Mixed Vehicles ....................................................... 23
3.3.2 Additional Width Based on Surrounding Land Use ................................... 23
3.3.3 Auxiliary lanes.................................................................................... 23
3.4 SHOULDERS ............................................................................................... 23
3.4.1 Surfacing of Shoulders ........................................................................ 24
3.4.2 Edge Marking ..................................................................................... 24
3.4.3 Shoulders for Gravel Roads .................................................................. 24
3.5 NORMAL CROSSFALL ..................................................................................... 24

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 3.6 ROAD RESERVE ........................................................................................... 25
3.7 SIDE SLOPES AND BACK SLOPES ....................................................................... 25
3.8 ROADSIDE DITCHES...................................................................................... 27
3.8.1 Trapezoidal ........................................................................................ 28
3.8.2 V-Shape ............................................................................................ 28
3.8.3 Safer Ditches ..................................................................................... 28
3.9 CLEAR ZONE .............................................................................................. 28
3.10 FOUR-LANE AND DIVIDED ROADS ..................................................................... 29
3.11 MEDIANS .................................................................................................. 29
3.11.1 Depressed Medians ............................................................................. 30
3.12 OUTER SEPARATORS ..................................................................................... 30
3.13 BUS STOPS, LAY-BYS AND PARKING BAYS ............................................................ 31
3.14 REFUGE ISLANDS ......................................................................................... 32
3.15 SIDEWALKS ............................................................................................... 33
3.16 FOOTPATHS IN RURAL AREAS ........................................................................... 33
3.17 SLOPES .................................................................................................... 34
4 GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA FOR ROAD ALIGNMENTS ................................ 35
4.1 DESIGN SPEED ........................................................................................... 35
4.1.1 Consistency ....................................................................................... 35
4.1.2 Changes of Design Speed .................................................................... 36
4.1.3 Speed Profiles .................................................................................... 36
4.1.4 Choice of Design Speed ....................................................................... 36
4.2 THE DESIGN VEHICLE.................................................................................... 36
4.3 SIGHT DISTANCES ....................................................................................... 39
4.3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 39
4.3.2 Friction between Tyres and Roadway .................................................... 39
4.3.3 Stopping Sight Distance ...................................................................... 40
4.3.4 Stopping Sight Distance for Single Lane Roads (Meeting Sight Distance) ... 42
4.3.5 Intersection Sight Distance .................................................................. 42
4.3.6 Decision Sight Distance ....................................................................... 43
4.3.7 Passing Sight Distance (PSD) ............................................................... 44
4.3.8 Passing Opportunities .......................................................................... 45
4.3.9 Headlight Sight Distance ..................................................................... 45
4.3.10 Control of Sight Distance ..................................................................... 46
5 DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT ........................................................ 47
5.1 MINIMUM HORIZONTAL RADIUS OF CURVATURE ..................................................... 47
5.2 CONSISTENCY ............................................................................................. 48
5.2.1 Length of Tangents ............................................................................. 51
5.2.2 Friction .............................................................................................. 52
5.2.3 Evaluation of Consistency .................................................................... 53
5.3 ISOLATED CURVES ....................................................................................... 53
5.4 LENGTH OF TANGENT SECTIONS AND CURVES........................................................ 54
5.4.1 Maximum Length of Tangents .............................................................. 54
5.4.2 Minimum Length of Tangent................................................................. 55
5.4.3 Minimum Length of Circular Curves ....................................................... 55
5.4.4 Maximum Length of Circular Curves ...................................................... 55
5.5 CROSS-FALL............................................................................................... 56
5.6 MINIMUM TURNING RADII ............................................................................... 56
5.7 PASSING LANES .......................................................................................... 56
5.7.1 Three-lane Designs ............................................................................. 57
5.7.2 Entry and Exit Tapers .......................................................................... 57
5.7.3 Use on Gradients ................................................................................ 57
5.8 WIDENING ON CURVES AND EMBANKMENTS .......................................................... 59
5.9 HAIRPIN CURVES ......................................................................................... 60
5.10 TRANSITION CURVES .................................................................................... 62
5.11 SUPER-ELEVATION........................................................................................ 63

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 5.11.1 Alignment with Spirals ........................................................................ 63
5.12 REVERSE CURVES, BROKEN-BACK CURVES, AND COMPOUND CURVES............................ 66
5.12.1 Reverse Curve.................................................................................... 67
5.12.2 Broken-back Curve ............................................................................. 67
5.12.3 Compound Curve ................................................................................ 68
5.13 SHOULDER SUPER-ELEVATION .......................................................................... 69
6 DESIGN OF VERTICAL ALIGNMENT ............................................................. 75
6.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 75
6.2 VERTICAL CURVE FORMULA ............................................................................. 76
6.3 CREST CURVES ............................................................................................ 77
6.3.1 Minimum Length of Vertical Curve ........................................................ 78
6.4 SAG CURVES .............................................................................................. 79
6.5 GRADIENT ................................................................................................. 79
6.5.1 Maximum Gradients ............................................................................ 79
6.5.2 Gradient and Super-elevation ............................................................... 81
6.5.3 Maximum Gradients at Hairpin Curves ................................................... 81
6.5.4 Minimum Gradients ............................................................................. 81
6.5.5 Gradients through Villages ................................................................... 81
6.6 CLIMBING LANES ......................................................................................... 82
6.6.1 Criteria for Climbing Lanes ................................................................... 82
6.6.2 Geometric Properties of Climbing Lanes ................................................. 82
6.6.3 Safety Aspects of Climbing Lanes ......................................................... 83
7 DESIGN STANDARDS FOR ROAD ALIGNMENTS ........................................... 85
8 PHASING OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS ......................... 105
8.1 TYPES OF MIS-PHASING AND CORRECTIVE ACTION ................................................ 105
8.2 MINIMUM LENGTHS OF VERTICAL CURVES .......................................................... 105
8.3 CREST AND SAG CURVE HAVE A COMMON BEGINNING AND END ................................ 106
8.4 A SHORT DIP IN THE ALIGNMENT PRECEDING A HORIZONTAL CURVE .......................... 107
8.5 DISTORTED ALIGNMENT ............................................................................... 109
8.6 BROKEN BACK CURVES ................................................................................ 110
8.7 SAG CURVE AT THE START OF A HORIZONTAL CURVE .............................................. 111
8.8 VARIATIONS IN VERTICAL ALIGNMENT ON LONG HORIZONTAL CURVES ........................ 111
8.9 START OF HORIZONTAL CURVES NOT VISIBLE...................................................... 112
8.10 VERTICAL CURVE OVERLAPS ONE END OF THE HORIZONTAL CURVE ............................ 112
8.11 INSUFFICIENT SEPARATION BETWEEN THE CURVES ................................................ 113
8.12 BOTH ENDS OF THE VERTICAL CURVE LIE ON THE HORIZONTAL CURVE ........................ 113
8.13 VERTICAL CURVE OVERLAPS BOTH ENDS OF THE HORIZONTAL CURVE ......................... 113
8.14 THE ECONOMIC PENALTY DUE TO PHASING ......................................................... 114
8.15 VERTICAL CLEARANCES ................................................................................ 114
9 DESIGN OF AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS .................................................... 116
9.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 116
9.2 INTERSECTION TYPES .................................................................................. 116
9.2.1 Simple and Priority Crossroads and T-Intersections............................... 117
9.2.2 Skew Intersections ........................................................................... 120
9.2.3 Roundabouts .................................................................................... 121
9.2.4 Controlled Intersections .................................................................... 121
9.2.5 Intersection Design Speed ................................................................. 121
9.3 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................. 122
9.3.1 Non-motorised Traffic and Non-road Users .......................................... 122
9.3.2 Pedestrian Requirements ................................................................... 122
9.3.3 Traffic Control .................................................................................. 122
9.3.4 Shared Facilities ............................................................................... 122
9.4 FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF INTERSECTION TYPE AND DESIGN ........................ 123
9.4.1 Principles of Intersection Design ......................................................... 123

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 9.4.2 Safety and Operational Comfort ......................................................... 124
9.4.3 Safety and Intersection Sight Distance ................................................ 125
9.4.4 Capacity .......................................................................................... 126
9.4.5 Vehicle Characteristics ...................................................................... 131
9.4.6 Design Speed ................................................................................... 132
9.4.7 Sight Distances ................................................................................ 132
9.4.8 Local Environment ............................................................................ 133
9.4.9 Functionality .................................................................................... 133
9.4.10 Economy ......................................................................................... 133
9.5 SELECTION OF INTERSECTION TYPE .................................................................. 134
9.5.1 Priority Intersections ......................................................................... 134
9.5.2 Control Intersections ......................................................................... 134
9.5.3 Steps in the Selection and Design Procedure ........................................ 135
9.6 DISTANCE BETWEEN ADJACENT INTERSECTIONS ................................................... 136
9.7 DESIGN OF THE ELEMENTS OF PRIORITY JUNCTIONS .............................................. 137
9.7.1 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment ....................................................... 138
9.7.2 Lane Widths and Shoulders ................................................................ 138
9.7.3 Ghost Islands ................................................................................... 138
9.7.4 Central Reserves .............................................................................. 139
9.7.5 Channelisation ................................................................................. 139
9.7.6 Medians .......................................................................................... 142
9.7.7 Splitter Islands ................................................................................. 143
9.7.8 Channelised Intersection Layout ......................................................... 144
9.7.9 Widening of the Major Road at the Intersection .................................... 145
9.7.10 Speed Change Lanes ......................................................................... 146
9.7.11 Decelerating Lane: Left Turn .............................................................. 147
9.7.12 Acceleration Lanes ............................................................................ 148
9.7.13 Right Turn Lanes .............................................................................. 149
9.7.14 Merging and Diverging ...................................................................... 150
9.7.15 Turning Roadway .............................................................................. 151
9.7.16 Private Access .................................................................................. 153
9.8 DESIGN OF SIGNALISED INTERSECTIONS ........................................................... 154
9.8.1 Control Strategy and Layout .............................................................. 155
9.8.2 Visibility .......................................................................................... 156
9.8.3 Lane Design ..................................................................................... 157
9.8.4 Swept Paths and Corner Curves ......................................................... 159
9.8.5 Signals ............................................................................................ 160
9.8.6 Pedestrian and Cyclist Facilities .......................................................... 162
9.9 CHECKLIST FOR INTERSECTION DESIGN............................................................. 163
10 ROUNDABOUTS ...................................................................................... 164
10.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 164
10.1.1 Normal Roundabouts......................................................................... 164
10.1.2 Compact Roundabout ........................................................................ 165
10.1.3 Mini Roundabout .............................................................................. 166
10.1.4 Signalised Roundabout ...................................................................... 166
10.2 THE USE OF ROUNDABOUTS ........................................................................... 166
10.3 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................... 167
10.3.1 Safety and Speed Control .................................................................. 167
10.3.2 Key requirements ............................................................................. 168
10.3.3 Number and Alignment of Entry Roads ................................................ 168
10.3.4 Visibility and Sight Distances.............................................................. 169
10.4 DIMENSIONS OF ROUNDABOUTS ..................................................................... 170
10.4.1 Normal Roundabouts ......................................................................... 171
10.4.2 Small Roundabouts (Compact and Mini) .............................................. 173
10.5 ENTRIES ................................................................................................. 174
10.5.1 Number of Entry Lanes ...................................................................... 174
10.5.2 Approach Alignment .......................................................................... 175

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 10.5.3 Splitter Islands ................................................................................. 175
10.5.4 Entry Design .................................................................................... 175
10.5.5 Entry Flaring .................................................................................... 178
10.5.6 Entry Path Radius ............................................................................. 178
10.6 DRIVING PATHS ........................................................................................ 179
10.7 EXIT WIDTH............................................................................................. 181
10.8 SIGNALISED ROUNDABOUTS .......................................................................... 182
10.9 CAPACITY OF ROUNDABOUTS ......................................................................... 183
10.10 PEDESTRIAN AND CYCLE CROSSINGS ............................................................. 183
10.11 TYPICAL STEP BY STEP DESIGN PROCEDURE..................................................... 184
11 GRADE SEPARATED INTERCHANGES ...................................................... 185
11.1 SCOPE ................................................................................................... 185
11.2 GENERAL ................................................................................................ 185
11.3 SPACING OF INTERCHANGES .......................................................................... 186
11.4 CHOICE OF SCHEME .................................................................................... 186
11.5 TYPES OF INTERCHANGES ............................................................................. 187
11.5.1 Three-way Interchanges (Layouts A and B).......................................... 188
11.5.2 Junctions of Major/Minor Roads (Layouts C and D) ............................... 189
11.5.3 Interchange between Two Major Roads ............................................... 190
11.5.4 Roundabout Layouts ......................................................................... 191
11.5.5 Junctions of more than Two Major Roads ............................................. 191
11.6 INTERCHANGES ON NON-FREEWAY ROADS.......................................................... 192
11.7 GEOMETRIC STANDARDS .............................................................................. 192
11.7.1 Design Speed ................................................................................... 192
11.7.2 Acceleration and Deceleration Lanes ................................................... 193
11.7.3 Horizontal Curves and Super-elevation ................................................ 193
11.7.4 Vertical Curves and Gradients ............................................................ 193
11.7.5 Widths and Gradients of Ramps .......................................................... 193
11.7.6 Clearances ....................................................................................... 194
11.7.7 Capacity .......................................................................................... 194
11.7.8 Basic Lanes and Lane Balance ............................................................ 194
11.8 DESIGN PRINCIPLES ................................................................................... 195
11.9 DESIGN PROCEDURES.................................................................................. 196
12 ADDITIONAL SAFETY AND MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN ITEMS .................. 199
12.1 THE ROAD ACCIDENT SITUATION .................................................................... 199
12.1.1 Pedestrians ...................................................................................... 199
12.1.2 Cyclists ........................................................................................... 200
12.2 IMPROVING SAFETY .................................................................................... 200
12.3 TRAFFIC CALMING ...................................................................................... 202
12.3.1 Chicanes ......................................................................................... 202
12.3.2 Rumble strips ................................................................................... 202
12.3.3 Speed Reduction Humps and Cushions ................................................ 203
12.3.4 Village Treatment ............................................................................. 204
12.4 BRAKE CHECK AREAS .................................................................................. 207
12.5 PARKING LANES ........................................................................................ 207
12.6 PASSING POINTS ....................................................................................... 207
12.7 SAFETY REST AREAS AND SCENIC OVERLOOKS .................................................... 208
12.8 SAFETY BARRIERS ...................................................................................... 208
12.8.1 General ........................................................................................... 208
12.8.2 Basic Principles ................................................................................ 209
12.8.3 Alternative Solutions to Safety Barriers ............................................... 210
12.8.4 Containment Requirements for Safety Barriers ..................................... 210
12.8.5 Design and Performance Criteria ........................................................ 210
12.8.6 Requirement for Using Safety Barriers ................................................. 211
12.8.7 Required Length of a Safety Barrier .................................................... 212
12.8.8 Steel Beam Strong Post Guardrail ....................................................... 213

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 12.8.8.1 Installation of Steel Beam Strong Post Guardrail ................................ 214
12.8.9 Concrete Barriers ............................................................................. 215
12.8.10 Wire-Rope Barriers ........................................................................ 215
12.8.11 Jersey Barriers .............................................................................. 216
12.8.12 Grouted Rock Barrier ...................................................................... 216
12.8.13 Median Barriers ............................................................................. 216
12.8.14 Terminals ..................................................................................... 217
12.8.15 Transition from Guardrail to Bridge Parapets and Concrete Barriers ...... 219
12.8.16 Pedestrian Barriers and Parapets ..................................................... 219
12.8.17 Summary - Use and Placement of Barriers ........................................ 221
12.9 EMERGENCY ESCAPE RAMPS .......................................................................... 222
12.9.1 Types .............................................................................................. 222
12.9.2 Design Considerations ....................................................................... 223
12.9.3 Maintenance .................................................................................... 225
12.10 ROAD SAFETY RESEARCH AND AUDITS ........................................................... 225
12.11 PUBLIC UTILITIES.................................................................................... 225
12.11.1 Electricidade de Moçambique (EDM) ................................................. 226
12.11.2 Direcção Nacional de Aguas (DNA) ................................................... 227
12.11.3 Telecomunicações de Moçambique (TDM) ......................................... 227
12.12 RAILWAY GRADE CROSSINGS ...................................................................... 227
13 ROAD SIGNS, ROAD MARKINGS AND ROAD FURNITURE ........................ 229
13.1 ROAD SIGNS ............................................................................................ 229
13.2 ROAD MARKINGS ....................................................................................... 229
13.2.1 Pavement markings .......................................................................... 229
13.2.2 Object Markers ................................................................................. 229
13.3 ROAD STUDS............................................................................................ 230
13.4 MARKER POSTS ......................................................................................... 230
13.5 TRAFFIC LIGHT SIGNALS .............................................................................. 230
13.6 LIGHTING ................................................................................................ 231
14 DEPARTURES FROM STANDARDS ........................................................... 232
14.1 PROCEDURE ............................................................................................. 232
15 REFERENCES .......................................................................................... 235
APPENDIX A ESTIMATING DESIGN TRAFFIC (EXAMPLE) ................................ 238
APPENDIX B MEASURING SIGHT DISTANCE ON PLANS .................................. 240
APPENDIX C SIGHT DISTANCES AT INTERSECTIONS ..................................... 242
CASE A INTERSECTIONS WITH NO CONTROL ............................................... 244
CASE B INTERSECTIONS WITH STOP CONTROL ........................................... 245
CASE C INTERSECTIONS WITH YIELD CONTROL ON THE MINOR ROAD ........ 248
CASE D INTERSECTIONS WITH TRAFFIC SIGNAL CONTROL .......................... 250
CASE E INTERSECTIONS WITH ALL-WAY STOP CONTROL ............................ 250
CASE F RIGHT TURNS FROM A MAJOR ROAD .................................................. 251
APPENDIX D ROAD FRICTION ........................................................................ 253
APPENDIX E UTILITIES .................................................................................. 255
APPENDIX F COMPACT GRADE-SEPARATED INTERCHANGES......................... 257
APPENDIX G PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE ........................................................ 262
APPENDIX H ELEMENTS OF A CIRCULAR CURVE ............................................. 265

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List of Tables
Table 1-1: Design Class Options .............................................................................................................. 6
Table 1-2: Steps in the Design Procedure .............................................................................................. 7
Table 2-1: Traffic Categories ................................................................................................................ 10
Table 2-2: Traffic Surveys ..................................................................................................................... 10
Table 2-3: Car Equivalency Factor ........................................................................................................ 11
Table 2-4: Methods of Estimating Traffic Growth ............................................................................... 13
Table 2-5: Design AADT (x103) for different traffic growth rates......................................................... 14
Table 3-1: Terrain Classification ........................................................................................................... 16
Table 3-2: Passenger Car Units ............................................................................................................ 17
Table 3-3: Level of Service for Base Conditions and Uninterrupted Flow ........................................... 18
Table 3-4: Dependence of Capacity on Directional Flow ..................................................................... 19
Table 3-5: Traffic Flow for Two-lane Rural Roads ................................................................................ 20
Table 3-6: Widths (m) for Paved Road Elements ................................................................................. 21
Table 3-7: Width and Crossfall for Unpaved Roads ............................................................................. 21
Table 3-8: Road Width Adjustments for Car Equivalence Factors (CEF) greater than 300 AADT ........ 23
Table 3-9: Recoverable and Non-recoverable Slopes .......................................................................... 26
Table 3-10: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal ........................................................................ 27
Table 3-11: Recommended Clear Zones (m) ........................................................................................ 29
Table 3-12: Pedestrian Sight Distances (m) ......................................................................................... 33
Table 3-13: Recommendations for Paved Footpaths in Rural Areas ................................................... 34
Table 4-1: Design Vehicle Characteristics ............................................................................................. 37
Table 4-2: Parameters Values Used for Calculating Sight Distances.................................................... 39
Table 4-3: Friction Factors.................................................................................................................... 40
Table 4-4: Minimum Stopping Sight Distances for Paved Roads ......................................................... 41
Table 4-5: Minimum Stopping Sight Distances for Unpaved Roads .................................................... 42
Table 4-6: Decision Sight Distances for Various Situations (m) ........................................................... 44
Table 4-7: Passing Sight Distances ....................................................................................................... 45
Table 4-8: Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance .................................................................... 45
Table 5-1: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves for Paved Roads (m) ............................................... 48
Table 5-2: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves for Unpaved Roads (m) .......................................... 48
Table 5-3: Variables required for evaluation of consistency ............................................................... 50
Table 5-4: Design Criteria ..................................................................................................................... 51
Table 5-5: Lengths of Tangents and Circular Curves ............................................................................ 54
Table 5-6: Widening on Curves and High Fills ...................................................................................... 59
Table 5-7: Transition Curve Requirements (m) .................................................................................... 63
Table 5-8: Minimum length of super-elevation run-off for two-lane roads ........................................ 65
Table 5-9: Super-elevation Rates for emax = 4.0% .............................................................................. 71
Table 5-10: Super-elevation Rates for emax = 6.0% ............................................................................ 72
Table 5-11: Super-elevation Rates for emax = 8.0%............................................................................... 73
Table 5-12: Super-elevation Rates for emax = 10.0% ............................................................................ 74
Table 6-1: Minimum Values of K for Crest Vertical Curves (Paved Roads) .......................................... 77
Table 6-2: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves (Unpaved Roads) ............................................ 78
Table 6-3: Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves .................................................................................. 78
Table 6-4: Minimum Values of K for Sag Curves .................................................................................. 79
Table 6-5: Lengths of grade for a 15 km/h speed reduction ............................................................... 80
Table 6-6: Suggested Maximum Gradients for Paved Sections ........................................................... 81
Table 6-7: Traffic Volume and Gradient Criteria Justifying a Climbing Lane ....................................... 82
Table 7-1 Applicable Design standards ................................................................................................. 85

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Table 7-2: Design Parameters for H1-T1-R .......................................................................................... 86
Table 7-3: Design Parameters for (H2-T1-R) ........................................................................................ 87
Table 7-4: Design Parameters for (H2-T2-R) ........................................................................................ 88
Table 7-5: Design Parameters for (H2-T3-R) ........................................................................................ 89
Table 7-6: Design Parameters for (H3-T3-R) ........................................................................................ 90
Table 7-7: Design Parameters for (H3-T4-R) ........................................................................................ 91
Table 7-8: Design Standards H4-T4-R................................................................................................... 92
Table 7-9: Design Parameters for (H1-T1–M) ...................................................................................... 93
Table 7-10: Design Parameters for (H2-T1-M) ..................................................................................... 94
Table 7-11: Design Parameters for (H2-T2-M) ..................................................................................... 95
Table 7-12: Design Parameters for (H2-T3-M) ..................................................................................... 96
Table 7-13: Design Parameters for (H2-T2-U) ...................................................................................... 97
Table 7-14: Design Parameters for (H2-T3-U) ...................................................................................... 98
Table 7-15: Design Parameters for (H3-T3-U) ...................................................................................... 99
Table 7-16: Design Standards for H3-T4-U......................................................................................... 100
Table 7-17: Design Standards H4-T4-U .............................................................................................. 101
Table 7-18: Design Standards for Unpaved H3-T3 and H3-T4 Rural .................................................. 102
Table 7-19: Design Standards for Unpaved H3-T3 and H3-T4 Urban ................................................ 103
Table 7-20: Design Standards for Unpaved H4-T4 Rural and Urban.................................................. 104
Table 8-1: Vertical Clearance from Superstructure to Design Flood Level ........................................ 115
Table 9-1: Basic Types of Intersections .............................................................................................. 116
Table 9-2: Types of Traffic Control for At-grade Intersections .......................................................... 117
Table 9-3: Minimum Radii for Location of Intersections on Curves ................................................... 124
Table 9-4: Features Contributing to Accidents at Intersections and Remedial Measures. ............... 124
Table 9-5: Human Factors for Intersection Design ............................................................................ 125
Table 9-6: Typical Maximum Traffic Volumes .................................................................................... 129
Table 9-7: Vehicle Factors for Intersection Design ............................................................................ 131
Table 9-8: Minimum Sight Distances for ‘Yield’ or ‘Approach’ Conditions ........................................ 133
Table 9-9: Minimum Sight Distances for ‘Stop’ or ‘Departure’ Conditions ........................................ 133
Table 9-10: Intersection Selection Based on Traffic Flow (1000 vpd)................................................ 135
Table 9-11: Steps in the Selection and Design Procedure ................................................................. 135
Table 9-12: Minimum Spacings (m) between Uncontrolled Intersections ........................................ 136
Table 9-13: Length of Left Turn Lane ................................................................................................. 148
Table 9-14: Taper Rates for Exit Lanes (or Ramps) ............................................................................ 148
Table 9-15: Length of Acceleration Lanes including Taper (m) .......................................................... 149
Table 9-16: Lengths of Storage Sections for Right Turn Lanes........................................................... 149
Table 9-17: Turning Roadway Widths ................................................................................................ 152
Table 9-18: Criteria for Traffic Signalisation of Cross Walks .............................................................. 156
Table 10-1 Roundabouts Dimensions ................................................................................................. 171
Table 10-2: Entry Widths.................................................................................................................... 177
Table 11-1: Characteristics of some common Grade Separated Interchanges ................................. 188
Table 11-2: Minimum Widths for Ramps ........................................................................................... 193
Table 12-1: Design of Circular Road Humps (Height = 0.1 m)............................................................. 203
Table 12-2: Design of Flat-topped Road Humps ................................................................................ 204
Table 12-3: Containment Level .......................................................................................................... 210
Table 12-4: Containment Level – Requirement of Design of Safety Barriers ..................................... 211
Table 12-5: Length of Safety Barriers ................................................................................................. 213
Table 12-6: Rolling Resistance of Roadway Surfacing Materials ....................................................... 225
Table 13-1: Spacing of Guide Posts at Curves .................................................................................... 230
Table A-1 Traffic Information for Estimating Design Traffic for the Example..................................... 238
Table A-2 Converting non-4 Wheel Traffic and Pedestrians ............................................................... 238
Table A-3 Results of Calculation Total AADT ...................................................................................... 239

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Table C-1 Case A: Recommended Sight Distances for Intersections with no Traffic Control ............ 245
Table C-2 Travel Times Used to Determine the Leg of the Departure Triangle along the Major Road
for Right and Left Turns from Stop-controlled Approaches ............................................................... 246
Table C-3 Travel Times Used to Determine the Leg of the Departure Triangle along the Major Road
for Crossing Manoeuvres from Stop-controlled Approaches ............................................................. 247
Table C-4 Leg of Approach Sight Triangle Along the Minor Road to Accommodate Crossing
Manoeuvres from Yield-controlled Approaches................................................................................. 249
Table C-5 Travel Times Used to Determine the Sight Distance along the Major Road to Accommodate
Right Turns from the Major Road (Case F).......................................................................................... 251
Table E-1 Minimum Vertical Clearance of Wires above Road Surface (in centimetres) .................... 255
Table E-2 Trench Dimensions for Water and Sewerage Pipe Culverts ............................................... 256
Table G-1 Clearance Distance (d3) for Different Ambient Speeds ...................................................... 263
Table G-2 Passing Sight Distances ....................................................................................................... 264

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List of Figures
Figure 3-1: Typical Road Cross Section Showing All Elements ............................................................. 15
Figure 3-2: Cross Section for H1 T2 in Rolling or Flat ........................................................................... 22
Figure 3-3: Cross Section for H2 T3 in Mountainous and Escarpment Terrain .................................... 22
Figure 3-4: Details of the road edge .................................................................................................... 25
Figure 3-5: Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils ...................................................................... 27
Figure 3-6: Bus Lay-Bys and Parking Bays ............................................................................................ 32
Figure 4-1: Dimensions and Turning Radius Path for Single Unit Truck (DV2) .................................... 37
Figure 4-2: Dimensions and Turning Radius Path for Single Unit Bus (DV3)........................................ 38
Figure 4-3: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Semi-Trailer Combination ...................................... 38
Figure 4-4: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves ................................................................................. 46
Figure 5-1: Ratio of Radii of Consecutive Horizontal Curves ............................................................... 49
Figure 5-2: Passing Lane Arrangements ............................................................................................... 56
Figure 5-3: Example of a Passing Lane ................................................................................................. 57
Figure 5-4: Layout for Passing Lane ..................................................................................................... 58
Figure 5-5: Hairpin Curve ..................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 5-6: Hairpin Curve for the Passage of Single DV4 Vehicle ........................................................ 62
Figure 5-7 Elements of Super-elevation............................................................................................... 64
Figure 5-8: Attainment of Super-elevation using the Transition Curve ................................................ 65
Figure 5-9: Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves .......................................... 67
Figure 5-10: Super-elevation of Reverse Curves .................................................................................. 68
Figure 5-11: Super-elevation of Broken-back Curves .......................................................................... 69
Figure 5-12: Shoulder Super-elevation (for Surfaced Roads) .............................................................. 70
Figure 6-1: Crest Curve.......................................................................................................................... 75
Figure 6-2: Sag Curve ............................................................................................................................ 75
Figure 6-3: Layout of Climbing Lanes ................................................................................................... 84
Figure 8-1: Hidden Dip (Roller Coaster) Profile .................................................................................. 106
Figure 8-2: Short Humps on Long Horizontal Curve........................................................................... 107
Figure 8-3: Short Vertical Curves Preceding a Long Horizontal Curve ............................................... 108
Figure 8-4: Distorted Alignment at Bridge Crossing........................................................................... 109
Figure 8-5: Replacement of Broken-Back Curve by Single Radius Long Curve. ................................. 110
Figure 8-6: Out-of-phase Vertical and Horizontal Alignments ........................................................... 111
Figure 8-7: Variable Gradients (Rolling Grade-line) ........................................................................... 111
Figure 8-8: Break in Horizontal Alignment ......................................................................................... 112
Figure 8-9: Well-coordinated Crest and Horizontal Curves ............................................................... 114
Figure 8-10: Well-coordinated Sag and Horizontal Curves ................................................................ 114
Figure 9-1: Crossroads with Stop Lines .............................................................................................. 118
Figure 9-2: Partly Channelised T-Intersection with Ghost Islands ..................................................... 119
Figure 9-3: T-Intersections with Channelisation ................................................................................ 119
Figure 9-4: Staggered Intersection...................................................................................................... 119
Figure 9-5: Partly Channelised Staggered Intersection with Ghost Islands ....................................... 120
Figure 9-6: Skew or Y Intersection with Ghost and Channelising Islands. ......................................... 121
Figure 9-7: Traffic Signal Controlled Cross Roads .............................................................................. 121
Figure 9-8: Selection of Intersection Types........................................................................................ 127
Figure 9-9: Peak Hour Capacity ........................................................................................................... 129
Figure 9-10: Example of a Signal-Controlled Crossroads ................................................................... 130
Figure 9-11: Signal-Controlled Crossroads with a Staggered Pedestrian Crossing and Refuge. ........ 131
Figure 9-12: Intersection Selection Based on Traffic Flows ............................................................... 134
Figure 9-13: Desirable Spacings of Controlled Intersections ............................................................. 137

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Figure 9-14: Typical Traffic Islands ..................................................................................................... 140
Figure 9-15: Typical Triangular Island ................................................................................................ 142
Figure 9-16: Median End Treatment .................................................................................................. 143
Figure 9-17: Layout of a Channelised Intersection ............................................................................ 144
Figure 9-18: Layout of a Partially Channelised Intersection .............................................................. 145
Figure 9-19: Conditions Requiring a Right Turn Lane ........................................................................ 147
Figure 9-20: Layout for Left Turn Lane ............................................................................................... 147
Figure 9-21: Layout for Right Turn Lane, Single Carriageway ............................................................ 150
Figure 9-22: Layout for Right Turn Lane, Dual Carriageway .............................................................. 150
Figure 9-23: Examples of Merge and Diverge Lanes .......................................................................... 151
Figure 9-24: Typical Cross-road Intersection showing all Elements .................................................. 153
Figure 9-25: Typical Access ................................................................................................................ 154
Figure 9-26: Protected Right Turn Sequence ...................................................................................... 155
Figure 9-27: Inter-visibility Zone without Pedestrian Crossing .......................................................... 157
Figure 9-28: Right Turn Lane Design .................................................................................................. 157
Figure 9-29: Ghost Island Layout ........................................................................................................ 158
Figure 9-30: Left Turn Filter Lane with Taper to Facilitate Large Vehicles......................................... 158
Figure 9-31: Lane Drop Design Principles .......................................................................................... 159
Figure 9-32: Combinations of Tapers and Corner Radii ..................................................................... 159
Figure 9-33: Examples of Swept Path Checks .................................................................................... 160
Figure 9-34: Signal Location Advice .................................................................................................... 161
Figure 9-35: Alternative Signal Locations for Right Turn Lanes ......................................................... 161
Figure 9-36: Example of a Signal-Controlled Intersection with a Staggered Pedestrian Crossing .... 162
Figure 10-1: Basic Roundabout Showing Key Features....................................................................... 165
Figure 10-2: A Compact Roundabout ................................................................................................. 166
Figure 10-3: Vehicle Path through Roundabout ................................................................................ 168
Figure 10-4: Required visibility towards approaching vehicles from the right and required visibility
forwards to the left ............................................................................................................................. 169
Figure 10-5: Required Visibility for Drivers within a Roundabout. .................................................... 169
Figure 10-6: Nomenclature for Dimensions of Roundabouts Showing Design Vehicle. .................... 170
Figure 10-7: Minimum Width of Circulating Carriageway – One Lane .............................................. 172
Figure 10-8: Radius of Central Island and Circulating Carriageway for Normal Roundabouts. ......... 173
Figure 10-9: Roundabout Radii for Small Roundabouts .................................................................... 174
Figure 10-10: Number of Entry Lanes ................................................................................................ 174
Figure 10-11: Design of Approach Deflection. ................................................................................... 175
Figure 10-12: Approach Half Width and Entry Width ......................................................................... 176
Figure 10-13: Example Showing an Arc Projected Forwards from the Splitter Island and Tangential to
the Central Island. ............................................................................................................................... 177
Figure 10-14: Average Effective Flare Length ..................................................................................... 178
Figure 10-15: Determination of Entry Path Radius for Ahead Movement at a 4-arm Roundabout... 179
Figure 10-16: Driving Paths for Passenger Cars ................................................................................. 180
Figure 10-17: Alignment between entry and exit .............................................................................. 180
Figure 10-18: Staggering of East-West Arms to Increase Deflection .................................................. 181
Figure 10-19: Typical Single Carriageway Exit at a Normal Roundabout with a Long Splitter Island . 182
Figure 10-20: Example of a Signalised Roundabout........................................................................... 183
Figure 10-21: Location of pedestrian crossings ................................................................................. 183
Figure 11-1: Typical Layouts for Grade-Separated Interchanges....................................................... 189
Figure 11-2: Dumb-bell Layout (One Bridge, Two Roundabouts) ....................................................... 190
Figure 11-3: Use of a large roundabout ............................................................................................. 191
Figure 11-4: Jug Handle Interchange ................................................................................................. 192
Figure 11-5: Principles of Lane Balance ............................................................................................. 195
Figure 12-1: Engineering Design Features Affecting Road Safety ...................................................... 201

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Figure 12-2 Circular humps ................................................................................................................. 203
Figure 12-3 Flat-topped Humps .......................................................................................................... 204
Figure 12-4: Village Gateway Designs ................................................................................................. 206
Figure 12-5: Deformation of safety barriers ...................................................................................... 211
Figure 12-6: Guide for determining need for a guard rail.................................................................. 212
Figure 12-7: Length of Safety Barriers ............................................................................................... 213
Figure 12-8 Typical Post Details .......................................................................................................... 214
Figure 12-9: Various Barriers ............................................................................................................. 215
Figure 12-10: Different Types of Median Barrier ............................................................................... 217
Figure 12-11: Guardrail End Treatment ............................................................................................. 218
Figure 12-12: Typical Transition (W-beam Guard-rail to Rigid Object).............................................. 219
Figure 12-13: Details of a Vehicle/Pedestrian Parapet ...................................................................... 220
Figure 12-14: Basic Types of Emergency Escape Ramps .................................................................... 223
Figure 12-15: Utilities Placement Detail ............................................................................................ 227
Figure 12-16: Railway Crossing Details with Rumble Strips ............................................................... 228
Figure 12-17: Railway Crossings Details on Vertical Curve ................................................................ 228
Figure B-1 Scaling and Recording Sight Distances on Plans ............................................................... 241
Figure C-1 Departure Sight Triangles .................................................................................................. 243
Figure D-1 Longitudinal Friction for Various Tyre and Pavement Conditions .................................... 253
Figure D-2 Side Friction Factors .......................................................................................................... 254
Figure F-1 Grade Separation for a 4-Arm Junction Showing Merge and Diverge Tapers ................... 257
Figure F-2 Grade Separation for 4-Arm Junction Without Merge and Diverge Tapers ...................... 257
Figure F-3 Grade Separation for 4-Arm Junction with Compact Connector Road.............................. 258
Figure F-4 Grade separation for 3-arm junction with compact connector roads showing merge and
diverge tapers ..................................................................................................................................... 258
Figure F-5 A selection of schematic layouts indicating 4-arm compact grade separations on dual all-
purpose carriageways. ........................................................................................................................ 259
Figure F-6 A selection of schematic layouts indicating 4-arm compact grade separations on single all-
purpose carriageways. ........................................................................................................................ 260
Figure F-7 A selection of schematic layouts indicating 3-arm compact grade separations on dual all-
purpose carriageways. ........................................................................................................................ 260
Figure F-8 A selection of schematic layouts indicating 3-arm compact grade separations on single all-
purpose carriageways. ........................................................................................................................ 260
Figure F-9 Schematic example of compact grade separation and restricted junctions. .................... 261
Figure G-1 Passing Sight Distance ...................................................................................................... 263
Figure H-1 Curve Elements.................................................................................................................. 265

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1 Introduction
Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road through the terrain is
designed to meet the needs of all the road users. The geometric standards are
intended to meet two important objectives namely to provide satisfactory levels of
service, safety and comfort for drivers by provision of adequate sight distances and
road space for manoeuvres and to optimise or minimise earthworks volumes to reduce
construction costs.

1.1 Scope
The procedures for the geometric design of roads presented in this manual are
applicable to roads carrying more than 300 motorised vehicles per day, or the design
traffic exceeding 1 million cumulative equivalent standard axles (MESA) over the
design life of the road. If the traffic is less than 300 vehicles per day or the design
traffic is less than 1 MESA over the design life, then the Low Volume Manual of ANE
must be used.
This manual covers three basic design situations. Upgrading from a lower class of road
to a higher class; designing a road to replace an existing track; and designing a
completely new road where nothing existed before. This manual does not deal in detail
with the design of major grade-separated interchanges between restricted-access
freeways (motorways) although the topic is introduced sufficiently for some of the
simpler designs to be carried out.

1.2 Fundamental Principles

In order to improve road safety, the geometric design should consider the road
environment, road characteristics and human factors which are explained under
various chapters. This holistic approach is aimed at reducing the probability of ‘failure’
to the lowest possible level and should minimise the adverse consequences should
failure occur.

1.2.1 Dealing with Human Factors

Human factors in this context are defined as the ‘contribution of the stable
physiological and psychological limits of humans to the development of a technical
dysfunction or failure in handling machines and vehicles’. This is not a new idea but
was first introduced over 80 years ago. It excludes temporary mental or physical
conditions. It is concerned with the general and stable reactions of common road
users. The subject deals with identifying road characteristics that are not according to
human threshold limit values and therefore, potentially, trigger accidents.
A roadway should confirm what drivers expect based on previous experience and
should present clear clues as to what is expected of them. If these expectations are
violated, problems are likely to occur which, in the most severe cases, may lead to
accidents.
Designers should apply the following criteria:
• Unexpected, unusual and inconsistent design should be avoided or minimised
so that complex decisions by the driver are not required.
• Predictable behaviour is encouraged through familiarity. For example, similar
junction designs should be used in similar situations and the range of possible
designs should be minimized.
• Consistency of design should also be maintained from element to element
along the road. This corresponds to relating the design speed to actual driver

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 behaviour as expressed by the 85th percentile speed of cars under free-flow
conditions. The difference between the 85th percentile and the design speed on
an element such as a horizontal curve should be less than 20km/h.
• The information provided to the driver should be presented in sequence to
avoid presenting several alternatives at the same time.
• Clear sight lines and sight distances must be sufficient to allow time for good
decision making.
• Where possible, margins are allowed for recovery in case of error.
It is important that human factors are considered in many aspects of design, as
indicated in the details of design in this manual, but the subject is of such importance
that the fundamental principles are summarised here.

1.2.1.1 The 6-second rule

A user-friendly road will give a driver enough time to assess a situation and to modify
driving behaviour accordingly. This contrasts with emergency stopping situations
where a driver’s response is automatic and driver reaction times and stopping sight
distances are important.
It is not enough to provide the driver with a section of road that allows only a reaction
time of 2-3 seconds. The design should also provide an anticipation section with a
minimum of 2-3 seconds more to identify an unexpected or unusual situation which
may require more complex decision demands (Decision Sight Distance, DSD) and to
adjust driving accordingly.
In situations that are more complex or involve higher speeds, it is recommended that
there should also be an advance warning section with proper signing and instructions.
Thus, it is necessary to arrange transition zones, remove visibility restrictions, and
make junctions perceptible at least 6 seconds before any critical location (e.g.
junctions, curves, railway crossings, bus stops, bicycle paths, entrances of villages and
towns, end of newly upgraded road sections and changes in road hierarchy).

1.2.1.2 The field of view rule

The field of view can either stabilise or destabilise drivers, it can tire or stimulate
them. It can also result in either increased or reduced speed. Speed, lane-keeping and
reliability of direction are functions of the quality of the field of view.
A good-quality field of view safeguards the driver and keeps him from drifting to the
edge of the lane or even leaving it. Misleading and eye-catching objects in the
periphery of the field of view activate unconscious changes in direction.
A user friendly, self-explaining road will give drivers a well-designed field of view and
will give good optical guidance. A self-explaining road will avoid optical illusions or
misleading eye-catching objects that destabilise drivers and negatively impact their
driving, especially at adverse visibility conditions´.

1.2.1.3 The logic rule: the road has to follow a driver’s perception logic.
Drivers follow the road with an expectation logic based on their experience and recent
perceptions. Unexpected abnormalities disturb a mostly automatic chain of actions and
may cause a driver to ‘stumble’ (to use an apt analogy). Several critical seconds can
pass before the disturbance can be processed. Designers should introduce inevitable
changes as early and clearly as possible and avoid sudden changes that would confuse
the driver.
Much of the information is best understood with visual examples. The publication
‘Human Factors Guidelines for a Safer Man-road Interface’ by The World Road
Association (PIARC) (available on their website http://www.piarc.org) from which

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previous transcriptions were made provides many details and examples of good
practice.

1.2.2 Other Road Users

1.2.2.1 Pedestrians
In Africa about 38% of all road fatalities are pedestrians therefore facilities that
improve pedestrian safety should be included wherever possible. In general,
pedestrian safety is enhanced by the provision of median refuge islands of sufficient
width at road junctions, and separate pedestrian footpaths (sidewalks) where
pedestrian traffic warrants it, for example, on approaches to villages. Indeed, the
design of rural roads through villages should encompasses a range of safety features
including traffic calming and well-designed village centres permitting trading in relative
safety, as described in Chapter 12. In metropolitan areas pedestrians’ facilities need to
be incorporated as a traffic stream in all facilities.

1.2.2.2 Motor cycles and motor cycle-based multi-passenger vehicles.

Many countries are experiencing a very rapid growth in motor cycles and transport
based on the motor cycle. A single motor cycle is highly manoeuvrable and capable of
high speeds but the adapted version with sidecar or trailer for passenger services,
although also highly manoeuvrable, is slow and takes up considerable road space.
Planning for the future growth of these kinds of transport is not an easy task but there
are some guidelines emerging from countries where the process is already far
advanced. Single motorcycles are not a major problem except on narrow LVRs where
an increased width of paved shoulder can be used to separate the motorcycle from
other vehicles. The main problem is the slow motorcycle-based passenger vehicles
that are rapidly becoming an essential part of the transport system within many
metropolitan areas. Research is required as to how to deal with this potential situation
in Mozambique. In the meantime, the effect of such vehicles at all traffic facilities
needs to be considered.

1.2.3 Flexibility in Design

It should also be recognised that every highway project is unique. The characteristics
of the area, the values of the surrounding community, the needs of the highway users
and the physical challenges are unique factors that highway designers must consider.
The corollary of this is that designers must exercise flexibility and, most importantly,
to understand the safety and operational impacts of various design features and
modifications. As part of a flexible approach, the views of the public should be
canvassed at the very beginning of the process, even before the project has been
defined.
There are several design controls that must be balanced against one another. These
include:
• The design speed.
• The design year peak-hour level of service.
• The physical and performance characteristics of the design vehicle.
• The capabilities of the typical driver on the facility e.g. local residents driving at
low speed on neighbourhood streets compared with long distance drivers on
inter-urban freeways.
• The possible future traffic demands on the facility.
These considerations are captured in the characteristics of each functional class and
are discussed in the appropriate chapters.

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 1.2.4 Design Speed

The design speed is an index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain to the
design parameters of sight distance and road curvature to ensure that a driver is
presented with a reasonably consistent speed environment. The current definition is
that the design speed is the speed selected as the basis for establishing appropriate
geometric elements for a section of road. These elements include horizontal and
vertical alignment, super-elevation and sight distance. Other elements such as lane
width, shoulder width and clearance from obstacles are indirectly related to design
speed. The chosen design speed should be consistent with the road function as
perceived by the driver and also one that takes into account the type of road, the
anticipated operating speed, and the terrain that the road traverses, as discussed in
Chapter 4. Recommended design speeds for each functional class of road are shown in
Table 7-1.

1.3 The design domain concept

In keeping with the concept that flexibility in design is required, the design domain
concept formalises this to some extent by recognising that there is a range of values
which could be adopted for a particular design element within absolute upper and
lower limits. Values adopted for a particular parameter within the range would achieve
an acceptable though varying level of performance in average conditions in terms of
safety, operation, economic and environmental consequences. The design domain
concept essentially sets the limits for the values selected for each parameter (SANRAL,
Geometric Design Guidelines Chapter 2).

1.4 Economic Analysis

In most countries, the standard of a road and associated level of service increases
with the level of traffic. This is entirely consistent with economic principles in that the
basic whole life costs and lost benefits from a poor road network subject to
congestion, poor surface condition and so on can be calculated with a tolerable degree
of precision. Vehicle operating costs, in particular, are very dependent on road
condition and travel time is also a major cost that is greatly reduced when traffic can
travel speedily.
Road accidents are now recognised as costing a country between 2 and 3% of GDP
and the economic case for reducing this cost by engineering improvements to the
highway system is irrefutable. However, recognising an improvement that will reduce
accidents has not been without its difficulties. Sometimes, what seems to be a sensible
improvement has not had the desired effect. There is no substitute for good research
in this area and the World Road Associations publication introduced in Section 1.2 is
recommended.
Although many of the costs and benefits of modifications and improvements in a
geometric design can be calculated there remain several issues that cannot be
quantified in monetary terms. This includes many environmental issues (e.g. benefits
of not damaging a wetlands area), preservation of cultural issues (e.g. not using a
burial area as part of a new road), the long-term costs of not re-instating quarries
properly and many more. Thus, although economic analysis is vital for optimising
some of the major costs, there will always be a need to include other issues that are
difficult, if not impossible, to quantify and therefore consultation, compromise, and
flexibility are essential.

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1.5 Primary Design Criteria

1.5.1 Road Hierarchy

ANE is responsible for the management of four categories of roads.

1.5.1.1 Primary Roads

The primary road (denoted as H1 class) is intended for relatively uninterrupted high-
speed flow. These are usually the international and regional road network comprising
the national road systems of the various SADC countries and provide linkage between
provincial capitals, main centres of population and production centres. These are
paved roads with higher level design speed and service level, described in Section 3.2.

1.5.1.2 Secondary
The secondary road (H2 class) links locally important traffic generators with their rural
hinterland and provides service to the smaller communities. Travel speeds on the
secondary road network are generally not as high as those on primary roads; an
intermediate design speed and level of service is required.

1.5.1.3 Tertiary
Tertiary roads (H3 class) are intended to provide access to properties, i.e. they link
them to the higher order routes in the hierarchy. It follows that traffic volumes and
speeds on these roads tend to be low, so that tertiary roads are rarely surfaced.
Properties are also linked directly to secondary and primary routes, but the control of
access to a route is more stringently applied as the importance of the route in the
hierarchy increases.

1.5.1.4 Vicinal Road

Vicinal roads (H4 class) are usually unpaved roads providing access to the properties
and connecting the villages. The volume of traffic in vicinal roads is often less than
300 vehicles per day or design traffic less than 1mesa.
The main function of a road is to provide mobility, i.e. to cater for through and long-
distance traffic, high and uniform speeds and uninterrupted traffic flows are desirable.
The function of a particular road class has a significant impact on the design criteria to
be chosen. Therefore, based on the function the road hierarchy should be determined.

1.5.2 Traffic Hierarchy

The basic function of a road does not define its traffic level although the two are often
highly correlated. A secondary road can have high traffic levels and a primary road
may have relatively low traffic levels. Therefore, the principal standards of the roads
are also defined for four traffic classes based on the Annual Average Daily Traffic
(AADT) in the last year of the design life (also referred to as design year) of the road
as follows:
• Traffic Class T1 (AADT>10,000)
• Traffic Class T2 (AADT 3000 – 10,000)
• Traffic Class T3 (AADT 1000 – 3000)
• Traffic Class T4 (AADT 300-1000)
For traffic less than an AADT of 300 the Low Volume Roads Manual should be used. To
determine the traffic class traffic surveys should be conducted. Chapter 2 provides
detailed information on conducting traffic surveys, forecasting traffic volumes for the
design year and determining the traffic class.

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 1.5.3 Road environment
Roads can be located in rural areas with low population densities and also in
metropolitan areas, although not in residential urban areas. Each traffic class can
perform different functions and therefore the specifications within each road class (i.e.
traffic level) for different functionalities are not identical. For example, roads of the
same traffic class in Metropolitan, Urban or in Rural areas are not designed to the
same specifications because the functions are different. The traffic speed and the flow
of traffic depend on the road environment, therefore the road environment, whether it
is Metropolitan, Urban or Rural should be selected.

1.6 Design Classes

The recommended standard of a road increases with the class of road and the level of
traffic but the boundaries cannot be rigid and therefore cannot be strictly applied.
There is potential variability attached to most of the parameters that must be
selected. For example:
• Predicting future traffic levels is not precise
• A length of road may be in terrain that is close to a terrain class boundary and
therefore this parameter is also not precise.
• Financial conditions may change; they may deteriorate or improve.
• An aspect of function that is not included in the current definitions may alter
the choice, for example a strategic reason.
A particularly important boundary is that between the choice of a 2-lane road and a 4-
lane road because of the large cost implications. A very strong case is required to
justify a 4-lane road if the increased level of service over a 2-lane road is not deemed
to be sufficient. For these reasons alone, flexibility in choice of standard is required.
Table 1-1 indicates the options. The bold letters indicate the basic standards and the
italics indicate options to be considered. It is the lower standard, lower cost options
that are usually considered when budgets are very constrained but higher standards
options are also shown in brackets. The T1 standard is shown as appropriate for traffic
greater than 10,000 ADT but, depending on the situation, this can be as high as
15,000 ADT (refer to Section 3.2 below).

Table 1-1: Design Class Options

Traffic AADT in Functional Class
Class design year
H1 H2 H3 H4
T1 >10,000 R M (R) (M)
T2 3,000 – 10,000 R M U (R) (U)
T3 1,000 – 3,000 R M U R U
T4 300 – 1,000 R* U* R U
LVR < 300 R* U*
* Plus unpaved options
The standards are also very dependent on the terrain and the level of service which
are explained in Chapter 3.

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1.7 Design Steps
The design of road geometry can be carried out manually or using computer software
using the design standards and specifications provided in this manual.
The steps involved in the design are listed in Table 1-2 and explained further in the
relevant chapters. However, the process itself is essentially one of trial and error
because all the elements must fit together in ‘harmony’.
It is also vital that the public are involved at all points in the project where there are
opportunities for changes to be made in the design.

Table 1-2: Steps in the Design Procedure

Chapter
Topic Description
Number
Data collection The basic data for the geometric design is
obtained through topographic and traffic surveys,
which are covered in the Site Investigation
Manual.
Guidance on reviewing and analysing the data.
2
From the topographic surveys, the terrain is
determined, whilst from the estimated AADT and
the required functional characteristics of the road
the design class to be used for geometric design is
determined.
Design of Cross Section Cross sectional elements include lane widths,
Elements shoulders, cross-fall, side slopes and back slopes, 3
roadside ditches, clear zones, and road reserve.
Design of Road Alignment – Criteria that influence the design of horizontal and
criteria vertical alignment such as the design speed, sight
4
distances, coefficient of friction, and the design
vehicle.
Horizontal Alignment Horizontal alignment, tangent sections, transition
curves, curve elements, including circular curves,
reverse, compound and isolated curves. Lane
widening requirements for curves and the special
5
considerations of hairpin curves in very severe
terrain. Super-elevation standards are developed,
including rates, run-off and shoulder super-
elevation.
Vertical Alignment Crest and sag curves, maximum and minimum
gradients, climbing lanes, passing lanes, and 6
vertical clearances.
Summary of principal At this stage all of the principal characteristics and
characteristics and specifications concerned with the elements of road
specifications alignment for the different road classes and
7
functionality have been described and computed
and are summarised in tabular form for easy
reference.
Phasing of horizontal and All the elements of road alignment need to be
vertical alignment. fitted together in a logical, harmonious and user-
friendly way to form the total road. For this
8
purpose, good ‘phasing’ of the horizontal and
vertical alignments is required and mis-phasing
needs to be corrected.
Design of At-grade The design of the intersections that are built on
intersections one level (at-grade). This includes the design of T 9
junctions, cross roads and roundabouts that

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 comprise the majority of junctions in Mozambique,
and the selection of junction type, sight distances;
and junction elements including turning lanes and
traffic islands.
Roundabouts Roundabouts have many advantages over other
types of road intersections over a wide range of
traffic flows. The main types of roundabout are
mini, compact, normal, signalised and grade 10
separated. The key elements are: entries and
exits; the circulatory roadway; the central island
and sight distances.
Grade-separated Designs for very high traffic flows require
Interchanges intersections at two or more levels of elevation so
that traffic on the main arteries can be routed
without the need to slow down significantly. Thus
11
high speed merging and turning facilities are
required. These grade-separated junctions are
expensive and used primarily on freeways and
major international routes.
Safety and Miscellaneous This includes traffic calming, the design of safety
Aspects rest areas and scenic overlooks, bus lay-bys and
parking bays, parking lanes, public utilities,
railway at-grade crossings, brake check areas, 12
road restraint systems, emergency escape ramps,
design of village centres, and safety auditing,
amongst other topics.
Road Furniture and Markings Traffic signs and signals, road marking, lighting
13
and so on.
Departures from Standards Procedures for dealing with situations where the
designer has to deviate from the standards
because it is impossible to meet them, mainly due
to severe terrain conditions. Typical examples of 14
departures from the standards include the use of a
gradient greater than the desirable value or use of
a lower design speed.

After carrying out the design, drawings or sketches should be prepared as follows:
a. Typical section of roadway showing geometric details.
b. Profile plot of existing centreline ground line. This can usually be plotted at a
scale of 1:1,000 or 1:2,000.
c. Cross section drawing for each section;
d. Junction details;
e. Details of ancillary structures

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2 Design Data Collection and Analysis
The road alignment and its cross-sectional elements primarily depend on the
topography of the route and the estimated traffic that will use the road. These are
determined through topographic and traffic surveys.

2.1 Topographic Survey

The road cuts, embankment heights and fills are determined from the topography
along the alignment. These data are also required for the design of horizontal and
vertical curves. Therefore, topographical surveys are important in the geometric
design. These will include conventional longitudinal and transverse level surveys along
the entire length of the road at appropriate intervals – usually 20 m in the longitudinal
direction on the proposed centre-line and at 2 m interval offsets on each side of the
centre-line up to the edge of the right-of-way. The survey should use a GPS-based
total-station with readings taken on an automatic theodolite. The data should
preferably be reported in a format that can be inserted directly into any geometric
design software being used for the project. During this survey, temporary bench
marks shall be fixed and referenced.
The topographic survey information shall be used for designing the horizontal and
vertical alignments and the cross-sectional profile of the road.

2.2 Traffic Survey

Knowledge of the traffic details in terms of vehicle types, volume and loading must be
collected using suitable survey techniques and stored in a suitable database for
current and future use.

2.2.1 Design Situations

There are several situations to consider and each requires the traffic to be estimated
in a slightly different way.
1) The most common situation is upgrading an existing road to a road class where
traffic congestion is not expected. Since the road already exists it is likely that
traffic information is already available. If not, the survey techniques described
below must be used to count the traffic and also to forecast traffic growth.
2) Upgrading an old track or relatively low class of road in poor condition is also a
common situation. The existing traffic may not be a reliable guide to future
traffic. Large increases in traffic often occur quite quickly after a new road is
opened, exceeding normal growth patterns because of additional generated
traffic and diverted traffic. Such growth needs to be estimated as part of the
traffic survey.
3) Upgrading an existing road to one of the highest classes where traffic
congestion is a possibility over the design period. In this situation a normal
two-lane road may not be sufficient, and a 4-lane dual carriageway may be
required to prevent serious traffic congestion. More detailed traffic flow
information is required because hourly flow rates are critical.
4) Designing and building an entirely new road. This is the most difficult situation
for estimating traffic because little or no data are likely to exist.
Methods of estimating traffic growth are described in Section 2.4.4.

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 2.2.2 Conducting Traffic Surveys
The initial traffic volume in terms of AADT for each vehicle class shown in Table 2-1
must be determined. AADT is defined as the total annual traffic summed for both
directions and divided by 365. It is usually obtained by recording actual traffic
volumes over a much shorter period, from which the AADT is then estimated. The two
commonly used methods of traffic survey are:
1. Automatic. Traffic counters with inductive loops and possibly weighing-in-
motion (WIM) sensors are installed in the road.
2. Manual.

Table 2-1: Traffic Categories

Type Axles Description

Car 2 Passenger cars and taxis
Pick-up, minibus, 4x4
Pick-up/4-wheel drive 2
vehicles
Small bus 2 ≤ 20 seats
Bus/coach 2 > 20 seats
Small truck 2 ≤ 3.5 tonnes
Truck 3 or 4 >3.5 tonnes
Large Truck >4
2-axled trailer 3+2
3-axled trailer 3+3
4-axled trailer 3+4
Engineering and
agricultural vehicles
Motorcycles and motor
cycle-based taxis
Bicycles
Pedestrians
Other NMT

It is recommended that surveys are conducted as described in Table 2-2.

Table 2-2: Traffic Surveys

Count for 7 consecutive days. Ideally for 24 hours each day but usually only 2- or
3-night counts are carried out because night traffic is usually very low and 2 or 3
nights gives an accurate enough result for night traffic.

Traffic counts should include motorised and non-motorised traffic including

bicycles. Sometimes pedestrian traffic is also required; for example, to plan for
foot bridges, walk-ways, etc.

Avoid counting at times when road travel activity increases or decreases

abnormally but infrequently; for example, during an annual festival. Traffic
generally increases just after the payment of wages and salaries, but this may be
a weekly event and should be taken into account. Less frequent but regular
activities (e.g. public holidays occurring on average once a month) should usually
be ignored.

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 If possible, consider 7 days counts twice a year, once during the peak season and
another during off-peak season.

Care should be exercised in selecting appropriate locations for conducting the traffic
counts to ensure a true reflection of the traffic using the road. If any significant
junctions occur along the road length, counts should also be conducted before and
after the junctions.
It is also necessary to count non-motorised and intermediate means of transport
including pedestrians, bicycles, animal transport, motorcycles, tractors and trailers.

2.3 Initial Data Review

An initial review is required of the raw traffic data to ensure that the data is accurate.

The topography data should be checked for completeness against other maps
available to the designer. Topography data obtained by field ground surveys will
generally be collected electronically for downloading to appropriate computer-aided
design software.

Topography data obtained by photogrammetry can be more complete and accurate

with features such as fences, walls, utility poles, and existing improvements, in
addition to elevation contours and spot elevations. These data will be of great use to
the designer in determining road reserve restrictions, swamp or rock locations, and
the need for relocating utility lines or other physical features that affect the design.

2.4 Data Analysis

2.4.1 Determine Non-motorised Traffic Composition

Various non-motorised traffic categories are combined to determine a total car
equivalency factor (CEF) to identify when additional safety features for NMT need to
be included in the design. The individual CEF values are shown in Table 2-3. These
should not be confused with Passenger Car Units (PCU) that are used for capacity and
congestion estimates for heavily trafficked roads.

Table 2-3: Car Equivalency Factor

Vehicle CEF value
Pedestrian 0.15
Bicycle 0.2
Motor cycle 0.25
Bicycle with trailer 0.35
Motor cycle taxi (bajaj) 0.4
Motor cycle with trailer 0.45
Small animal-drawn cart 0.7
Bullock cart 2.0
All based on a passenger car = 1.0

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 2.4.2 Determine AADT
The AADT is the sum of the traffic in both directions. In the first year of analysis it
consists of the current traffic plus an estimate of the diverted traffic. If the total traffic
is denoted by AADT0 and the general growth rate is i % per annum, then the traffic in
any subsequent year, x, is given by the following equation:

x
AADTx = AADT0 (1+i/100) Equation 2.1

Traffic growth means that annual traffic is higher in late life than in early life. For
geometric design purposes the AADT should be estimated near the end of the design
life period to minimise the risk of reaching capacity. For most roads a design life of 20
years is recommended but a longer period should be selected for the most important
roads in the country for which traffic estimates indicate that there is a high probability
that 20 years will be insufficient. However, the function of the road needs to be taken
into account if sufficiently large variations in hourly flow are expected.

2.4.3 Designing for Peak Flows

Traffic varies throughout the day, week and month therefore designing for the AADT
does not necessarily cater for peak flows. Rural traffic flows can have high seasonal
peaks and it is not economical to have such roads entirely congestion free every day
of the year. The design hourly volume is usually assumed to be the 30th highest
hourly flow of the future year chosen for design, i.e. the hourly volume exceeded
during only 29 hours of that year. In urban areas the flow is usually less variable and
it is normal to design for the 100th highest hourly flow.

The design hourly volume, as a percentage of the ADT, is referred as the K-Factor and
typically varies between 12 and 18 %. A value of 15 % is normally assumed unless
actual traffic counts suggest another value.

On an annual basis, the directional split on most rural roads is approximately 50:50.
However, during any specific hour the volume in one direction may be much heavier
than in the other. The directional split is often in the ratio of 60:40, and the heavier
flow is the design criterion.

2.4.4 Estimating Traffic Growth

To determine the future traffic in each direction, the initial traffic must be projected
using various methods. The initial traffic should include the normal, generated and
diverted traffic.

1. Normal traffic. Traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if
no new geometry were provided. This increases naturally by virtue of normal
social and economic growth.
2. Diverted traffic. Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport)
to the project road because of the improved pavement, but still travels between
the same origin and destination. Diverted traffic should be considered when a
totally new road is to be provided or when an existing road is to be improved. To
estimate the volume of diverted traffic, the designer should conduct an origin
destination survey of all major junctions that adjoin to the project road. Road
users should specifically be asked for the origin and destination of their trips, the
purpose of the trip, whether they will change mode of travel upon completion of
the project road, whether truck drivers will change the truck class, and most
importantly, whether they will divert.
3. Generated traffic. Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or
improvement of the road. This is traffic generated by any extra economic growth

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 resulting from the road. It is likely to be greater than the increase expected from
normal regional economic growth. The initial volume of generated traffic must be
obtained by conducting interviews with the existing road users. The interviews
must focus on understanding whether upgrading the road would lead to an
increased number of trips immediately. Other planning factors must also be
considered. For example, if a farm is likely to increase its crop outputs as a result
of improved road conditions; the extra trips generated as result should be
considered in determining the generated traffic. For major projects such as those
involving addition of extra lanes, it is necessary to engage a traffic specialist for
estimating the generated traffic.

The survey for all three types of traffic can be conducted simultaneously.
There are several methods for estimating the traffic growth and each has its
advantages and disadvantages as summarised in Table 2-4. The methods will not all
give robust and reliable figures or, therefore, similar answers and so some degree of
judgement about the quality of the data will be required to obtain the best estimate.

Table 2-4: Methods of Estimating Traffic Growth

Method Details
In some cases, ANE may possess annual traffic data for nearby
roads, collected for a number of years. The traffic data can be
Local historic
used to compute the traffic growth rate. The growth rate on the
precedent
project road will likely be very similar to that of the adjacent or
nearby roads.
The central or regional government maintains a registry of the
number of vehicles registered annually. Regionally or zonal data
is more relevant to the project since nationwide data may not be
Vehicle registry
representative of the specific project road. The annual traffic
growth rate can therefore be estimated from the vehicle
registries.
The annual number of trucks weighed at weighbridges offers a
Weighbridges good method to estimate the growth rate related to various
truck categories.

Fuel The government’s customs department maintains records of fuel

consumption imports. Fuel imports are related to the demand, which is in turn
trends related to the traffic growth rate.
Traffic growth is closely related to the growth of the economy
measured in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Economic
Economic
growth rates can be obtained from government plans and
growth
government estimated growth figures. The growth rate of traffic
estimation
should preferably be based on regional growth estimates
because there can be large regional differences.
Population Local population trends can also provide useful information
trends about possible traffic growth.

2.5 Selection of the Design Traffic Class

Equation 2-1 can be used to calculate the traffic after 20 years. Alternatively, Table
2-5 can be used to estimate the design traffic based on different initial traffic levels
and different growth rates for a 20-year design. This AADT in the design year is used
to determine design traffic class.

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If traffic in different traffic classes is expected to grow at different rates the calculation
must be done for each class and the total summed afterwards.

Where the expected traffic is within 10 percent of the maximum for the road class in
question, the higher classification should be adopted. For example, if the expected
traffic is over 9,000 (i.e. within 10% of 10,000) the design should be for the next
higher traffic class (i.e. >10,000). An example to calculate design traffic is provided in
Appendix A.

Table 2-5: Design AADT (x103) for different traffic growth rates
Current
Growth Rate (%)
AADT

X103 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.9 4.9
0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.4 4.8 8.2
1 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.9 4.7 5.6 6.7 10 16
1.5 2.2 2.7 3.3 4.0 4.8 5.8 7.0 8.4 10 14 25
2 3.0 3.6 4.4 5.3 6.4 7.7 9.3 11 13 19 33
2.5 3.7 4.5 5.5 6.6 8.0 10 12 14 17 24 41
3 4.5 5.4 6.6 8.0 9.6 12 14 17 20 29 49
3.5 5.2 6.3 7.7 9.3 11 14 16 20 24 34
4 5.9 7.2 8.8 11 13 15 19 22 27 39
4.5 6.7 8.1 10 12 14 17 21 25 30 43
5 7.4 9.0 11 13 16 19 23 28 34 48
6 8.9 11 13 16 19 23 28 34 40
7 10 13 15 19 22 27 33 39 47
8 12 14 18 21 26 31 37 45
9 13 16 20 24 29 35 42 50
10 15 18 22 27 32 39 47

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3 Design of Cross Section Elements
A cross-section normally consists of the carriageway, shoulders and/or kerbs, drainage
features, and earthwork profiles as in Figure 3-1.
1. The carriageway is the part of the road used by moving traffic, including traffic
lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing
lanes, passing lanes, and bus bays and lay-bys.
2. A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway. It
provides lateral support for the pavement layers and accommodation for
stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorised traffic, animals,
and pedestrians; emergency use; and for the recovery of errant vehicles.
3. The Road Reserve is the strip of land legally awarded to the Roads Authority, in
which the road is, or will be, situated and where no other work or construction
may take place without permission from the Roads Authority. The width of the
road reserve is measured at right angles to the centreline and is 50 m wide for
all road classes.
4. Side slopes provide the stability of the roadway and can be designed to give
reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle (Section 3.7).
Earthwork profiles include side slopes and back slopes.
5. For urban cross-sections, the cross-section elements may also include facilities
for pedestrians, cyclists, or other specialist user groups. These include kerbs,
footpaths, and islands. It may also provide for parking lanes.
6. For dual carriageways, the cross-section will also include medians.

Figure 3-1: Typical Road Cross Section Showing All Elements

The length and slope of the cross-sectional elements vary depending on the design
class selected from the Table 1-1.

3.1 Terrain
Terrain has the greatest effect on road costs and, therefore, it is not economical to
apply the same standards in all terrains. Thus, terrain has a strong influence on the
level of service that can be provided. Terrain class needs to be established before a
road is designed and hence it is defined independently of the alignment that is finally
selected for the road. It is determined by counting the number of 5-m contours
crossed by a straight line connecting the two ends of the road section in question
according to the following definitions in Table 3-1.

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 Table 3-1: Terrain Classification
Terrain Definition
0-10 five-m contours per km. The transverse ground slopes
Flat
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally below 3%.
11-25 five-m contours per km. The transverse ground slopes
Rolling perpendicular to the ground contours are generally between
3% and 25%.
26-50 five-m contours per km. The transverse ground slopes
Mountainous perpendicular to the ground contours are generally above
25%.
Escarpments are geological features that require special
geometric standards because of the engineering problems
involved. They are characterised by more than 50 five-m
Escarpment
contours per km and the transverse ground slopes
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally greater
than 50%.

In mountain areas the geometric standard takes account of the constraints imposed
by the difficulty and stability of the terrain. This design standard may need to be
reduced locally in order to cope with exceptionally difficult terrain conditions. Every
effort should be made to design the road so that the maximum gradient does not
exceed the standards (Chapter 7). It is difficult to provide adequate compaction on
gradients of greater than 10% but, where higher gradients cannot be avoided, they
should be restricted in length. Gradients greater than 10% should not be longer than
250 m. Horizontal curve radii of as little as 13 m may also be unavoidable, even
though a minimum of 15 m is specified.

3.2 Capacity and Level of Service.

3.2.1 Highway Capacity

When the volume of traffic is high, the road space occupied by different types of
vehicles is an important element in designing for capacity, namely the highest traffic
flow per hour that the road can carry. As traffic increases, traffic interaction increases
until the traffic level exceeds the capacity of the road.
It is not practical to design for a heterogeneous traffic stream and, for this reason,
vehicles are converted to PCU. The number of PCU associated with a single vehicle is a
measure of the impedance that it offers to the passenger cars in the traffic stream
(Table 3-2).
The values quoted are guide values only. The values depend on many other variables
such as road gradient, traffic speed, traffic mix, and degree of congestion. This topic
is addressed comprehensively in the Highway Capacity Manual (2010).
Vehicle capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point
during a specified period under the prevailing roadway, traffic, and control conditions.

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 Table 3-2: Passenger Car Units
Terrain
Vehicle Type
Flat Rolling Mountainous
Passenger cars 1.0 1.0 1.5
Light goods vehicle 1.0 1.5 3.0
Medium goods vehicle GVW<8,500 kg 2.5 5.0 10
Heavy goods vehicle GVW>8,500 kg 3.5 8.0 20
Small bus <30 passengers 1.5 3.0 4.5
Large bus >30 passengers 2.5 5.0 7.5
Motor cycle 0.5 1.0 1.5
Pedal cycle 0.5 0.5 NA

3.2.2 Level of Service

The quality of service provided by a specific road section under specific conditions is
described as the Level of Service (LoS). The Level of Service describes the ability of
the driver to drive at a speed of his choice, to overtake or change lanes. It thus
provides an indication of travel times, traffic interruptions, convenience and comfort.
Table 3-4 summarises the operating conditions applying to each LoS.
Conditions are defined as either ‘uninterrupted’ flow conditions or ‘interrupted’ flow
conditions. Uninterrupted flow facilities are provided for high mobility corridors that
have minimal disruption to the traffic stream from elements external to the traffic
stream such as accesses and intersections.
Interrupted flow facilities provide a high degree of controlled and uncontrolled access
to the road through the provision of traffic signals, stop signs, yield signs and other
controls that disrupt or significantly vary the speed of travel on any given section of
road irrespective of volume of traffic.
Six levels of service are defined varying from level A which is the free flow condition
where drivers can maintain their desired speed i.e. low volume and high speed; to
level E where the traffic is approaching saturation with drivers travelling at low speeds
due to the high volume of traffic or congestion. The traffic volume at level of service E
is defined as the capacity of the facility. Level of service F is the forced flow condition
where the traffic density is maximum with drivers subjected to frequent stops and
queues.
To determine the LoS of a section of road, a set of standard conditions are defined
which are termed ‘base conditions’ at which the free flow speed is known (e.g. 100
km/h in flat terrain, at least 7.3 m carriageway, no obstructions within 1.8 m from the
edge of carriageway, and no passing sight distance restrictions). Under base
conditions, the maximum service volume which a two–lane road can carry, are shown
in Table 3-3.

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 Table 3-3: Level of Service for Base Conditions and Uninterrupted Flow
Level of Two-lane rural road without Multi-lane rural road without
service access control access control
A Average travel speed of ≥ 90km/h. Average travel speed ≥ 95 km/h.
Most passing manoeuvres can be Under ideal conditions, flow rate
made with little or no delay. is limited to 720 PCU/lane/h or
Service flow rate is a total of 490 33% of capacity.
PCU/h for both directions and about
15% of capacity can be achieved.
Maximum AADT is 2,800(1).
B Average travel speed of ≥ 80km/h. Reasonably free flow. Volume at
Flow rates may reach 27% of which actions of preceding vehicle
capacity with continuous passing will have some influence on
sight distance. Flow rate of 780 following vehicles. Flow rates will
PCU/h total for both directions. not exceed 55% of capacity or
Maximum AADT is about 5,200(1). 1,200 PCU/lane/h at 96 km/h
average travel speed under ideal
condition.
C Flow still stable. Average travel Stable flow to a flow rate not
speed of ≥ 70km/h. exceeding 75% of capacity or
Flow rates under ideal condition 1,650 PCU/lane/h, under ideal
equal to 43% of capacity with conditions maintaining at least a
continuous passing sight distance or 95 km/h average travel speed.
1,190 PCU/h total for both directions.
Maximum AADT is about 7,900(1).
D Approaching unstable flow. Average Approaching unstable flow at flow
travel speed of ≥ 60km/h. rates up to 89% of capacity or
Flow rates, two directions, at 64% of 1,940 PCU/lane/h at an average
capacity with continuous passing travel speed of about 92 km/h
opportunity, or a total of 1,830 under ideal condition.
PCU/h for both directions. Maximum
AADT is about 12,000(1).
E Average travel speeds in Flow at 100% of capacity or
(capacity) neighbourhood of 60 km/h. 2,200 PCU/lane/h under ideal
Flow rates under ideal conditions, conditions. Average travel speeds
total two way, equal to 3200 PCU/h. about 88 km/h.
Maximum AADT is about 18,000(1)
Level E may never be attained.
Operation may go directly from Level
D directly to Level F.
F Forced congested flow with Forced flow congested condition
unpredictable characteristics. with widely varying volume
Operating speeds less than 72 km/h. characteristics. Average travel
speed of less than 50 km/h.

Note 1 Based on peak hour flow of 15% of AADT

Source: Highway Capacity Manual Chapter 12

The speed is then adjusted according to the conditions that differ from the base
conditions for the road being evaluated. These are characterised as roadway, traffic or
control conditions.

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Roadway conditions include the number of lanes, lane width, no passing lengths, and
design speed; the latter controlling the vertical and horizontal alignment. Traffic
conditions include vehicle types and directional distribution.
For interrupted flow, traffic control conditions are important and analysis quite
complex because of the range of conditions that can affect capacity. However, for
uninterrupted flow conditions the analysis of service level is relatively straightforward.
For a two-lane, two-way road in flat terrain, capacity is reached when the traffic level
(sum of both directions) approaches 2,800 PCU per hour (Harwood et al.; 1999). This
peak traffic (per hour) is usually between 12 and 18% of the AADT and a value of
15% is a reasonable average. The capacity also depends on directional split as shown
in Table 3-4.

Table 3-4: Dependence of Capacity on Directional Flow

Total Capacity
Directional Split
(PCU/h)
50:50 2800
60:40 2630
70:30 2490
80:20 2320
90:10 2100

Capacity is reduced if the physical features of the road are deficient in some way:
• Lane widths of 3.65 m are the minimum necessary for heavy volumes of mixed
traffic, i.e. before capacity of the lane is reduced.
• Narrow shoulders cause vehicles to travel closer to the centre of the
carriageway, and vehicles making emergency stops must park on the
carriageway. This causes a substantial reduction in the effective width of the
road, thereby reducing capacity.
• Side obstructions such as poles, bridge abutments, retaining walls or parked
cars that are located within about 1.5 m of the edge of the carriageway
contribute towards a reduction in the effective width of the outside traffic lane.
• Imperfect horizontal or vertical curvature.
• Long and/or steep hills and sharp bends result in restricted sight distances.
Drivers have reduced opportunities to pass and so the capacity of the road is
reduced.
• The capacities of some rural roads and the great majority of urban roads are
controlled by the layouts of intersections.
Table 3-5 provides guidance for a realistic example. Based on different types of terrain
and with the following typical conditions or assumptions, the Table illustrates that for
more severe terrain and for the lower traffic classes, the expected speeds, traffic flows
and resulting LoS are controlled by geometric design factors and not by capacity or
traffic flow:
a. Traffic mix is 14% trucks;
b. Directional split is 60/40;
c. No-passing zones,
• Level terrain 20%
• Rolling terrain 40%

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 • Mountainous terrain 60%
• Ratio of Highest Hourly Volume to AADT = 0.15
Care is required if a particular level of service must be achieved because the traffic
levels are such that the capacity of the road for a particular service level is likely to be
exceeded before the end of the design period.

Table 3-5: Traffic Flow for Two-lane Rural Roads

Maximum (PCU/h/l) and AADT
Level of
Flat Terrain Rolling Terrain Mountainous Terrain
Service
PCU/h AADT PCU/h AADT PCU/h AADT

A 240 1,600 110 700 50 300

B 480 3,200 280 1,800 130 900

C 790 5,300 520 3,500 240 1,600

D 1,350 9,000 800 5,300 370 2,500

E 2,290 15,200 1,480 9,900 810 5,400

Source: Harwood et al. Capacity and Quality of Service of Two-lane Highways. NCHRP
Project 3-55(3), Geometric Design Guidelines (2003), South African National Roads Agency
Limited

On the basis that the maximum PCU/h is between 0.1 and 0.15 times the AADT, traffic
class TC2 is potentially commensurate with LoS B at the lower traffic level and LoS D
at the higher end of the traffic range for TC2.
Constructing extra capacity in the future by adding an additional lane is often difficult
and also very costly. A whole life cost analysis might prove useful to justify the costs
but, in general, if capacity is expected to be exceeded towards the end of the design
period it is usually better to design for it in the beginning.
Where computations indicate that a two-lane road is not adequate for existing or
projected demands, various multi-lane options must be considered and analysed.

3.3 Road Widths

Widths for carriageway, lanes and shoulder are shown for all paved road classes in
Table 3-6. The standards for unpaved roads are shown in Table 3-7. In mountainous
and escarpment terrain there will always be difficult locations where meeting these
standards is extremely expensive or even impossible. In such cases ANE must be
consulted (Chapter 14) and pragmatic solutions developed.
At every occasion where standards need to differ from those that drivers expect,
transition zones and adequate warning signs must be provided to promote the
adaptation of the driver’s reactions (6-Seconds Rule, Chapter 1).

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 Table 3-6: Widths (m) for Paved Road Elements
Design
Road Class Flat Rolling Mountain Escarp’t
element
Carriageway 7.3 7.3 7.0 6.5
H1-T1- R
Shoulders 3.0 3.0 1.5 (1.0) 2.0
H1-T1-M/U Carriageway 7.3 7.3 7.0 6.5
Carriageway 7.3 7.3 7.0 6.5
H2-T2-R
Shoulders 3.0 1.5-2.0 1.0-1.5 (0.5)-1.5
H2-T2-M Carriageway 7.3 7.3 7.0 6.5
H2-T2-U Carriageway 7.0 7.0 7.0 6.5
Carriageway 7.0 7.0 7.0 6.5
H2-T3-R
Shoulders 2.0-3.0 1.5 1.0 (0.5)-1.0
Carriageway 7.0 7.0 7.0 6.3
H2-T3-M
Shoulders 3.0 1.5 1.0 (0.5)-1.0
Carriageway 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.3
H2-T3-U
Shoulder 3.0 1.5 1.0 (0.5)-1.0
Carriageway 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.3
H3-T3-R
Shoulders 2.5 1.5 1.0 (0.5)-1.0
Carriageway 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.3
H3-T3-U
Shoulders 2.5 1.5 1.0 (0.5)-1.0
Carriageway 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.3
H3-T4 R
Shoulders 2.0 1.5 1.0 (0.5)-1.0
Carriageway 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
H3-T4 U
Shoulders(4) 2.0 1.5 1.0 (0.5)-1.0
Carriageway 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
H4-T4 U
Shoulders(4) 2.0 1.5 1.0 (0.5)-1.0
H3-T4 and Carriageway
H4-T4 + 7.0 – 7.5 7.0 – 7.5 7.0 – 7.5 7.0 – 7.5
Unpaved Shoulders
Notes 1 Dependant on local environment
2 Figures in brackets are minima
3 Road reserve is 50 m.
4 In urban/metropolitan areas the edge of the carriageway/running surface will
not usually be a shoulder but will be kerbed with a sidewalk. However the
minimum

Table 3-7: Width and Crossfall for Unpaved Roads

Urban
Road
Design element Flat Rolling Mountain Escarp’t Peri-
Class
Urban

H3 T4 Roadway width (m)(1) 10.0 10.0 9.0 - Various

unpaved Normal crossfall % 6 6 6 6 6

H4 T4 Roadway width (m)(2) 9.0 9.0 9 -

unpaved Normal crossfall % 6 6 6 6 6

Notes 1 If the number of CEF is high the width should be increased to 11.0 m.
2 If the number of CEF is high the width should be increased to 10.0 m

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 3 Cross-fall can be reduced to 4% where warranted (e.g. poor gravel - for safety,
low rainfall).

Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-3 illustrate examples of cross section elements for three
different terrains.

Figure 3-2: Cross Section for H1 T2 in Rolling or Flat

Figure 3-3: Cross Section for H2 T3 in Mountainous and Escarpment Terrain

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 3.3.1 Additional Width for Mixed Vehicles
For the lower road standards, modifications to the standards are made for high
volumes of non-motorised vehicles, motor cycles, pedestrians (and other forms of
intermediate transport). CEF are defined for this purpose as shown in Table 2-3 and
the modifications to specifications are summarised in Table 3-8, where it should be
noticed that the width increases are directed at the shoulders and not the
carriageways. The modifications are not possible on escarpments. In mountainous
terrain they are only possible along relatively flat sections. In these circumstances the
CEF values are only likely to be high where the population is high, and this is likely to
be defined as a populated area where widening is justified for that reason alone.

Table 3-8: Road Width Adjustments for Car Equivalence Factors (CEF)
greater than 300 AADT
Standard AADT Modification
Paved T1 None
Paved T2 None
Paved T3 Shoulder width increased to 2.5 m each side
Unpaved T3 Increase width to 11.0m
Paved T4 Shoulder width increased to 2.0 m each side
Unpaved T4 Increase width to 10.0m

3.3.2 Additional Width Based on Surrounding Land Use

The more populated areas in village centres are not normally defined as ‘urban’, but in
any area having a reasonable sized population, or where markets and other business
activities take place, the geometric design of the road needs to be modified to ensure
good access and to enhance safety. This is done by using:
• A wider cross section;
• Specifically, designed lay-bys for passenger vehicles to pick up or deposit
passengers;
• Roadside parking areas.

The additional width depends on the status of the populated area that the road is
passing through. If the road is passing through a town or a larger populated area, an
extra carriageway of 3.5 m width is provided in each direction for parking and for
passenger pick-up and a 2.5 m pedestrian footpath is also specified. The latter is
essentially the shoulder. In addition, the main running surface is paved and is
increased to at least 7.0 m wide if the AADT is 1000 - 3000. However, village design
for road safety is essential and is described in Chapter 12.
When passing through a village, a 2.5 m paved shoulder is specified but no additional
footpath although one could easily be provided if required (Section 3.16).

3.3.3 Auxiliary lanes

Auxiliary lanes at intersections often help to facilitate traffic movement. Such added
lanes are discussed in Chapters 9, 10 and 11.

3.4 Shoulders
Shoulder widths are shown in Table 3-6. The shoulder breakpoint is usually between
500 and 750 mm beyond the edge of the useable shoulder to allow for shoulder

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rounding. Where vehicle restraint systems or other roadside furniture need to be
provided, they should be located beyond the limit of the useable shoulder and the
shoulder breakpoint should be a further 500mm beyond the furniture.

3.4.1 Surfacing of Shoulders

Shoulders should normally be sealed. For structural purposes, preventing the ingress
of water through the surface of the shoulders provides a very large benefit in terms of
greatly improved road pavement performance and subsequent whole life costs. Sealed
shoulders also provide other benefits and should be used if any of the following
conditions apply:
• For freeways;
• Pedestrian use is significant and a segregated footpath (Section 3.16) cannot
be provided;
• Non-motorised traffic is significant;
• The shoulder material is erodible;,
• There is likely to be a shortage of material for maintenance of the shoulders;
• Where heavy vehicles tend to use the shoulder as an auxiliary lane;
• In front of vehicle restraint systems;
• Where the total resultant gradient exceeds 6%.
Full surfacing implies continuous surfacing along the length of the road but not
necessarily across the full width of the shoulder, although this is the desirable option.
The designer should consider the economic merits of a relatively narrow surfaced
shoulder compared with a wide unsurfaced shoulder. In the case of rehabilitation
projects, the full 3.0 m shoulder may be retained.
In severe terrain, the width of an existing roadway is usually narrow and, where the
shoulder width can only be maintained through an excessive volume of earthwork,
e.g. in escarpment conditions, standards can be reduced further through the
Departure from Standard process described in Chapter 14.

3.4.2 Edge Marking

At night and during inclement weather it is important that the driver should be able to
distinguish clearly between the shoulder and the lane. Edge marking is a convenient
method of indicating the boundary between the lane and the shoulder. Rumble strips
(Chapter 12) can also be used and have been shown to reduce the rate of run-off-road
incidents by 20% or more.

3.4.3 Shoulders for Gravel Roads

Shoulders are not specifically defined for gravel and earth roads because, in practice,
the road material spreads across the trafficable area with no distinct demarcation. On
paved roads, shoulders vary from a minimum of 1.0 m up to 3.0 m depending on the
terrain and design classification (Table 3-7). A stopped vehicle can be accommodated
by a shoulder which is 3.0 m wide and so there is no merit in adopting a shoulder
wider than this.

3.5 Normal Crossfall

Shoulders having the same surface as the roadway should have the same normal
crossfall. Unpaved shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5 percent steeper than the
crossfall of the roadway.

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Normal crossfall (or camber) should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage
whilst not being so great as to make steering difficult. The ability of a surface to shed
water varies with its smoothness and integrity. On unpaved roads the minimum
acceptable value of crossfall should be related to the need to carry surface water away
from the pavement structure effectively, with a maximum value above which erosion
of material starts to become a problem.

3.6 Road Reserve

Road reserves will be equidistant from the centreline of the road to the left and to the
right of the carriageway. Additional areas required for outlets etc., should be provided
in a manner that will not endanger the future integrity of the drainage facility and will
provide adjoining land owners restricted use of this land after completion of the road.
Reduced widths should be adopted only when these are found necessary for;
economic, financial or environmental reasons; in order to preserve valuable land,
resources or existing development; or when provision of the desirable width would
incur unreasonably high costs because of physical constraints. In such cases, it is
recommended that the road reserve should extend a minimum of 3 m from the edge
of the road works. However, where this occurs, it is advisable to restrict building
activity along the road to prevent overcrowding, to preserve space for future
improvements, and to provide for adequate sight distances. The distance across the
carriageway from building line to building line should be a minimum of 15 m.
For dual carriageway roads it may be necessary to increase the width of the road
reserve above the listed values.

3.7 Side Slopes and Back Slopes

Three regions of the roadside are important when evaluating safety (Figure 3-4):
1) The hinge point. Rounding at the hinge point at the top of the slope can
significantly reduce the hazard potential. Similarly, rounding at the toe of the
slope is also beneficial.
2) Embankment or fill slopes. Slopes parallel to the flow of traffic may be defined
as recoverable, non-recoverable, or critical depending on their slope Table 3-9.
3) Toe of the slope (intersection of the fore slope with level ground or with a back
slope, forming a ditch)

Hinge point
Carriageway
Back slope

Ditch, side drain

Shoulder

Side slope
Toe of slope

Figure 3-4: Details of the road edge

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The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety considerations,
height of cut or fill, and economic considerations. The guidance in this chapter is
mainly applicable to new construction or major reconstruction. On maintenance and
rehabilitation projects, the primary emphasis is placed on the roadway itself. Because
of environmental impacts or limited road reserve it may not be cost-effective or
practical to bring these projects into full compliance with the side slope
recommendations provided.

Table 3-9: Recoverable and Non-recoverable Slopes

Type of Slope Definition
Recoverable slopes include all embankment slopes of 1:4 or
flatter. Motorists who encroach on recoverable slopes can
generally stop their vehicles or slow them enough to return
to the roadway safely.
Recoverable For higher traffic volumes, side slopes should be designed
slopes with a 1:6 ratio.
Although the influence of back-slopes is generally less than
that of fore-slopes, a ratio of 1:3 or flatter is recommended.
Fixed obstacles such as culvert head walls should not extend
above the embankment within the clear zone distance.
A non-recoverable slope is defined as one which is
traversable, but from which most motorists will be unable to
stop or to return to the roadway easily. Vehicles on such
Non-recoverable slopes can be expected to reach the bottom. Embankments
slopes between 1:3 and 1:4 generally fall into this category. Since a
high percentage of encroaching vehicles will reach the toe of
these slopes, the clear zone distance extends beyond the
slope, and a clear run-out area at the base is desirable.
A critical slope is one on which a vehicle is likely to overturn.
Critical Slope
Slopes steeper than 1:3 generally fall into this category.

Table 3-10 indicates the side slope ratios recommended for use in the design
according to the height of fill and cut, the material, and practical experience of the
costs of construction. It will be noted that with the single exception of roads in areas
of black cotton soils, the recommended slopes are too steep to meet the
recommendations for adequate safety. Achieving a good safety design is clearly a
function of overall cost and at the present time is only likely to be viable for the
highest classes of road.

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 Table 3-10: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal

Height of Slope Side Slope (V:H)

Material Back Slope
(m) Fill Cut
0.0 – 1.0 1:4 1:3
Earth Soil 1.0 – 2.0 1:3 1:2
>2.0 2:3 2:3
0.0 – 2.0 4:5 2:1
Strong Rock
>2.0 1:1 4:1
1:2
0.0 – 2.0 2:3 2:1
Weathered Rock
>2.0 1:1 3:1
0.0 – 1.0 1:3 1:3
Decomposed
2.0 – 2.0 1:2 1:2
Rock
>2.0 2:3 2:3
Black Cotton Soil 0.0 – 2.0 1:6
(expansive - -
>2.0 1:4
clays)(1)

This Table should be used as a guide only, particularly because applicable standards in
rock cuts are highly dependent on costs. Also, certain soils that may be present at
subgrade level may be unstable at 1:2 side slopes and therefore a higher standard will
need to be applied for these soils. Slope configuration and treatments in areas with
identified slope stability problems should be addressed as a final design issue.

3.8 Roadside Ditches

The choice of side drain cross-section depends on the required hydraulic capacity,
arrangements for maintenance, space restrictions, traffic safety and any drainage
requirements relating to the height between the crown of the pavement and the drain
invert.
Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive clay soils such as black cotton
soils. Where this is not possible, they should be kept at a minimum distance of 4-6 m
from the toe of the embankment, dependent on functional classification (6 m for trunk
roads), as shown in Figure 3-5. The ditch should have a trapezoidal, flat-bottom
configuration.

Figure 3-5: Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils

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 3.8.1 Trapezoidal
Under normal circumstances the adoption of a trapezoidal cross-section will facilitate
maintenance and will be acceptable from the point of view of traffic safety. It is much
easier and appropriate to dig and clean a trapezoidal drain with hand tools and the
risk of erosion is lower. The minimum recommended width of the side drain is 0.5 m.
This shape has high flow capacity and, by carefully selecting the gradients of its side
slopes, it will resist erosion.

3.8.2 V-Shape
The V-shape is the standard shape for a drainage ditch constructed by a motor-
grader. It can be easily maintained by heavy equipment, but it has relatively low
capacity necessitating more frequent structures for emptying it. Furthermore, the
shape concentrates flow at the invert and encourages erosion. Using a V-shaped ditch
the minimum depth should be 0.6 m in mountainous and escarpment terrain, and 1.0
m elsewhere.

3.8.3 Safer Ditches

If ditches are considered hazardous, they need to be modified to increase safety.
Based on the shape of the ditch, there are several possible treatments.
• The side slope and back slope of ditches should generally be no less than 1:2;
however, these slopes should conform to the slopes given in Table 3-10 or,
preferably, Table 3-9 above.
• Buried drainage. Usually, drainage is necessary and thus cannot be removed.
An effective treatment is to fill the ditch with draining materials after fitting a
collector. This eliminates any hazardous side slopes from the clear zone.
• Bottom modifications. Ditch bottoms can either be sloped or flat. Rounding the
bottom prevents vehicles from rolling over. A round-bottomed ditch with a
fore-slope of 4:1 and back-slope 2:1 is recommended.
• Ditches must be designed wide enough to provide adequate drainage capacity.
For reasons of safety, the width of the bottom should be at least 1 m. A
minimum width of 1.2 m is preferred. Very shallow and wide ditch bottoms
may require additional buried drainage.
• Another common treatment is to cover the ditch with gutters or any other
drainage system. This is particularly recommended at roadsides where a deep
ditch is needed.
• Ditches often include drainage features such as culverts, kerbs, or control
dams, which are made of rigid, non-energy-absorbent material. These
structures need to be made crashworthy by modifying their shape.
• Isolate the most dangerous ditches. This means shielding them from errant
vehicles. The space required for an adequate road restraint system must be
taken into account.

For the detailed design of roadside ditches, the Drainage Design Manual, 2017 and
CEDR: Forgiving Roadsides Design Guide (2012) should be used.

3.9 Clear Zone

For adequate safety, it is desirable to have an area free of obstacles as wide as
practical. The width of clear zones depends primarily on the design speed on a specific
highway section. It is measured from the edge of the travelled way and, ideally, also

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depends on the traffic level and whether the road is in cut or fill. The values
recommended are shown in Table 3-11.

Table 3-11: Recommended Clear Zones (m)

Mid-range traffic level Minimum values for low
Design Speed for class traffic
(km/h)
Fill slopes Cut slopes Fill slopes Cut slopes
<60 3 3 2.5 2.5
60-80 5.5 4 4 2.5
80-95 8.5 5.5 5 3.0
95-110 10.5 6.5 7.5 4
>110 dual carriageway 13 8.5 8.0 5
Source: Derived from SANRAL, Geometric Design Guidelines

For traffic that is low for the traffic class under consideration these values can be
reduced. The zone should extend beyond the toe of the slope. Lateral clearances
between roadside objects and obstructions and the edge of the carriageway should
normally be not less than 1.5 m. At existing pipe culverts, box culverts and bridges
the clearance cannot be less than the carriageway width; if this clearance is not met,
the structure must be widened. New pipe and box culvert installations, and extensions
to them, must be designed with a 1.5 m clearance from the edge of the shoulder.
For the horizontal clearance to road signs, marker posts, etc. an absolute minimum of
0.5 m from the edge of the carriageway is legally required.
Elements such as side slopes, fixed objects and water are features that a vehicle
might encounter when it leaves the roadway. The safety measures that can be taken
depend on the probability of an accident occurring, the likely severity, and the
available resources (Section 12.8). In order of priority, these measures are:
1. Removal.
2. Relocation.
3. Reduction of impact severity (using breakaway features – e.g. supports of
large vertical signs - or making it traversable – e.g. culvert ends).
4. Shielding with a road restraint system.

3.10 Four-Lane and Divided Roads

Four-lane and divided roads are necessary when the traffic volume is sufficient to
justify their use or high speeds need to be safely achieved. In
metropolitan/urban/peri-urban areas this may be anticipated in the foreseeable future.
Indeed, in cities and towns it may be assumed that they will eventually be inevitable
and four-lane roadways should be included in master plans.
To provide for right turning traffic, either a roundabout or an all-way stop/yield
controlled junction with speed reduction measures or traffic signals must be used.
Crossing a fast traffic stream flowing in the opposite direction is extremely unsafe and
should be avoided (Chapter 9).

3.11 Medians
The median is the total area between the inner edges of the inside traffic lanes of a
divided road, and includes the inner shoulders and central islands. Medians separate
opposing streams of traffic. Medians as narrow as 1.5 m can be used where there are

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severe space limitations, but a safety barrier will be required to ensure the separation
of vehicles. In contrast, a wide median (> 9.0 m) eliminates most cross-median
accidents and such accidents decrease as median width increases. Planting shrubs on
the central area of the median can also reduce the nuisance of headlight glare and
dazzle. A maximum stem thickness of 100 mm is recommended. Medians should not,
as far as possible, be obstructed by street furniture. If absolutely necessary, a median
of 5.0 m width can accommodate a right turn lane with provision for a pedestrian
refuge but would also require safety barrier protection to separate the opposing flows
of traffic. Such an arrangement is inherently unsafe unless controlled by traffic lights
and should be avoided.
For a raised median, kerbing offers a modest degree of protection to pedestrians who
may be on the median while crossing the road. In addition, kerbing can, to a very
limited extent, redirect errant vehicles back into their own lanes.

3.11.1 Depressed Medians

It is suggested that the median island should be depressed rather than raised because
a raised or kerbed median island will automatically require the inner shoulder to be
3.0 m wide to allow sufficient space for emergency manoeuvres, including stopping. A
depressed median also facilitates drainage.
Two different conditions dictate the steepness of the slope across the median, namely
drainage and safety. The normal profile of a median is a negative camber, i.e. sloping
towards a central low point, to facilitate drainage. The flattest slope that is
recommended is 10 %. Slopes flatter than this may lead to ponding and to water
flowing from the median to the carriageway. Slopes steeper than 1:4 make control of
an errant vehicle difficult, leading to a greater possibility of cross-median accidents. If
surface drainage requires a median slope steeper than 1:4, this aspect of road safety
might justify replacing surface drainage by an underground drainage system.
Differential, or split, grading requires the median to be sloped to absorb the height
difference between the carriageways. This is achieved, in the case of small height
differences, by locating the low point of the median eccentrically, retaining the
maximum permissible slope. The limit is reached when the low point is adjacent to the
lower carriageway and functions as a side drain. If a steeper slope is required, the
carriageways must be designed as completely independent roadways, with full-width
shoulders, safety barriers if necessary, and sufficient distance between shoulder
breakpoints, with the side slope appropriate to the in-situ material, to accommodate
the height difference between carriageways.
The design of the ends of medians is described in Section 9.7.6.

3.12 Outer Separators

The outer separator is the area between the edges of the travelled way of a major
road and an adjacent parallel road or street. It comprises the left shoulder of the
major road, an island and the right shoulder of the adjacent road or street. Its
purpose is to separate streams of traffic flowing in the same direction but at different
speeds and to also to modify weaving manoeuvres. It is a buffer between through
traffic and local traffic on a frontage or service road. It is typically applied where the
corridor must serve the two functions of long distance travel and local accessibility. An
arterial passing through a local shopping area is an example of this application.
In general, the standards applied to medians are equally appropriate to outer
separators.

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3.13 Bus Stops, Lay-bys and Parking Bays
Lay-bys clear of the lanes for through traffic considerably reduce the interference
between buses, taxis and other traffic. Bus lay-bys serve to remove buses from the
traffic lanes and parking bays are provided space for taxis and other vehicles to stop
outside of the roadway.
Pedestrian accidents at bus stops are common but can be reduced significantly by
good design of the bus stop area. Ideally a bus stop or a lay-by should be designed as
a short auxiliary lane with adequate entry and exit tapers and separated from the
travelled way by means of a separator from the through lanes. A further safeguard is
the use of pedestrian guardrails to prevent passengers from crossing the road until
they are well clear of the bus and have a clear vision of the road.
The location and design of lay-bys should provide ready access in the safest and most
efficient manner possible. To be fully effective, lay-bys should incorporate;
i) A deceleration lane or taper to permit easy entrance to the loading area.
ii) A standing space sufficiently long to accommodate the maximum number of
vehicles expected to occupy the space at one time.
iii) A merging lane to enable easy re-entry into the through-traffic lanes.
The deceleration lane should be tapered at an angle flat enough to encourage the bus
or taxi operator to pull completely clear of the through lane as in Figure 3-6. A taper
of 10:1, longitudinal to transverse, is a desirable minimum.
A loading area should provide 15 m of length for each bus. The width should be at
least 3.5 m and preferably 4.0 m. The merging or re-entry taper may be somewhat
more abrupt than the deceleration taper but, preferably, should not be sharper than
6:1.

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 Figure 3-6: Bus Lay-Bys and Parking Bays

The total length of lay-bys for a two-bus loading area of minimum design should be as
shown in Figure 3-6 and in the Standard Detail Drawings. These lengths of lay-bys
expedite bus manoeuvres, encourage full compliance on the part of bus and taxi
drivers, and lessen interference with through traffic. Sufficient footpaths should be
provided at bus lay-bys.
Bus stops should not be located immediately in advance of an intersection because of
the restriction of sight distance that this would impose on drivers approaching the
intersection. On the other hand, they should not be too far away because many
passengers may want access to the roads forming the intersection. Ideally the bus
stop should, except near roundabouts, be located after the intersection but not more
than 50 m from it.

3.14 Refuge Islands

Refuge islands can be used to help pedestrians to cross particularly wide or busy
roads. They allow pedestrians to cross one direction of traffic flow at a time without
seriously affecting traffic capacity, especially where the traffic through a junction is
controlled by traffic signals.
In mountainous areas or in rolling topography, restricted sight distance does not
always allow pedestrians enough time to cross the road safely. In such areas, if the
minimum sight distances for pedestrians crossing rural roads shown in Table 3-12
cannot be attained, refuge islands should be provided. In problem areas, properly
designed refuge islands are considered a safe alternative. Where these are used,
pedestrian risk is reduced by 50 %.

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 Table 3-12: Pedestrian Sight Distances (m)
Design Speed Road Cross Section
(km/h) 2-Lane 3-Lane 4-Lane
60 85 130 170
70 100 150 200
80 115 170 230
90 130 190 255
100 140 215 285
110 155 235 310
120 170 255 340

Refuge islands should be at least 1.5 m wide (preferably 2.0 m) and may take the
form either of raised islands or of marked refuges with oblique parallel lines. If raised,
the sides should be semi-mountable. In addition, the approaches to the refuge island
should be tapered and clearly demarcated with the necessary road signs and
markings. The road markings together with retroreflective road studs should
channelise vehicular traffic away from the refuge island. A ‘pass this side’ (left) should
also be displayed prominently to safeguard drivers.

3.15 Sidewalks
On urban streets, it is necessary to provide sidewalks for pedestrian traffic. In
commercial areas or areas where the road reserve width is restricted, sidewalks may
extend from the kerb to the road reserve boundary. The width of a sidewalk should
not be less than 1.5 m and a minimum width of 2.0 m should be provided near
hospitals and residential homes where wheelchair traffic could be expected. If the
sidewalk is immediately adjacent to the kerbing, the minimum width should be
increased by 0.6 to 1 m. This is to make provision for fire hydrants, street lighting and
other road furniture. It also allows for the proximity of moving vehicles and the
opening of car doors.
Pedestrian paths must be continuous, not too sinuous and be unimpeded by
obstructions. The width of the path should not be less than 1.2 m, measured at
pavement level, to preserve the mobility of wheel chairs.
The normal cross-slope on a sidewalk should be 2 %. Steeper cross-slopes present
problems for disabled people. Sidewalks that cross driveway entrances may need a
steeper cross-slope to match the gradient of the driveways but should not exceed a
cross slope of 5 %.
Kerbs, raised medians and channelising islands can be major obstructions to the
elderly and people with disabilities, particularly those in wheelchairs. The most
common method for minimising the impact of these obstacles is to provide ramps,
also referred to as kerb cuts or dropped kerbs. Ramps should have a slope of not more
than about 6 %. A kerb height of 150 mm would thus require a ramp length of 2.5 m.
Ideally there should be a clear sidewalk width of 1.5 m beyond the top end of the
ramp so that, where a ramp is provided, the overall sidewalk width should be not less
than 4 m. Wheel chairs may be 0.75 m wide so that two would require a ramp width
of 2 to 2.5 m. If it is not possible to provide this width, a width of not less than 1.5 m
should be considered.

3.16 Footpaths in Rural Areas

Sidewalks are not normally provided in rural areas. However, approximately half the
accident fatalities occur in rural areas therefore additional provision should be made
for pedestrian safety. Table 3-13 indicates conditions where paved footpaths are

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recommended. Footways can be as little as 1.0 m wide, but a width of 1.8 m allows
two people to walk side by side.

Table 3-13: Recommendations for Paved Footpaths in Rural Areas

Pedestrian flow per day
ADT
Footpath Design Speed Design Speed
(vehicles/day)
< 80km/h > 80km/h

On one side of 300-1500 300 200

the road >1500 200 120

On both sides 700 - 1500 1000 600

of the road >1500 600 400

The safest location for footways is at the edge of the road reserve. In rolling or
mountainous terrain through cuts and fills, such a footway is not comfortable for
walking and so pedestrians often prefer to walk on the more level surface of the
shoulder. In level terrain, the footway should, if possible, be situated at least 3.0 m
away from the travelled way. In the case of a high-volume high-speed road this
unfortunately corresponds to a location immediately outside the edge of the usable
shoulder.
In cases where footways are not warranted but where many pedestrians walk
alongside the road; the road shoulder should be upgraded to cater for them. The
minimum width of these shoulders should be 3.0 m. If the shoulders are not surfaced,
they should be bladed and compacted regularly to provide pedestrians with a hard
surface to walk on. In high rainfall areas, a portion at least of the shoulder should be
paved, with this paved area being at least 1.5 m wide.

3.17 Slopes
The slopes of the sides of the road prism should be shallow for reasons of safety;
slopes of 1:4 are considered the steepest acceptable. See also Section 3.7. If steeper
slopes are necessary, then vehicle restraint systems might be needed, and the design
of the slope will need to take account of the geotechnical properties of the material
(Reference: Geotechnical Design Manual).

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4 General Design Criteria for Road Alignments
The design of the road alignment is concerned with selecting the parameters of the
geometric features of the road so that they provide a safe, comfortable and efficient
conduit for transporting people and goods to wherever they need to be. Thus,
designing the road alignment is concerned with the application of methods of
achieving safety and efficiency in the road transport system.
The principal components are the horizontal alignment, which is essentially the road in
plan, and the vertical alignment, which is the road in longitudinal cross section. The
separate slopes and curves of the road must satisfy certain criteria based on how
vehicles and humans interact with them. This chapter is concerned with those criteria
for the horizontal and vertical curves. Some of these are specific to either horizontal or
vertical alignment while some are common to both. Once the criteria have been
defined, they are used to design the horizontal alignment (Chapter 5) and the vertical
alignment (Chapter 6).

4.1 Design Speed

Design speed is the fundamental parameter of geometric design. It is a selected speed
used to determine many of the various geometric design features of the roadway; for
example, the minimum radii of horizontal curvature for a section of road. It is
essentially an index which links the design parameters of sight distance and curvature
to traffic flow and terrain to ensure that a driver is presented with a reasonably
consistent speed environment.
The design speed should be logical with respect to the topography, the adjacent land
use, the functional classification of the highway and the anticipated operating speed.

4.1.1 Consistency
Design speed is significant only when the physical road characteristics limit the speed
of travel. However, the design speed concept alone does not ensure sufficient
coordination among individual geometric features to ensure consistency. It controls
only the minimum value of the maximum speeds for the individual features along an
alignment. For example, a road with an 80 km/h design speed may have only one
curve with a design speed of 80 km/h and all other features may have design speeds
of 120 km/h or greater. As a result, operating speeds approaching the critical curve
are likely to exceed the 80 km/h design speed. Such an alignment would comply with
an 80 km/h design speed, but it would violate a driver's expectancy and result in an
undesirable alignment.
Thus, the various design elements must be combined in a balanced way, avoiding the
application of minimum values for one, or a few, of the elements at a particular
location when the other elements are considerably above the minimum requirements.
Thus, the radii of curves within a section should be consistent, not merely greater than
the minimum value.
When a substantial length of road is being designed, a constant design speed should
be adopted to maintain consistency. In practice the speed of motorised vehicles on
many roads in flat and rolling terrain will only be constrained by the road geometry
over relatively short sections but it is important that the level of constraint is
consistent for each road class and set of conditions.

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 4.1.2 Changes of Design Speed
Changes in terrain and other physical controls may dictate a change in design speed
on certain sections. Each such section, however, should be relatively long, greater
than 2 km, and compatible with the general terrain or the development through which
the road passes. The justification for introducing a reduced design speed should be
obvious to the driver; for example, where a road leaves relatively level terrain and
starts to traverse hilly or mountainous terrain. It is often found that the physical
terrain changes quite quickly (e.g. by twosteps, typically, from mountainous to flat
terrain). However, change in design speed caused by a change in terrain class should
not occur abruptly but over sufficient distances to enable drivers to change speed
gradually. The change in design speed between successive speeds should be limited to
10 km/h when the design speed is 90 km/h or greater and to 20 km/h when the
design speed is below 80 km/h.

4.1.3 Speed Profiles

A measured speed profile is a graphical depiction showing how the 85th percentile
speed (operating speed) actually differs along the length of a road. For an existing
road this helps to identify where large differences in the 85th percentile speed occur
and therefore where consistency needs to be improved.

4.1.4 Choice of Design Speed

In view of the mixed traffic and the cost benefit of selecting lower design speeds, it is
prudent to select values of design speed towards the lower end of the internationally
acceptable ranges.

4.2 The Design Vehicle

The Design Vehicle is the vehicle whose physical characteristics and proportions are
used in setting geometric design standards. The largest vehicle must be able to pass a
similar vehicle safely and to negotiate all aspects of the horizontal and vertical
alignment. Thus, the vehicle characteristics and dimensions affecting design include
power-to-weight ratio, minimum turning radius, travel path during a turn, and vehicle
height and width. The road elements affected include the maximum gradient, lane
width, horizontal curve widening, and junction design.
Trucks of different sizes are usually used for different road standards – the driver of a
large 6-axle truck would not expect to be able to drive through roads of the lowest
standards.

In view of the low density of roads (and, hence, lack of alternative routes) together
with the limited choice of vehicle for many transporters, it is prudent to be
conservative in choosing the design vehicle for each class of road so that the
maximum number of vehicle types can use them. Table 4-1 shows typical design
vehicles that are often used, but, for high volume roads in Mozambique, the design
vehicle should be a truck and trailer except for very severe escarpment terrain.
The maximum turning path for a single unit truck, a single unit bus, and a semi-trailer
combination are shown Figure 4-1, Figure 4-2 and Figure 4-3 respectively.

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 Table 4-1: Design Vehicle Characteristics
Minimum
Front Rear Wheel-
Design Height Width Length turning
Code overhang overhang base
vehicle (m) (m) (m) radius
(m) (m) (m)
(m)

4x4 Utility DV1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3

Single
unit truck
DV2 4.3 2.6 11.0 1.5 3.0 6.5 12.8

Single
unit bus
DV3 4.3 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.6 7.6 12.8

Truck +
semi- DV4 4.3 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 13.2 13.7
trailer
Typical 5-
axle truck
DV5 4.3 2.6 20.9 1.2 1.8 18.9 22.9

Typical 6-
axle truck DV6 4.3 2.6 22.0 1.2 1.8 20.4 13.7
trailer

* Distance between rear wheels of SU tractor vehicle and front wheels of trailer to be
added ((3.5m)

Figure 4-1: Dimensions and Turning Radius Path for Single Unit Truck (DV2)

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Figure 4-2: Dimensions and Turning Radius Path for Single Unit Bus (DV3)

Figure 4-3: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Semi-Trailer Combination

(15m overall; also applicable for Truck (Tandem) plus Trailer DV4)

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4.3 Sight Distances

4.3.1 Introduction
Drivers must be able to see objects in the road with sufficient time to either stop or to
manoeuvre round them. There are several situations requiring different sight distances
thus:
• Stopping sight distance.
• Intersection sight distance.
• Decision sight distance.
• Passing sight distance.

Each depends on the initial speed of the vehicle and the factors listed in Table 4-2

Table 4-2: Parameters Values Used for Calculating Sight Distances

Characteristic Value
Car driver's eye height 1.05 m
Truck drivers eye height 1.8 m
Height for Stopping Sight Distance for general objects in the road 0.2 m
Height for Stopping Sight Distance for flat objects in the road
0.0 m
(e.g. potholes, wash-out)
Height for Stopping Sight Distance for vehicle in the road 0.6 m
Object height for Passing Sight Distance (e.g. roof of car) 1.3 m
Object height for Decision Sight Distance 0.0 m
Driver’s reaction time 2.5 s
The maximum deceleration rate for cars 3.0 m/s2
The maximum deceleration rate for trucks 1.5 m/s2
Friction between tyres and road surface Section 4.3.2
The efficiency of the brakes of the vehicle Section 4.3.3
Gradient of the road Section 4.3.3

4.3.2 Friction between Tyres and Roadway

The coefficient of friction is the ratio of the frictional force on the vehicle and the
component of the weight of the vehicle perpendicular to the frictional force. The
longitudinal coefficients of friction, as determined by various authors, are shown in
Appendix D. Longitudinal friction coefficients depend on:
• vehicle speed;
• type, condition and texture of the roadway surface;
• weather conditions;
• type and condition of tyres.
Its value decreases as speed increases and there are considerable differences between
studies, especially at the lower speeds, because of the wide range of conditions that
are encountered. Thus, it is difficult to select representative values; worn tyres are

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common, and the climate varies from wet to arid with the time of year. Gravel roads
can have particularly low friction characteristics.
Side friction coefficients are also dependent on vehicle speed, type, condition and
texture of roadway surface, weather conditions, and type and condition of tyres.
Appendix D illustrates some values obtained by various researchers.
The coefficient of friction values chosen are shown in Table 4-3 using the lowest
results of friction tests. The values allow a reasonable safety factor to cater for the
wide range of conditions. For unpaved roads a systematic reduction in the values used
for paved roads has also been used.

Table 4-3: Friction Factors

Friction Road Design speed (km/h)

Type Type 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Longitudinal Paved 0.40 0.37 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.305 0.295 0.285 0.29 0.28
friction
factors Unpaved 0.32 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.235 0.23 0.23 0.23

Side friction Paved 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.10 0.10 0.095
factors Unpaved 0.165 0.15 0.135 0.125 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.095 0.09 0.09

4.3.3 Stopping Sight Distance

The Stopping Sight Distance is the distance a vehicle requires to stop safely after the
driver has spotted a stationary object in the road ahead. This mainly affects the shape
of the road on the crest of a hill (vertical alignment) but if there are objects near the
edge of the road that restrict a driver’s vision on approaching a bend, then it also
affects the horizontal curvature. The stopping sight distance is given by the following
formula:

V2
d = (0.278)(t )(V ) +
(254( f + g / 100) )
where,
d = stopping distance (m)
t = driver reaction time
V = initial speed (km/h)
f = longitudinal coefficient of friction between tyres and roadway.
g = gradient of road as a percentage (downhill is negative).

On a flat road the value of g is zero. On a 5 % downhill gradient the stopping distance
at 120 km/hr is typically 16 % longer. At a 10 % gradient it is nearly 40 percent
longer. For speeds above 50 km/h, the gradient of the road makes a significant
difference and must be taken into account in establishing safe sight distances.
Table 4-4 applies to cars and trucks with anti-lock braking systems. Trucks with
conventional braking systems require longer stopping distances. Although the driver’s
eye height is greater than that of a car driver, hence the driver can see objects
sooner, this does not always compensate for the poorer braking system. However,
separate stopping sight distances for trucks and passenger cars are not generally used
in highway design.
Table 4-5 is for unpaved roads where the coefficients of friction are lower and much
more variable, depending on the properties of the gravel or soil.

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It is important to note that the values in the Tables are for dry weather conditions.
Stopping sight distances can be much longer in unfavourable wet conditions but are
not generally used in design. Driving at the design speed with worn tyres and very wet
conditions is not a common activity - drivers slow down until they feel safe - but
accident rates increase in wet weather.

Table 4-4: Minimum Stopping Sight Distances for Paved Roads

Design Speed Coefficient Stopping Sight Distance (m)

(km/h) of Friction (f)
g=0 g = -5% g = -10%
20 .42 18 18 18
25 .41 23 24 25
30 .40 30 31 33
40 .37 45 47 50
50 .35 65 70 75
60 .33 85 95 105
70 .32 110 120 140
80 .30 140 155 180
85 .29 155 175 205
90 .29 170 195 230
100 .28 205 235 280
110 .29 245 285 340
120 .28 285 335 405

Full adherence to the required sight distances is essential for safety reasons. On the
inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove trees, buildings or other
obstacles to obtain the necessary sight distances. If this cannot be done, the
alignment must be changed. In rare cases where it is not possible and a change in
design speed is necessary, adequate and permanent signage must be provided.

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 Table 4-5: Minimum Stopping Sight Distances for Unpaved Roads

Design Speed Coefficient Stopping Sight Distance (m)

(km/h) of Friction (f)
g=0 g = -5% g = -10%
20 .34 19 19 20
25 .33 23 24 25
30 .32 32 34 37
40 .30 49 55 60
50 .28 70 80 90
60 .26 95 110 130
70 .25 125 145 175
80 .24 160 190 235
85 .24 180 215 270
90 .235 200 240 305
100 .23 240 290 370

4.3.4 Stopping Sight Distance for Single Lane Roads (Meeting Sight
Distance)
Meeting Sight Distance (sometimes called Barrier Sight Distance) is the distance that
needs to be provided on a single-lane road to allow vehicles travelling in the opposite
direction, usually because one vehicle is executing a passing manoeuvre, to see each
other and to stop safely if necessary.
It is measured for an object height of 1.3 m (i.e. the height of an approaching
passenger car) and an eye height of 1.05 m. This distance is normally set at twice the
stopping sight distance for a vehicle that is stopping to avoid a stationary object in the
road. An extra safety margin of 20-30 m is also sometimes added. Although a vehicle
is a much larger object than is usually considered when calculating stopping distances,
these added safety margins are used partly because of the very severe consequences
of a head-on collision and partly because it is difficult to judge the speed of an
approaching vehicle, which could be considerably greater than the design speed.
It is particularly important to check this on existing roads that have a poor vertical
alignment that may contain hidden dips that restrict sight distances. However, single
lane roads have a relatively low design speed, hence meeting sight distances should
not be too difficult to achieve.

4.3.5 Intersection Sight Distance

Intersection sight distance is similar to stopping sight distance except that the object
being viewed is another vehicle that may be entering the road from a side road or
crossing the road at an intersection. On straight sections of road many vehicles will
exceed the road’s design speed but, being straight, sight distances should be adequate
for vehicles that are travelling straight through the junction on the major road. The
situation is quite different for vehicles that may need to slow down or stop at the
junction. This is because the time required to accelerate again and then to cross or
turn at the junction is now much greater, hence longer sight distances are required.

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 4.3.6 Decision Sight Distance
Stopping sight distances are usually sufficient to allow reasonably competent drivers
to stop under ordinary circumstances. However, these distances are often inadequate
when drivers need to make complex decisions or when unusual or unexpected
manoeuvres are required. The driving task is constrained or limited by the human
factors involved (see Section 1.2.1).
Decision sight distance, sometimes termed ‘anticipatory sight distance’, is the distance
required for a driver to:
• detect an unexpected or otherwise ‘difficult-to-perceive’ information source or
hazard in a roadway environment that may be visually cluttered;
• recognize the hazard or its potential threat;
• select an appropriate speed and path; and
• complete the required safety manoeuvre safely and efficiently.
Critical locations where errors are likely to occur and where it is desirable to provide
decision sight distance include:
• Areas of concentrated demand where sources of information such as
roadway elements, opposing traffic, traffic control devices, advertising signs
and construction zones, compete for attention (i.e. visual noise).
• Approaches to interchanges and intersections;
• Railway crossings, bus stops, bicycle paths, entrances of villages and towns;
• Newly upgraded road sections or the change of road hierarchy;
• Changes in cross-section such as at toll plazas and lane drops;
• Design speed reductions.
The minimum decision sight distances that should be provided for specific situations
are shown in Table 4-6. If it is not feasible to provide these distances because of
horizontal or vertical curvature, or if relocation is not possible, special attention should
be given to the use of suitable traffic control devices for advance warning.
Although a sight distance is shown in the Table for the right side (off-side) exit, exiting
from the right side, except on LVRs, is undesirable because, to be safe, crossing a
fast-moving traffic stream requires traffic control; the efficiency of the junction is thus
severely reduced. Furthermore, a right-side exit is also in conflict with the expectancy
of most drivers and this further compromises safety. The reason for providing this
value is to allow for the possibility that an off-side (right side) exit might be necessary
sometimes, usually with traffic control.
In measuring decision sight distances, the 1.05 m eye height and 0 mm object height
have been adopted.

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 Table 4-6: Decision Sight Distances for Various Situations (m)
Situations
Lane drop,
Interchanges. Lane shift Intersections.
Design merge
Speed Sight distance to
km/h nose Sight Sight distance
Sight distance
distance to to beginning of
Near- Off-side to turn lane
taper area shift
side exit exit
50 NA NA 150 85 150
60 200 275 200 100 200
80 250 340 250 150 250
100 350 430 350 200 350
120 400 500 400 250 400
Source: SANRAL. Geometric Design Guidelines.

4.3.7 Passing Sight Distance (PSD)

The minimum sight distance required by a vehicle to overtake or pass another vehicle
safely on a two-lane single carriageway road is the distance which will enable the
overtaking driver to pass a slower vehicle without causing an oncoming vehicle to slow
below the design speed. The manoeuvre is one of the most complex but important
driving tasks. It is also relatively difficult to quantify for design purposes because of
the various stages involved, the large number of relative speeds of vehicles that are
possible, and the lengthy section of road needed to complete the manoeuvre.
Appendix G provides more details.
A driver finding that he has insufficient distance after initiating the passing manoeuvre
can choose to abort the manoeuvre. The Minimum Passing Sight Distance is then the
sight distance required on a two-lane road to enable the passing manoeuvre to be
aborted. The recommended minimum PSDs are shown in Table 4-7.
A method of measuring and recording sight distances is given in Appendix B.

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 Table 4-7: Passing Sight Distances

Minimum PSD allowing

Design Speed Recommended PSD
driver to abort
(km/h) (m)2
(m)1

30 115 195
40 135 275
50 155 345
60 180 420
70 210 485
80 240 550
90 275 615
100 310 670
110 350 730
120 395 780
130 440 830

Note 1 Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) and Harwood et al. (2008).
NCHRP Report 605,
2 SATCC (2001). Code of Practice for the Geometric Design of Trunk Roads.

4.3.8 Passing Opportunities

Passing Sight Distance is a desirable requirement for two-lane single carriageway
roads. Sufficient visibility for passing increases the capacity and efficiency of a road
and should be provided for as much of the road length as possible within financial
limitations. Passing opportunities should be available based on the road hierarchy as
indicated in Table 4-8. The percentage is the percentage length of road that provides
sufficient passing opportunities at the design speed. For example, since the PSD at 80
km/h is 550 m, an alignment giving a 50% passing opportunity means that one
passing opportunity will occur every 1100 m on average). If these percentages cannot
be physically or economically achieved in a particular stretch of road, its level of
service should be locally evaluated to verify whether special provision (e.g. a passing
or climbing lane) should be provided. Passing lanes are discussed in Section 5.6.

Table 4-8: Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance

Percent Passing Opportunity and Terrain
Design
Standard Urban/Peri
Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment
-Urban
H1 50
50 25
H2 33 0 20
H3 25 25 15

4.3.9 Headlight Sight Distance

Headlight sight distance is used to design the rate of change of gradient for sag
vertical curves (Section 6.4). Where the only source of illumination is the headlamps
of the vehicle, the illuminated area depends on the height of the headlights above the
road and the divergence angle of the headlight beam relative to the grade line of the
road at the position of the vehicle on the curve. For cars a headlight height of 0.6 m
and a beam divergence of 1 degree are usually used for calculation purposes. At

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speeds above 80 km/h, only large, light coloured objects can be perceived at the
generally accepted stopping sight distances.

4.3.10 Control of Sight Distance

Sight distances should be checked during design and adjustments made to meet the
minimum requirements. The values shown in paragraphs above should be used for the
determination of sight lines. Details of crest and sag curve design are provided in
Chapter 6.
On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees or
other sight obstructions or widen cuts on the insides of curves to obtain the required
sight distance as indicated in Figure 4-4. The distance labelled M in the diagram must
be clear of obstruction to allow a clear view along the sight line shown.

Figure 4-4: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves

Relevant formulae are as follows:

Length of Sight Line (S) = 2R sin(/2) where  = Deflection angle (o)
Length of Middle Ordinate (M) = R(1-cos(/2)

Example:
Radius = 1000 m, Δ = 200;

S = 2R sin(/2) M = R (1 – cos(/2)
= 2(1000)(sin(10o) = 1000(1- cos(10o)
= 347 m = 15.2 m

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5 Design of Horizontal Alignment
The horizontal alignment consists of a series of straight sections (tangents), circular
curves and transition curves (spirals) between the tangents and the circular curves.
In order for a vehicle to move in a circular path, an inward radial force is required to
provide the necessary centripetal acceleration or, in other words, to counteract the
centrifugal force. This radial force is provided by the sideways friction between the tyres
and the road surface assisted by the super-elevation.
The objective is to provide a safe road which can be driven at a reasonably constant
speed. Therefore, sharp changes in the geometric characteristics of both horizontal and
vertical alignments, must be avoided. A transition curve whose radius changes
continuously between a straight section of road and a circular curve is used to reduce the
abrupt introduction of centripetal acceleration that occurs on entering the circular curve.
Transition curves are not required when the radius of the horizontal curve is large and are
not normally used on the lower classes of road.

5.1 Minimum Horizontal Radius of Curvature

The elements of a circular curve are shown in Appendix H.
The minimum horizontal radius of curvature, Rmin, for a particular design speed is:

VD 2
Rmin = Equation 5.1
127(e + f )
Where
VD = design speed (km/h)
e = maximum super-elevation (%/100)
f = side friction coefficient (Section 4.3.2)

The minimum radii of curvature for different design speeds and super-elevations based on
this formula and pragmatic coefficients of friction are shown in Table 5-1 for paved roads
and Table 5-2 for unpaved roads. For convenience they are also included in the summary
of specifications for each` road class in the Tables in Chapter 7. As the radius increases,
the accident rate decreases hence the minimum values should be used only under the
most critical conditions and the deviation angle of each curve should be as small as the
physical conditions permit.

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 Table 5-1: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves for Paved Roads (m)
Design
speed 30 40 50 60 70 80 85 90 100 110 120
(km/h)
Side
Friction 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09
Factor (f)
Super-
elevation 30 55 95 150 220 300 350 400 520 660 810
= 4%
Super-
elevation 27 53 85 135 190 265 305 350 455 580 720
= 6%
Super-
elevation 25 50 80 120 175 240 280 320 415 530 660
= 8%
Super-
elevation 25 50 75 110 155 210 245 285 370 475 605
= 10%

For unpaved roads the friction is usually considerably less than on paved roads. In these
calculations it has been assumed that it is 80% of the value for paved roads but this is
dependent on a tightly knit and dry surface of good quality gravel with no loose stones; in
other words a surface on which the design speed can be maintained. A poorly bound
surface with many loose particles has a very low value of friction and it must be assumed
that vehicles will be driven on such a surface at a speed that is much lower than the
nominal design speed dictated by the sight distances and radii of curvature.

Table 5-2: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves for Unpaved Roads (m)
Design speed
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 85 90 100
(km/h)
Side Friction Factor 0.19 0.165 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.12 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.09
Super-elevation=4% 15 35 65 115 175 255 355 415 475 610

5.2 Consistency
Under normal circumstances sections of road will contain many curves whose radii are
larger than the minimum radii specified in the design standards. For reasons of safety and
driver comfort it is not advisable for two consecutive curves to differ in radius by a large
amount even though they are both greater than the minimum. Figure 5-1 shows the
required ratio of radii for consecutive curves. Consecutive horizontal curves are defined as
curves where the distance between the end of one and the beginning of the next is less
than the radius of the larger curve. The best result will be achieved when the two radii
are similar (labelled ‘very good’ in the diagram). If the ratio of radii falls outside the
‘good’ category but inside into the ‘useable’ category some discomfort or inconvenience
will be felt because of the increase in centripetal force when entering the tighter curve.
However, it is not merely the ratio of curve radii that affect consistency. In particular, the
length of connecting tangents and the friction between tyre and road surface are also
important because these affect speed. Thus for consistency all the various design
elements must be combined in a balanced way, avoiding the application of minimum

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values for one or a few elements at a particular location when other elements are
considerably above the minimum requirements.

Figure 5-1: Ratio of Radii of Consecutive Horizontal Curves

(Source: German Road and Transportation Research Association, Cologne, Germany (1973).
Guidelines for the design of rural roads (RAL), Part II.

Of the numerous techniques for the evaluation of consistency, the ratio between the
horizontal radius of a curve and that of the preceding curve or tangent (described as a
curve of infinite radius) is the most reliable indicator. This indicator is described as the
Curvature Change Rate (CCR) and has been adopted as the preferred option for the
evaluation of consistency of design (Lamm et al. (1999)):

CCR = 180,000/R*π Equation 5.2

Where CCR = Curvature Change Rate (degrees/km)

Or, for a curve that includes transition curves:

CCR = 180,000*(LT1 + 2*LC + LT2)/(2*L* π) Equation 5.3

Where,

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 R = Radius of the circular curve (m)
LC = Length of the circular portion of the curve
LT1 and LT2 = Length of the transition curves (m)
L = total length of the curve (m) = LT1 +LC + LT2

Other variables required to evaluate consistency are listed in Table 5-3.

Table 5-3: Variables required for evaluation of consistency

Variable Definition
VD Design speed
V851 V852 85th percentile speed on succeeding design elements
V85Tmax 85th percentile speed on long (independent) tangents

Tmin Tangent length necessary to achieve V852 from an initial speed of V851

Tmax Tangent length to achieve V85Tmax from an initial speed of V851

f1 Side friction demanded at 85th percentile design speed
f2 Side friction assumed for design

Consistency of design is divided into three groups namely Good, Tolerable and Poor based
on the following three criteria.
• Design consistency – this relates to the difference in CCRs of successive curves
calculated according to the equations above;
• Operating speed consistency – this is a measure of the uniformity of 85 percentile
speeds through successive elements of the road.
• Consistency of driving dynamics – this relates the side friction assumed with
respect to the design speed, to that demanded at the 85 percentile speed.

The groups and the criteria are listed in Table 5-4.

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 Table 5-4: Design Criteria
Quality of Design Design Consistency
Good CCR1 – CCR2 ≤ 180
Tolerable 180 < CCR1 – CCR2 < 360
Poor 360 < CCR1 – CCR2
Speed Consistency
Good V851 – V852 <10
Tolerable 10 < V851 – V852 <20
Poor < 20V851 – V852
Frictional Difference
Good +0.01 ≤ f2 – f1
Tolerable -0.04 ≤ f2 – f1 ≤ +0.01
Poor f2 – f1 < - 0.04

The operating speed on each curve in the alignment is taken to be the observed 85 th
percentile speed.

For new designs it is necessary to estimate this. Lamm et al. (1999) have shown that the
average V85 is related to the average CCR (Equations 5.4 and 5.5), hence the average
value of V85 and the average design speed can be calculated from the average CCR. The
equation for use when longitudinal gradients are less than 6% is:

V85 = 105 + 2*10-5 *CCR2 – 0.071*CCR Equation 5.4

For gradients greater than 6% equation:

V85 = 86 – 3.24*10-9 *CCR3 + 1.61*10-5 *CCR2 – 4.26*10-2 *CCR Equation 5.5

The relationships are country dependant hence local data are needed to develop a local
equation for greater accuracy.

Note that CCR is zero for a tangent and the relationships are applicable from a CCR of 0
to 1600.

5.2.1 Length of Tangents

The intervening tangent between two successive curves has three possible alternatives:
1) The tangent length is such that it is not possible, in going from the shorter to the
longer radius, for the driver to accelerate to the operating speed of the following
curve within the length of the tangent; T ≤ Tmin metres
2) The tangent length allows acceleration up to the maximum operating speed,
V85max, on tangents; T ≥ Tmax

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 3) The tangent length is such that it is possible to achieve an operating speed
higher than that of the following curve but not as high as that achieved without
the constraint of nearby curves; Tmin < T < Tmax
The values of Tmin and Tmax are calculated from the following equation which is based on
an acceleration rate of 0.85 m/s2:

Case 1 for T ≤ Tmin

Tmin = [(V851)2 - (V852)2]/(2*a*3.62) = [(V851)2 - (V852)2]/22

Equation 5.6
Where,
V851 and V852 are the 85 percentile speeds (km/h);
‘a’ is the acceleration (m/sec2); and
V85Tmax = operating speed on a long tangent

Case 2 for T ≥ Tmax

Tmax= [2*(V85Tmax)2 - (V851)2 - (V852)2/ (22) Equation 5.7

This equation means that the existing tangent is long enough to allow acceleration up to
the maximum operating speed (V85Tmax) on tangents.

Case 3 for Tmin < T < Tmax

Where the length of the tangent falls between Tmin and Tmax, the V85 on the curve of
interest must be recalculated on the basis of the V85 of the preceding curve plus the
acceleration on the tangent from:

V8522 = V8512 + 7.2*a*T. Equation 5.8

Where:
A = acceleration (m/sec2) is 0.85 m/sec2 for acceleration and deceleration.

T = tangent length (m) with V85 expressed in km/h.

(T - Tmin)/2 = [(V85T)2 - (V851)2]/22

V85T = [11.0*(T - Tmin) + (V851)2]0.5 Equation 5.9

Although the tangent is not long enough to allow accelerations up to the highest
operating speed (V85Tmax), a speed higher than that of the following curve can be
achieved. In this case, for the evaluation of the Speed Criterion, equation 5.9 must be
used to calculate the realizable tangent speed (V85T).

5.2.2 Friction
In addition to consistency of geometry and speed, for safety there must also be
consistency in the driving dynamics of each curve. This is controlled by the friction
between tyre and road surface and its effect is quantified in Table 5-3.

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 5.2.3 Evaluation of Consistency
Three steps required:
Step 1. Calculate the CCR of all the curves from Equation 5.3.

Step 2. Obtain the V85 for the tangents and all the curves. It is unlikely that these will be
known from direct measurements hence Equations 5.4 and 5.5 must be used.

Step 3. From the average V85, compute the average design speed.

Step 4. Calculate Tmin and Tmax for the tangents between each pair of curves (Equations
5.6 and 5.7). Where the actual or proposed tangent length falls between these two values
it will be necessary to calculate the V85 achieved using equation 5.9.

Step 5. Calculate the difference between the side friction demanded by the design speed
and that required for the operating speed (Table 5-1).

The differences in CCR values for each row of Table 5-4 correspond to speed differences
Vdif of about 10km/h:

• Good design - Vdif ≤ 10km/h;

• Tolerable design – 10km/h < Vdif ≤ 20 km/h;

• Poor design - 20km/h < Vdif;

It is important to note that all criteria must be met for the design of an element to be
considered to be ‘good’ or ‘tolerable’. If any criteria are not met, it provides a pointer as
to the actions required to upgrade to a satisfactory state.

5.3 Isolated Curves

The horizontal curvature over a particular road section should be as consistent as
possible. Long tangent roadway segments joined by an isolated curve designed at or near
the minimum radius are unsafe. Long straight sections encourage drivers to drive at
speeds in excess of the design speed, hence sudden and unexpected sharp curves are
dangerous. Good design practice is to avoid the use of minimum standards in such
conditions. For isolated curves, the minimum horizontal curve radii shown in the Tables in
Section 5.1 should be increased by 50 %. This will usually result in the ability to negotiate
the curve at a speed approximately 10 km/h higher than the design speed.

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5.4 Length of Tangent Sections and Curves
Table 5-5 shows the minimum and maximum lengths of tangents and circular curves.

Table 5-5: Lengths of Tangents and Circular Curves

Design Speed Maximum Length Minimum Length
(km/h) of Tangent (km) of Curve (m)
110 1.7 – 2.2 3301
100 1.5 – 2.0 3001
90 1.35 – 1.8 3002
80 1.2 – 1.6 3002
70 1.0 – 1.4 3002
60 0.9 – 1.2 3002
50 0.75 – 1.0 3002

Notes A The minimum length of Tangent is equal to the super-elevation run off of the
preceding circular curve followed by the development of that for the following curve.
B The maximum length of Circular Curve is 800 – 1000 m.
1 This value or the length of the circular curve plus half the total length of the
transitions, whichever is the longest.
2 If space is restricted, this can be reduced by 30m for every degree less than 5 0 that
the curve deflects.
3 Reduce this if there is a significant amount of traffic at night

5.4.1 Maximum Length of Tangents

Design Speeds of 120 km/h or more

Long tangents of twenty kilometres or more have accident rates similar to those on
minimum length tangents. The lowest accident rate occurs in a range of 8 to 12
kilometres. This range is recommended for the maximum length of tangent on any route
where the design speed is 120 km/h or more. However, a long tangent can cause serious
problems of dazzle from approaching headlights which can be extremely dangerous and
therefore, if there are large volumes of night traffic, tangent lengths shorter than this
should be used. In extreme cases, it may even be necessary to consider including a
median in the cross-section and planting shrubs in it or providing some other means of
reducing glare and dazzle. Light from headlights strikes at a very flat angle, therefore a
conventional fence is effective in reducing glare.
An alternative is sometimes recommended for the maximum length of tangents using a
winding alignment with tangents deflecting 5 to 10 degrees alternately from right to left.
However, such ‘flowing’ curves restrict the view of drivers on the inside carriageway and
reduces safe overtaking opportunities, therefore such a winding alignment should only be
adopted where the straight sections are very long. In practice this only occurs in very flat
terrain. The main problem is to ensure that there are sufficient opportunities for safe
overtaking and therefore, as long as the straight sections are long enough, a semi-flowing
alignment can be adopted at the same time. If overtaking opportunities are infrequent,
maximising the length of the straight sections is the best option.

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Design Speeds less than 120 km/h
At lower design speeds, maximum lengths considerably shorter than 8 km should be
used. Drivers should be encouraged to maintain a speed which is close to the design
speed to reduce the possibility of an error of judgment leading to an accident. A
maximum tangent length, measured in metres, of 15-20 times the design speed in km/h,
achieves this effect. For example, a design speed of 100 km/h suggests that tangents
should, ideally, not be longer than 1.5 – 2.0 km.
If the achievable maximum length of tangent across the length of the route is regularly
greater than this guideline value, a higher design speed should be considered.

5.4.2 Minimum Length of Tangent

The minimum length of tangent must allow for the run-off of the super-elevation of the
preceding curve followed by the development of that for the following curve. This distance
should be calculated during detailed design but a tangent length of less than 200 m is
likely to prove inadequate.

5.4.3 Minimum Length of Circular Curves

For small changes of direction, it is often desirable to use a large radius of curvature. This
avoids the appearance of a kink and reduces the tendency for drivers to cut corners. In
addition, it reduces the length of the road segment and therefore the cost of the road
provided that no extra cut or fill is required.

5.4.3.1 Minor Roads (T3 and T4)

On minor roads a minimum length of 300 m is a suitable criterion. If space is limited, this
length may be reduced to 150 m but for deflection angles of less than 5°, the minimum
length of the curve should be increased from 150 m by 30 m for each one degree
decrease in the deflection angle.

5.4.3.2 Major Roads (T1 and T2)

On major roads and freeways, the minimum curve length in metres should be three times
the design speed in km/h. The increase in length for decreasing deflection angle also
applies to these roads. In the case of a circular curve without transitions, the length in
question is the total length of the arc and, where transitions are applied, the length is
that of the circular curve plus half the total length of the transitions.
For aesthetic reasons, on high-speed controlled access facilities, the desirable minimum
length for curves should be double the minimum length described above or six times the
design speed in km/h.

5.4.4 Maximum Length of Circular Curves

The main problem introduced by a long curve is its effect on passing opportunities. On a
left-hand curve, an overtaking manoeuvre would have to commence at a considerable
distance behind the leading vehicle if the driver is to be sure that there are no
approaching vehicles in the opposite lane that are close enough to threaten safe
overtaking. Furthermore, the distance required for overtaking is greater than that on a
right-hand curve. The length of a curve should not exceed 1,000 m, the preferred
maximum length being 800 m.

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5.5 Cross-fall
For both paved and unpaved roads there are constraints on the maximum cross-fall, as
summarised in the Chapter 3.

5.6 Minimum Turning Radii

Buses, trucks, trucks with trailers and 4x4 utility vehicles require minimum design turning
radii of 12.8 m, 13.7 m and 7.3 m respectively as shown in Table 4-1.
It is not possible to exclude any of these vehicle categories from the lower standard roads
and, as a certain amount of tolerance is required for safe operations, the absolute
minimum horizontal curve radius of 15 m is specified for all design standards.
For reasons of safety and ease of driving, curves near the minimum radius for the design
speed should not be used at the following locations;
i) On high fills, because the lack of surrounding features reduces a driver’s
perception of the alignment.
ii) At or near vertical curves (tops and bottoms of hills) because the unexpected
bend can be extremely dangerous, especially at night.
iii) At the end of long tangents or a series of gentle curves, because actual speeds
will exceed design speeds.
iv) At or near intersections and approaches to bridges or other water crossing
structures.

5.7 Passing Lanes

Passing lanes are normally provided in areas where construction costs are relatively low
and where there is an absence of passing opportunities. A passing lane length of about
one km is adequate for this purpose. Numerous short passing lanes are preferable to few
long passing lanes (Figure 5-2) and it is recommended that they be located at two, four
and eight kilometre spacing. Where traffic volumes are low, the longest spacing can be
used and, as traffic volumes increase, the intervening lanes can be added in a logical
manner with one-km passing lanes provided at two-km intervals. They potentially provide
safer passing opportunities for drivers who are uncomfortable in using the opposing traffic
lane and for those who become frustrated when few passing opportunities exist owing to
terrain or traffic density.

Figure 5-2: Passing Lane Arrangements

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 5.7.1 Three-lane Designs
The next level of upgrading is a continuous three-lane cross section, two lanes in one
direction (one for overtaking) and a single lane in the opposing direction (often called the
2 + 1 design) (Figure 5-3). The centre lane is alternately allocated to each of the
opposing directions of flow. The switch in the direction of flow in the centre lane should be
at about two-km intervals. A minimum shoulder width is required as discussed in Section
6.6.

Figure 5-3: Example of a Passing Lane

5.7.2 Entry and Exit Tapers

The entrance taper to a passing lane should be a minimum of 100 m in length. The length
of the exit taper should be longer to allow adequate time for merging vehicles to find a
gap in the through flow. A minimum of 200m is recommended. Since both the entry and
the exit tapers indicate a change in operating conditions it is recommended that decision
sight distance (Section 4.3.6) should be available at these points.
Without adequate signposting and road marking, erratic and last-second driving
manoeuvres occur. Such manoeuvres can be extremely hazardous, especially when
merging. It is very important that road markings and signs are adequate and abundantly
clear at all times. Passing lanes provide more numerous passing opportunities and are
potentially relatively safe when constructed, marked out, signed and maintained properly.

5.7.3 Use on Gradients

Passing lanes can be used instead of climbing lanes on hilly sections of road. Unlike
climbing lanes, passing lanes tend to operate at the speeds prevailing on the rest of the
road. Reductions in lane width are thus not recommended and passing lanes should have
the same width as the basic lanes. Figure 5-4 is an example of the layout for a passing
lane.
The advantage is that the slow traffic does not change lane at either the beginning or,
more importantly, at the end of the passing lane. Such merging and diverging
movements are obviously required by the much more manoeuvrable fast traffic but this is
often considered safer than the alternative of slow traffic having to merge with fast

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traffic. The disadvantage is that unless the fast traffic does so it will face traffic from the
opposite direction travelling towards it in the central lane. The key is good road layout
and road signing. Reference should be made to the Road and Traffic Signs Manual for the
recommended signage and road markings. Driver experience and expectations also play
an important role.
Neither a passing lane nor a climbing lane are ideal solutions and each case needs to be
examined on its merits.

Figure 5-4: Layout for Passing Lane

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5.8 Widening on Curves and Embankments
The use of long curves of low radii should be avoided where possible because drivers
following the design speed will find it difficult to remain in the traffic lane. Widening of the
carriageway where the horizontal curve is tight is usually necessary to ensure that the
rear wheels of the largest vehicles remain on the road when negotiating the curve and,
for two-lane roads, to ensure that the front overhang of the vehicle does not encroach on
the opposite lane. Widening is therefore also important for safety reasons. Curve
widening is required on all standards of roads and should be sufficient to cater for the
design vehicle. Table 5-6 shows the values to be used.

Table 5-6: Widening on Curves and High Fills

Curve Curve Fill Widening
Radius of
Widening: Widening:
Curve Height of fill Amount
Single Lane Two Lanes
(m) (m)(1) (m)
(m) (m)1
>250 none none 0.0-3.0 none
120- 250 none 0.6 3.0- 6.0 0.3
60-120 none 0.9 6.0 - 9.0 0.6
40-60 0.6 1.2 Over 9.0 0.9
20-40 0.6 1.5 Over 9.0 0.9
<20 See Section 5.9
Note 1 The height of fill is measured from the edge of the shoulder to the toe of the slope.

• Curve widening is generally not applied to curves with a radius greater than 250 m
regardless of the design speed or the lane width.
• Vehicles need to remain centred in their lane to reduce the likelihood of colliding
with an oncoming vehicle or driving on the shoulder.
• Sight distances should be maintained as discussed above.
• Widening on high embankments is recommended for design classes H1 through to
H3. The steep drops from high embankments unnerve some drivers and the
widening is primarily for psychological comfort although it also has a positive effect
on safety. Widening for curvature and for high embankments should be added
where both cases apply.
• Widening should transition gradually on the approaches to the curve so that the
full additional width is available at the start of the curve.
• Although a long transition is desirable to ensure that the whole of the travelled
way is fully usable, for the improvement of existing roads this results in narrow
pavement slivers that are difficult, and correspondingly expensive, to construct in
existing roads. In practice curve widening is thus applied over no more than the
length of the super-elevation runoff preceding the curve.
• For ease of construction, the widening is normally applied only on one side of the
road. This is usually on the inside of the curve to match the tendency for drivers to
cut the inside edge of the travelled way.

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 • Widening is provided to make driving on a curve comparable with that on a
tangent. On older roads with narrow cross-sections and low design speeds and
hence sharp curves, there was a considerable need for widening on curves.
Because of the inconvenience attached to widening the surfacing of a lane, it
follows that the required widening may not always have been provided. Where a
road has to be rehabilitated and it is not possible to increase the radius of
curvature, the designer should consider the need for curve widening.

5.9 Hairpin Curves

Hairpin curves are used where necessary in traversing mountainous and escarpment
terrain. Employing a radius of 20 m or less, with a minimum of 15 m, they are generally
outside the standards for all road designs and are specified using the guidelines listed in
Chapter 14, Departure from Standards.
Hairpin curves require careful design to ensure that all design vehicles can travel through
the curve. They must therefore provide for the tracking widths of the design vehicles, as
indicated in Figure 5-5 and Figure 5-6. These figures show that the minimum outer radii
for design vehicles DV3 and DV4 are 14.1 m, and 12.5 m, respectively.
Hairpin requirements can be determined which allow for:
• Passage of two opposing DV4 vehicles. This is recommended for Design
Standards H1, H2 and H3
• Passage of a single DV4 and a DV1. This is recommended for Design Standards
H3.

Figure 5-5 illustrates a hairpin curve. The abbreviations are defined at the beginning of
the manual.

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 Figure 5-5: Hairpin Curve

As an example, consider a road standard which allows for only the passage of a single
DV4 vehicle. By superimposing Figure 4-2 for design vehicle DV4 over Figure 5-5 at the
same scale, the additional requirements can be identified. The normal carriageway width
will usually need to be increased at the hairpin curve. Requirements vary depending on
passage requirements, radius, deflection angle, and design standard, and a template
should be used based on the turning radii of the design vehicle to ensure that the vehicles
can negotiate each hairpin.

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 Figure 5-6: Hairpin Curve for the Passage of Single DV4 Vehicle

It is also important to provide relief from a severe gradient through the hairpin. Gradient
parameters associated with a hairpin curve are discussed in Section 6.5.

5.10 Transition Curves

The characteristic of a transition curve is that it has a constantly changing radius.
Transition curves are inserted between tangents and circular curves to reduce the abrupt
introduction of lateral acceleration and therefore to enhance safety. They may also be
used between two circular curves.
For the various design speeds, a radius corresponding to a specified centripetal
acceleration can be calculated. Thus, a changing radius at a specific speed corresponds to
a specific rate of change of centripetal acceleration. For comfort the range varies between
0.4 and 1.3 m/s2. If the radius of the circular curve is less than the values shown in Table
5-7 then transition curves are required to achieve this degree of comfort. For curves of
large radius, the rate of change of lateral acceleration is small and transition curves are
not normally required. Transition curves are also unnecessary for roads of low design
speeds or low classification.

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 Table 5-7: Transition Curve Requirements (m)
Transition required if Radius
Design Speed (km/hr)
of Curve is less than:
70 290
80 380
85 428
90 480
100 590
110 720
120 850
Source: AASHTO. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, (2011).

If a transition curve is required, the Euler spiral, which is also known as the clothoid,
should be used. The radius varies from infinity at the tangent end of the spiral to the
radius of the circular arc at the circular curve end. By definition, the radius at any point of
the spiral varies inversely with the distance measured along the spiral. The equation is:

R = A/L

where R is the curve radius, L is the distance from the start of the spiral and A is a
constant, called the spiral parameter, and has units of length.

5.11 Super-elevation
On all roads except those with the lowest design speed (i.e the lowest classes) a vehicle
negotiating a horizontal curve at the design speed requires more than just the friction
between wheels and road surface to prevent sliding. The additional force is provided from
the component of the vehicle’s weight that acts towards the centre of the curve when the
vehicle is tilted by means of super-elevation. The required force depends on the speed of
the vehicle and the radius of the horizontal curve hence the degree of tilting, or super-
elevation, also depends on these same parameters.

5.11.1 Alignment with Spirals

The road alignment consists of the following distinct elements shown in Figure 5-7 and
Figure 5-8. All need to be located on the roadway.
1) The end of the preceding tangent (which is the beginning of the super-elevated
section) is where gradual removal of the camber on the outside lane (or lanes)
begins. [If this is not removed it would become adverse camber on the curve
and would have the opposite effect to the one required].
2) Unless the circular curve has a large radius or the design speed is low, a spiral
transition curve will be required between the tangent (which is straight) and the
circular curve itself. The next point of interest is the Tangent to Spiral transition
point (TS) where the camber has been reduced to zero on the outside half of the
carriageway. The length of the tangent up to this point is called the Tangent
Runout.

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3) The next section of the road is called the Super-elevation Runoff. It is the length
of road needed to accomplish the change in cross slope from the first section in
which the adverse crown was removed to the fully super-elevated section and is
effected over the whole length of the spiral transition curve. Its end point is the
beginning of the circular curve itself which is denoted by SC (the Spiral to Curve
transition point) or, alternatively called PC (the Point of Curvature i.e the point
where the circular curve begins).
4) The length of runoff, as can be seen on Figure 5-7 and Figure 5-8, is the spiral
length with the tangent to spiral point (TS) at the beginning and the spiral to
curve point (SC) at the end.

Figure 5-7 Elements of Super-elevation

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 Figure 5-8: Attainment of Super-elevation using the Transition Curve

5) The length of the transition curve is proportional to the total super-elevation and
should not be less than the values shown in Table 5-8. A simple practical rule is
that it must not be less than the distance travelled in 2 seconds at the design
speed.

Table 5-8: Minimum length of super-elevation run-off for two-lane roads

Design Speed (km/h) Runoff (m)
40 30
60 35
80 40
100 50
120 70
Source: SATCC: Code of Practice for the Geometric Design of Trunk Roads

6) At any design speed the degree of super-elevation that is necessary for curves
of radii greater than the minimum is less than that required for the minimum
radius. Thus higher values than strictly necessary can be used ranging up to the
maximum value (i.e. that value required for the minimum radius). In this
situation there are five different models for relating the super elevation to the

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 radius of the circular curve (AASHTO, 2002). The recommended method gives
the super-elevation values shown in Table 5-9 to Table 5-12. The values also
depend on the maximum super-elevation on the road in question. This produces
a uniform range of circular curves and super-elevation and therefore no curves
of unexpected characteristics that might surprise drivers. [For convenience the
minimum length of the super-elevation runoff (excluding the tangent runout) is
included in Table 5-9 to Table 5-12 for the respective design speed, radius of
curve, and maximum super-elevation].
7) The length of tangent runout is determined by the amount of adverse cross
slope and the rate at which it is removed. This rate of removal should preferably
be the same as the rate used to effect the super-elevation runoff. Between the
TS and SC (the super-elevation runoff) the travelled way is rotated to reach the
full super-elevation at the SC.
8) Not all circular curves require a spiral transition (Table 5-5). Current design
practice is to place approximately two-thirds of the runoff on the tangent
approach and one-third on the curve.
9) A tighter curve can be designed if higher values of super-elevation are used, but
high values of super-elevation are not recommended especially if the friction is
low, such as in locations where mud is likely to contaminate the road surface
regularly. High values are also not recommended where mixed traffic and/or
roadside development severely limit the speed of vehicles. In urban areas an
upper limit of 4 % should be used except on a high speed urban road where 6 %
is acceptable. Either a low maximum rate of super-elevation or no super-
elevation at all should be used within important intersection areas or where
there is a tendency to drive slowly because of turning and crossing movements,
warning devices, and signals. Super-elevation is, however, a requirement for all
standards of roads and, whatever value is selected as the maximum, it should
be applied consistently on a regional basis.

5.12 Reverse Curves, Broken-back Curves, and Compound Curves

Curves are more frequent in hilly terrain and tangent sections are shortened. A stage may
be reached where successive curves can no longer be dealt with in isolation. Three cases
of successive curves are shown in Figure 5-9.

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 Figure 5-9: Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves

5.12.1 Reverse Curve.

A curve followed by another curve in the opposite direction. The occurrence of abrupt
reverse curves (i.e. a short tangent between two curves in opposite directions) should be
avoided. Such geometrics make it difficult for the driver to remain within the lane. It is
also difficult to super-elevate both curves adequately, and this may result in erratic
operation as in Figure 5-10.

5.12.2 Broken-back Curve

A curve followed by another curve in the same direction but with only a short tangent in
between. Broken-back curves should also be avoided except where very unusual
topographical or right-of way conditions dictate otherwise. Drivers do not generally
anticipate successive curves in the same direction hence safety is compromised. Problems
with super-elevation and drainage can also arise. A single curve is preferred if it is
physically and economically feasible. The super-elevation is illustrated in Figure 5-11.

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 Figure 5-10: Super-elevation of Reverse Curves

5.12.3 Compound Curve

Curves in the same direction but of different radii, and without any intervening tangent
section. The use of compound curves provides flexibility in fitting the road to the terrain
and other controls. Caution should, however, be exercised in the use of compound curves
because the driver does not expect to be confronted by a change in radius once a curve
has been entered, hence safety is compromised. Their use should be avoided especially
where the curves need to be of short radius.
• If two successive circular curves in the same direction cannot be avoided, the
connecting tangent should be at least 150 m long. The tangent should have a
single crossfall rather than reverting to a normal camber for a short distance.
• Compound curves with large differences in curvature introduce the same
problems as are found at the transition from a tangent to a small-radius curve.
Where the use of compound curves cannot be avoided, the radius of the flatter
circular arc should not be more than 50 % greater than the radius of the sharper
arc; i.e. R1 should not exceed 1.5.R2. A compound arc on this basis is suitable as
a form of transition from either a flat curve or a tangent to a sharper curve,
although a spiral transition curve is preferred.

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 Figure 5-11: Super-elevation of Broken-back Curves

5.13 Shoulder Super-elevation

Figure 5-12 depicts shoulder super-elevation rates corresponding to carriageway super-
elevation rates. The Figure shows that on the low side (inner shoulder) of super-elevated
curves, the super-elevation of the shoulder matches the super-elevation of the roadway.
On the high side (outer shoulder), the super-elevation is set such that the grade break
between the roadway and the shoulder is 8 %. An exception to this occurs at a maximum
super-elevation of 8 %, where the resultant shoulder super-elevation would be an
undesirable flat configuration. Here the super-elevation is set at 1%.

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 Figure 5-12: Shoulder Super-elevation (for Surfaced Roads)

For design classes H3 and lower the shoulder may be sloped with the carriageway, but
the shoulder should then be surfaced on the outside of the curve.

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 Table 5-9: Super-elevation Rates for emax = 4.0%
Radius Design Speed (km/h)
(m) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
7000 n n n n n n n
5000 n n n n n n n
4000 n n n n n n n
3000 n n n n n n rc
2000 n n n n rc rc rc
1500 n n n rc rc rc 2.2
1400 n n n rc rc rc 2.3
1300 n n n rc rc rc 2.45
Design speeds
1200 n n n rc rc 2.1 2.6 above 100
1000 n n rc rc rc 2.5 3 km/h
are not suitable
900 n n rc rc 2.1 2.7 3.2
800 n n rc rc 2.3 2.95 3.4
700 n rc rc rc 2.6 3.2 3.6
600 n rc rc 2.3 2.9 3.45 3.8
500 n rc 2.1 2.7 3.25 3.7
400 rc rc 2.6 3.1 3.6
300 rc 2.3 3.1 3.6
250 rc 2.6 3.4 3.8
200 2.1 3 3.7
180 2.3 3.2 3.8
160 2.5 3.4
140 2.8 3.6
120 3.1 3.8
100 3.4 4.0
80 3.7
60 4.0

Notes
1 n = normal crown
2 rc = remove adverse camber

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 Table 5-10: Super-elevation Rates for emax = 6.0%
Radius Design Speed (km/h)
(m) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
7000 n n n n n n n n rc
5000 n n n n n n n rc rc
4000 n n n n n n rc rc rc
3000 n n n n n rc rc 2.0 24
2000 n n n rc rc 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4
1500 n n rc rc 2.3 2.8 3.2 3.7 4.2
1400 n n rc rc 2.5 3.0 3.4 3.9 4.4
1300 n n rc 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.6 4.1 4.6
1200 n n rc 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.3 4.8
1000 n rc 2.1 2.7 3.2 3.7 4.2 4.8 5.3
900 n rc 2.3 2.9 3.4 3.9 4.4 5.1 5.6
800 n rc 2.5 3.1 3.6 4.2 4.7 5.4 5.9
700 n 2.1 2.7 3.4 3.9 4.5 5.0 5.7
600 n 2.4 3.0 3.7 4.2 4.8 5.4
500 rc 2.7 3.4 4.1 4.6 5.2 5.9
400 2.3 3.1 3.8 4.5 5.1 5.7
300 2.8 3.7 4.4 5.1 5.7
250 3.1 4.0 4.8 5.5
200 3.6 4.5 5.2 5.9
180 3.8 4.7 5.4
160 4.0 4.9 5.6
140 4.3 5.2 5.9
120 4.6 5.5
100 4.9 5.8
80 5.4
60 5.9

Notes
1 n = normal crown
2 rc = remove adverse camber

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 Table 5-11: Super-elevation Rates for emax = 8.0%
Radius Design Speed (km/h)
(m) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
7000 n n n n n n n rc rc
5000 n n n n n n rc rc rc
4000 n n n n n n rc rc 2.2
3000 n n n n n rc rc 2.3 2.9
2000 n n n rc rc 2.4 2.9 3.5 4.1
1500 n n rc rc 2.6 3.2 3.7 4.3 5.1
1400 n n rc 2.1 2.8 3.4 3.9 4.6 5.3
1300 n n rc 2.3 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.8 5.6
1200 n n rc 2.5 3.2 3.8 4.4 5.1 5.9
1000 n rc 2.1 2.9 3.6 4.3 4.9 5.8 6.6
900 n rc 2.4 3.2 3.9 4.6 5.2 6.2 6.9
800 n 2.0 2.7 3.5 4.2 4.9 5.6 6.6 7.3
700 n 2.3 3.0 3.8 4.6 5.3 6.1 7.1 7.8
600 rc 2.6 3.4 4.2 5.0 5.8 6.7 7.6
500 2.1 3.0 3.9 4.8 5.6 6.4 7.3
400 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.4 6.3 7.1
300 3.1 4.2 5.3 6.3 7.2
250 3.5 4.7 5.9 6.9 7.8
200 4.0 5.4 6.5 7.5
180 4.4 5.7 6.8 7.8
160 4.7 6.0 7.2
140 5.1 6.4 7.6
120 5.6 6.9 8.0
100 6.1 7.4
80 6.7 8.0
60 8.0

Notes
1 n = normal crown
2 rc = remove adverse camber

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 Table 5-12: Super-elevation Rates for emax = 10.0%
Radius Design Speed (km/h)
(m) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
7000 n n n n n n n n n
5000 n n n n n n n n rc
4000 n n n n n n rc rc rc
3000 n n n n n rc 2.0 2.2 2.5
2000 n n n n rc 2.2 2.7 3.1 3.6
1500 n n n rc 2.4 2.9 3.5 4.1 4.8
1400 n n rc 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.8 4.3 5.1
1300 n n rc 2.3 2.8 3.3 4.0 4.6 5.5
1200 n n rc 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.3 5.0 5.9
1000 n rc 2.2 2.9 3.5 4.2 5.1 5.9 7.0
900 n rc 2.5 3.2 3.9 4.6 5.6 6.5 7.7
800 n rc 2.7 3.5 4.3 5.1 6.2 7.2 8.5
700 rc 2.3 3.1 4.0 4.8 5.8 6.9 8.0 9.3
600 rc 2.7 3.6 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.8 8.9
500 2.3 3.1 4.2 5.3 6.4 7.6 8.8
400 2.8 3.8 5.0 6.3 7.5 8.7 9.7
300 3.6 4.8 6.3 7.8 8.9 9.8
250 4.2 5.6 7.1 8.7 9.5
200 5.0 6.6 8.2 9.5
180 5.5 7.1 8.7 9.8
160 6.0 7.6 9.2
140 6.4 8.1 9.6
120 7.0 8.7
100 7.7 9.3
80 8.6
60 9.6
50 10.0

Notes
1 n = normal crown
2 rc = remove adverse camber

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6 Design of Vertical Alignment

6.1 Introduction
On rural and high-speed roads a smooth grade line is required rather than a series of
successive short lengths of grades and curvature. Vertical alignment is the
combination of parabolic vertical curves and tangent sections of a particular slope
designed to achieve this objective. Thus, the design of vertical alignment is concerned
with crest and sag curves. A crest curve is a convex vertical curve. A sag curve is a
concave vertical curve. These are as shown in Figure 6-1 and Figure 6-2, respectively.

Figure 6-1: Crest Curve

Figure 6-2: Sag Curve

This chapter describes the mathematical concepts for defining the vertical curvature of
the road; defines the limiting characteristics for each road class; recommends
maximum and minimum gradients; indicates gradient requirements through villages;
and develops the criteria for incorporation of a climbing lane or a passing lane.

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6.2 Vertical Curve Formula
Vertical curves are required to provide smooth transitions between consecutive
gradients. The parabola is specified for these because the parabola provides a
constant rate of change of curvature and, hence, acceleration and visibility, along its
length. Equations relating the various aspects of the vertical curve (both crest and
sag) are as follows:

Y(x) = r.X2/200 + X.g1/100 + YBVC Equation 6.1

r = (g2 – g1)/L = G/L = 1/K

Where
BVC = Beginning of the vertical curve.
EVC = End of the vertical curve.
Y(X) = Elevation of a point on the curve (m)
X = Horizontal distance from the (BVC) (m)
g1 = Starting gradient (%),
g2 = Ending gradient (%),
r = Rate of change of grade per section (%/ m),
L = Length of curve (horizontal distance) in m,
G = g2 – g1 (%),

Useful relationships are;

Equation of tangent g1 is Y(X) = Y(0) + g1.X/100 Equation 6.2

Equation of tangent g2 is Y(X) = Y(L) + g2.(X-L)/100

The y coordinate of the EVC is Y(L) = (g1+g2)L/200 + Y(0)

The Vertical Point of Intersection (VPI) always occurs at an x coordinate of 0.5L hence,
from equation 6.1, the elevation is always;

Y(VPI) = Y(L/2) = Y(0) + g1.X/100 = Y(0) + g1.L/200

Example:
For the crest curve shown in Figure 6.1 the two tangent grade lines are +6% and -
3%. The Beginning of the Vertical Curve is at chainage 0.000 and its elevation
100.0m. The length of the vertical curve is 400m. Compute the End of the Vertical
Curve and the coordinates of the Intersection Point.

The y coordinate of the EVC is Y(L) = (g1+g2)L/200 + Y(0)

= (6 - 3).400/200 + 100.0 = 106.0
The x coordinate of the EVC is X(L) = 400.0
The coordinates of the VPI are X(IP) = L/2 = 200.0 and
Y(VPI) = Y(0) + 6.400/200
= Y(0) + 12 = 112m

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6.3 Crest curves
Two conditions exist when considering the minimum sight distance criteria on vertical
curves. The first is where the sight distance (S) is less than the length of the vertical
curve (L), and the second is where sight distance extends beyond the vertical curve.
Consideration of the properties of the parabola results in the following relationships for
minimum curve length to achieve the required sight distances:
For S < L (the most common situation in practice):

Lm = (G.S2)/[200(h10.5 + h20.5)2] and therefore

Lm = K.G
where
Lm = minimum length of vertical crest curve (m)
S = required sight distance (m)
h1 = driver eye height (m)
h2 = object height (m)
K = is a constant for given values of h 1 and h2 and stopping sight distance
(S) and therefore speed and surface friction.
For S > L

Lm = 2S - [200.(h10.5 + h20.5)2]/G

Eye height (h1) has been taken as 1.05 m, and object heights h 2 of 0.2 m and 0.6 m
above the road surface. Minimum values of K for crest curves are shown in Table 6-1
and Table 6-2.

Table 6-1: Minimum Values of K for Crest Vertical Curves (Paved Roads)
K for Stopping K for Minimum
Design Speed Sight Distance (g = 0%) Passing Sight
(km/h)
h2 = 0m h2 = 0.2m h2 = 0.6m Distance

25 3 1 1 30
30 5 2 1 50
40 10 5 3 90
50 20 10 7 130
60 35 17 12 180
70 60 30 20 245
80 95 45 30 315
85 115 55 37 350
90 140 67 45 390
100 205 100 67 480
110 285 140 95 580
120 385 185 125 680

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 Table 6-2: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves (Unpaved Roads)
K for Stopping K for Minimum
Design Speed Sight Distance Passing Sight
(km/h)
h2 = 0m h2 = 0.2m h2 = 0.6m Distance

25 3 1 1 30
30 5 2 2 50
40 11 6 4 90
50 25 11 8 135
60 45 20 15 185
70 75 35 25 245
80 120 58 40 315
85 150 72 50 350
90 185 90 60 390
100 270 130 88 480

Similar calculations can be carried out based on passing sight distance (Section 4.3.7)
rather than stopping sight distance. High values of K are obtained (Table 6-1 and
Table 6-2) and therefore, to achieve the passing sight distance, the volume of
earthworks required may also be large. Although as much passing sight distance as
possible should be provided along the length of the road, it may be impossible to
achieve passing sight distance over the crest curve itself. Encouraging drivers to
overtake when sight distances have not been fully achieved is dangerous hence
shortening the crest curve in order to increase the lengths of the grades on either side
is a better option.

6.3.1 Minimum Length of Vertical Curve

If the difference between successive grades is small, the intervening minimum vertical
curve becomes very short. This can create the impression of a kink in the grade line.
The minimum lengths in Table 6-3 should be applied.

Table 6-3: Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves

Design Speed (km/h) Length of Curve (m)
40 80
60 100
80 140
100 180
120 220
130 240

Where a crest curve and a succeeding sag curve have a common end and beginning of
curve, the visual effect created is that the road has suddenly dropped away. In the
reverse case, the illusion of a hump is created. Either effect is removed by inserting a
short length of straight grade between the two curves. Typically, 60 m to 100 m is
adequate for this purpose.

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6.4 Sag Curves
During daylight hours or on well-lit streets sag curves do not present any problems
concerning sight distances. For such situations it is recommended that sag curves are
designed using a driver comfort criterion of vertical acceleration. A maximum
acceleration of 0.3 m/s2 is often used. This translates into

K > V2/395

Where V is the speed in km/h.

Where the only source of illumination is the headlamps of the vehicle, the illuminated
area depends on the height of the headlights above the road and the divergence angle
of the headlight beam relative to the grade line of the road at the position of the
vehicle on the curve. Using a headlight height of 0.6m and a beam divergence of 1 o,
the values of K are approximately twice the values obtained from the driver comfort
criterion which should be used for design. The resulting K values for both situations
are shown in Table 6-4.

Table 6-4: Minimum Values of K for Sag Curves

K for driver K for headlight
Design Speed (km/h)
comfort distance
20 1.0 2
25 1.5 3
30 2.5 5
40 4 9
50 6.5 14
60 9 19
70 12 25
80 16 32
85 18 36
90 20 40
100 25 50
110 30 60
120 36 70

6.5 Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall on any length or road, with respect to the horizontal.
The slope of the grade between two adjacent Vertical Points of Intersection (VPI), is
usually expressed in percentage form as the vertical rise or fall in m/100m. In the
direction of increasing chainage, up-grades are taken as positive and down-grades as
negative.

6.5.1 Maximum Gradients

For very low levels of traffic of only a few four-wheel drive vehicles, various references
advocate a maximum gradient in the range 15-18 %. Small commercial vehicles can
usually negotiate an 18 % gradient, whilst two-wheel drive trucks can successfully
manage gradients of 15-16 % except when heavily laden.

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The frequency of accidents increases when the speed differential between trucks and
cars increases. If truck speeds decrease by more than about 15 km/h, accidents
increase rapidly hence the ‘critical length of grade’ is the length over which a speed
reduction of 15 km/h occurs. It is important to note that truck speeds in flat terrain
are already lower, on average, than car speeds by, typically, 17 km/h, so another 15
km/h reduction means that the speed differential on uphill grades is of order 32 km/h.
The initial speed of the truck on the grade, which depends on characteristics of the
truck and the gradient of the approach (a downhill approach will allow vehicles to gain
momentum) affect the critical length over which a 15 km/h decrease in speed occurs.
Also some authorities use a different speed reduction (e.g. 20 km/h) to define critical
lengths of grade, hence Table 6-5, which indicates the critical lengths for a vehicle
with a mass/power ratio of 185 kg/kW and one of mass/power ratio of 275 kg/kW,
should be considered as a guide only.

Table 6-5: Lengths of grade for a 15 km/h speed reduction

Critical length of grade (m)
Gradient (%)
185 kg/kW 275 kg/kW
2 550 850
3 380 620
4 300 450
5 240 345
6 180 270
7 140 210
8 100 160
Source: SANRAL and SATCC Geometric Design Guidelines.

If gradients on which the truck speed reduction is less than 15 km/h cannot be
achieved economically it may be necessary to provide auxiliary (climbing) lanes for the
slower-moving vehicles or passing lanes for the fast-moving vehicles (Sections 5.6 and
6.6). A solution often suggested whereby relief gradients of low gradient are provided
between steeper sections has proved ineffective because truck drivers prefer to
maintain a crawl speed rather than to change gear up and down frequently.
The effect of gradient on traffic flow is not limited to upgrades. Truck drivers
frequently adapt their speeds on downgrades to be of similar values to their speeds on
upgrades for better control and safety.
The maximum ‘absolute’ gradient and maximum ‘desirable’ gradient shown in Table
6-6 are therefore important criteria that greatly affect both the serviceability and cost
of the road. A whole life costing exercise can be an effective method of calculating the
trade-off between construction and maintenance costs and road user costs.

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 Table 6-6: Suggested Maximum Gradients for Paved Sections
Maximum Gradient (%), for Paved Sections
Terrain H1 and H2 H3
Desirable Absolute Desirable Absolute
Flat 3 5 4 6
Rolling 5 (1)
7 6 8
Mountainous 7 (1)
9 8 10
Escarpment 7 (1)
9 8 10
Urban 6 (1)
9 8 10
Notes: 1 On freeways a maximum gradient should not exceed 4%

Standards for desirable maximum gradients were set to assure user comfort and to
avoid severe reductions in vehicle speeds. If the occasional terrain anomaly is
encountered that requires excessive earthworks to reduce the vertical alignment to
the desirable standard, or when these earthworks prove to be incompatible with the
surrounding environment in urban areas, an absolute maximum gradient can be used.
Employment of a gradient in excess of the desirable maximum can only be authorized
through a formal Departure from Standard as described in Chapter 14.

6.5.2 Gradient and Super-elevation

The line of greatest slope on a pavement is the result of the combination of gradient
with the super-elevation. This should not exceed 10%. If this value is calculated to be
higher, the value of the gradient should be decreased, not the value of the super-
elevation. Alternatively, the horizontal alignment should be modified.

6.5.3 Maximum Gradients at Hairpin Curves

Where hairpin curves are unavoidable in mountainous or escarpment terrain there is a
need to reduce the maximum allowable gradient at any point through the curve. The
maximum allowable gradient through a hairpin curve itself is 4 % for road standards
H1 and H2.
Corresponding crest and sag curves approaching the hairpin curve must meet the
requirements shown in the Tables of Standards in Chapter 7 and the transitions must
be completed outside of the hairpin curve.

6.5.4 Minimum Gradients

To maintain water flow and drainage the minimum gradient for the normal situation
should be 0.5%. However, flat and level gradients on un-kerbed paved highways and
in tangents and non-superelevated curves are acceptable when the cross slope and
carriageway elevation above the surrounding ground is adequate to drain the surface
laterally. With kerbed highways or streets, longitudinal gradients should be provided
to facilitate surface drainage and adequate drains installed for lateral drainage.

6.5.5 Gradients through Villages

In many instances the natural grade level is flat through villages. The adjacent
footpaths in such circumstances can easily become clogged and ineffective.
Sometimes they are deliberately blocked to provide easier access to adjacent property
or to channel flow for agricultural use. These practices lead to saturation of the
subgrade and hence pavement failure and should be avoided. Covered drains to
provide a footpath may be required in some areas.

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6.6 Climbing Lanes
A climbing lane, also called a truck lane or crawler lane (but not a passing lane), is an
auxiliary lane added outside the continuous lanes on a gradient. It reduces congestion
by removing slower-moving vehicles from the traffic stream. If the traffic reduction is
sufficient, the Level of Service (LOS) (Section 3.2) on the grade will match that on the
preceding and succeeding grades. Road safety is also improved by the reduction of
speed differentials in the through lane. The requirements for climbing lanes are
therefore based on road standard, traffic volume and safety.
A passing lane is also an auxiliary lane that can be provided for the fast traffic on a
gradient, but it is also used on level sections of the route to increase passing
opportunities. Thus, it is used to raise the overall LOS and capacity of the route.
Passing lanes are described in more detail in Section 5.6.

6.6.1 Criteria for Climbing Lanes

The use of climbing lanes is essentially limited to primary and some secondary roads.
Table 6-5 and Table 6-7 indicate typical conditions for which a climbing lane is
warranted.

Table 6-7: Traffic Volume and Gradient Criteria Justifying a Climbing Lane
Traffic volume in design hour
Gradient (%)
5 % trucks 10 % trucks
4 630 485
6 470 315
8 380 245
10 325 200
Source: SANRAL. Geometric Design Guidelines.

Any grade which exceeds the critical lengths given in Table 6-5 will normally cause
truck speeds to be reduced by more than 15 km/h. For an existing road a truck speed
profile could be prepared for each direction of flow. It will then be possible to identify
those sections of the road where speed reductions of 15 km/h or more may warrant
the provision of climbing lanes.
An alternative to these general criteria for justifying a climbing lane is to consider
some form of economic analysis. For example, software has been developed that
relates the cost of construction of the climbing lane to the value of time saved by its
provision. The analysis is based on calculation of delay that would ensue over the
design life of the road if the climbing lane was not provided.

6.6.2 Geometric Properties of Climbing Lanes

The entrance taper to the climbing lane should be 100 m long. The full width of the
climbing lane should be maintained until the point is reached where truck speed has
once again increased to be 15 km/h less than the normal speed on a level grade. The
exit terminal should also be a simple taper dropping the climbing lane once it has
served its purpose but to allow sufficient length for the slow vehicle to find a gap to
merge. A minimum length of 200 m is recommended for this. A vehicle that cannot
complete the merging manoeuvre at the end of the climbing lane has the shoulder as
an emergency escape route to stop.
Climbing lanes usually have the same width as the adjacent basic lane. However, in
very severe terrain, a reduction in width to 3.1 m can be considered because of the

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low speeds and lane occupancy of vehicles in the climbing lane. In addition, the
shoulder width may also be reduced, but to not less than 1.5 m. If the shoulders
elsewhere on the road are 3 m wide, the additional construction width required to
accommodate the climbing lane and reduced shoulder is thus only 1.6 m.
In mountainous terrain, where trucks are reduced to crawl speeds over extended
distances and relatively few opportunities for overtaking exist, the cost of construction
of climbing lanes may be prohibitive. An alternative solution is to construct short
lengths of climbing lane (termed passing bays or partial climbing lanes) instead of a
continuous lane over the length of the grade. They are typically 100 to 200 m long.
Because vehicles entering the turnout do so at crawl speeds, the tapers can be short
(20 to 30m long).

6.6.3 Safety Aspects of Climbing Lanes

For safety reasons trucks on long downgrades should not travel at much higher speeds
than they could maintain if travelling in the opposite direction. If an upgrade warrants
a climbing lane and is greater than 1000 m long, the opposite side of the road may be
a candidate for a descending lane, especially if traffic levels are high and the LoS is
reduced by the slow speed of the trucks.
Safety considerations are important on all long downhill grades. A heavy truck that is
not braking will accelerate from 0 km/h to 90 km/h over a distance of about 500 m at
a descending grade of 5 %. This emphasises the need to provide warning signs for
such vehicles at all long continuous grades. The use of brake check areas, ‘escape
lanes’ and other safety issues are is discussed in Chapter 12.
The position of the lane-drop must allow the slower vehicles to gain enough speed to
merge with the faster vehicles. Lane-drops should not be situated on curves. Figure
6-3 illustrates the recommended layout for climbing lanes.
From a safety point of view, it is important that drivers are made aware of the start
and, more particularly, the end of an auxiliary lane. The basic information required in
the latter case are:
• Indication of the presence of a lane drop;
• Indication of the location of the lane drop; and
• Indication of the appropriate action to be undertaken.
Climbing lanes must be clearly marked and, where possible, should end on level or
downhill sections. This is where speed differences between different classes of vehicles
are lowest thereby allowing safer and more efficient merging manoeuvres. The
introduction and termination of a climbing lane require 100 m long tapers. The tapers
should not be considered as part of the climbing lanes itself.

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Figure 6-3: Layout of Climbing Lanes

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7 Design Standards for Road Alignments
The main characteristics that determine many of the design specifications are in Table
7-1. There are over 70 standards based on traffic, main functionality and topography.
In addition to these basic standards, additional variations are introduced for:
• High proportions of heavy vehicles on roads of Traffic Classes T3 and T4,
• Numbers of non-motorised traffic,
• Numbers of pedestrians,

Table 7-1 Applicable Design standards

Principal Code Traffic class Lanes

Classificatio H1-T1-R AADT 2-lane
Primary
nsRoads T1> 10,000
H1-T1-M 4-Lane*
H2-T1-R
T1> 10,000 2-lane
H2-T1-M
H2-T2-R
T2
Secondary H2-T2-M
(3,000- 10,000)
Roads H2-T2-U
2-lane
H2-T3-R
T3
H2-T3-M
(1,000 – 3,000)
H2-T3-U
H3-T3-R
H3-T3-U T3
H3-T3 Unpaved (1,000 – 3,000)
H3-T3 Unpaved
Tertiary Roads 2-lane
H3-T4-R
H3-T4-U T4
H3-T4 Unpaved (300-1,000)
H3-T4 Unpaved
H4-T4-R
T4
Vicinal Roads H4-T4-U 2-lane
(300 – 1,000)
H4-T4 Unpaved

*Justification is required for 4- lane standard which may include capacity benefits, safety
considerations, desirable level of service, value of time and effect of tidal flow and the counterfactual
arguments

Standards for both the horizontal and vertical alignments for the various design
classes are shown in Table 7-2 to Table 7-20.
The relevant parameters for calculating the standards in these Tables are described in
Chapters 3, 4, 5 and 6. Use of different parameters, and therefore different standards
requires ANE’s approval.
The design speed on escarpments may be constrained by the severity of the terrain
and the curve radius (plus curve widening) that can be achieved on the hairpin bends.
The Minimum Passing Sight distance allows the passing manoeuvre to be aborted.

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 For isolated curves, the minimum horizontal curve radius shown in the Tables should
be increased by 50 %.

Table 7-2: Design Parameters for H1-T1-R

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment
Design Speed km/h 120 100 80 50
g = 0% m 285 205 140 64
Minimum. Stopping
g = 5% m 330 235 155 68
Sight Distance
g = 10% m 400 280 180 75
Min. Passing Sight Distance m 395 310 240 155
% Passing Opportunity % 50 33 25 25
SE = 4% m 810 520 300 95
Minimum
Horizontal Curve SE = 6% m 720 455 265 85
Radius(2)
SE = 8% m 660 415 240 80
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes Yes
Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 4 6 7
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 6 8 9
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8 8
Min Crest Vertical Curve - K m/% 185 100 45 10
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 36 25 16 7
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 70 50 32 14
Headlights criterion

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 Table 7-3: Design Parameters for (H2-T1-R)
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarp’t
Design Speed km/h 110 90 70 50
g = 0% m 245 170 110 64
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 285 195 120 68
Distance (2)
g = 10% m 340 230 140 75

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 350 275 210 155

% Passing Opportunity % 50 33 50 25

Minimum SE = 4% m 660 400 220 95

Horizontal SE = 6% m 580 350 190 85
Curve Radius(3)
SE = 8% m 530 320 175 80
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes No Yes

Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 5 3 7

Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 7 5 9

Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8 8

Min. Crest Vertical Curve K m/% 140 67 30 10

Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 30 20 12 7
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 60 40 25 14
Headlights criterion

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 Table 7-4: Design Parameters for (H2-T2-R)
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarp’t
Design Speed km/h 110 85 65 50
g = 0% m 245 155 97 64
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 285 175 107 68
Distance (2)
g = 10% m 340 205 122 75

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 350 257 195 155

% Passing Opportunity % 50 33 25 25

Minimum SE = 4% m 660 348 185 95

Horizontal SE = 6% m 580 305 162 85
Curve Radius(3)
SE = 8% m 530 280 147 80
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes No

Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 5 6 7

Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 7 8 9

Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8 8

Min. Crest Vertical Curve K m/% 140 55 23 10

Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 30 18 11 7
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 60 36 22 14
Headlights criterion

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 Table 7-5: Design Parameters for (H2-T3-R)
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarp’t
Design Speed km/h 100 80 60 45
g = 0% m 205 140 85 55
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 237 155 95 58
Distance (2)
g = 10% m 282 182 105 62

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 310 240 180 145

% Passing Opportunity % 50 50 25

SE = 4% m 520 300 150 75

Minimum
Horizontal SE = 6% m 455 265 135 68
Curve Radius
SE = 8% m 415 240 120 65

Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes No

Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 3 7 7

Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 5 9 9

Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8 8

Min. Crest Vertical Curve K m/% 100 45 17 6

Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 25 16 9 12
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 50 32 19 14
Headlights criterion

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 Table 7-6: Design Parameters for (H3-T3-R)
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarp’t
Design Speed km/h 90 70 55 40
g = 0% m 170 110 75 45
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 195 120 82 47
Distance (2)
g = 10% m 230 140 90 51
Min. Passing Sight Distance m 275 210 167 135
% Passing Opportunity % 33 50 25 -
SE = 4% m 400 220 121 55
Minimum
Horizontal SE = 6% m 350 190 108 53
Curve Radius(4)
SE = 8% m 320 175 100 50
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes Yes
Max. Gradient (desirable) % 5 3 7 7
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 7 5 9 9
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8 8
Min. Crest Vertical Curve -K m/% 67 30 14 5
Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 20 12 8 4
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 40 25 17 9
Headlights criterion

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 Table 7-7: Design Parameters for (H3-T4-R)
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarp’t
Design Speed km/h 80 60 50 40
g = 0% m 140 85 64 45
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 155 95 68 47
Distance (2)
g = 10% m 182 105 75 50

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 240 180 155 135

% Passing Opportunity % 50 33 25 25

Minimum SE = 4% m 300 150 95 55

Horizontal SE = 6% m 265 135 85 50
Curve Radius(3)
SE = 8% m 240 120 80 50
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes Yes

Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 7 7 7

Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 9 9 9

Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8 8

Min. Crest Vertical Curve K m/% 45 17 10 5

Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 16 9 7 4
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 32 19 14 9
Headlights criterion

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 Table 7-8: Design Standards H4-T4-R
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarp’t
Design Speed km/h 70 55 40 40
g = 0% m 110 75 45 45
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 120 82 47 47
Distance (2)
g = 10% m 140 90 50 50

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 210 167 135 135

% Passing Opportunity % 50 25 25 25

Minimum SE = 4% m 220 121 55 55

Horizontal SE = 6% m 190 108 50 50
Curve Radius(3)
SE = 8% m 175 100 50 50
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes Yes

Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 7 7 7

Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 9 9 9

Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8 8

Min. Crest Vertical Curve K m/% 30 14 5 5

Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 12 8 4 4
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 25 17 9 9
Headlights criterion

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 Table 7-9: Design Parameters for (H1-T1–M)
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain
Design Speed km/h 100 90 70
g = 0% m 205 170 110
Minimum. Stopping Sight
g = 5% m 237 195 120
Distance
g = 10% m 282 230 140

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 310 275 210

% Passing Opportunity % 50 33 25
SE = 4% m 520 400 220
Minimum Horizontal Curve
SE = 6% m 455 350 190
Radius(2)
SE = 8% m 415 320 175
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes
Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 5 6
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 7 8
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5
Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8
Min Crest Vertical Curve - K m/% 100 67 30
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 25 20 12
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 50 40 25
Headlights criterion

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 Table 7-10: Design Parameters for (H2-T1-M)
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain
Design Speed km/h 95 80 65
g = 0% m 188 140 97
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 215 155 107
Distance (2)
g = 10% m 255 182 122

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 293 240 195

% Passing Opportunity % 33 50 25

Minimum SE = 4% m 458 300 185

Horizontal SE = 6% m 401 265 162
Curve Radius(3)
SE = 8% m 365 240 147
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes

Max. Gradient (desirable) % 5 3 6

Max. Gradient (absolute) % 7 5 8

Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5

Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8

Min. Crest Vertical Curve K m/% 82 45 23

Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 23 16 11
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 45 32 22
Headlights criterion

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 Table 7-11: Design Parameters for (H2-T2-M)
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain
Design Speed km/h 90 75 60
g = 0% m 170 125 85
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 195 137 95
Distance (2)
g = 10% m 230 160 105

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 275 225 180

% Passing Opportunity % 50 33 25

Minimum SE = 4% m 400 260 150

Horizontal Curve SE = 6% m 350 225 135
Radius(3)
SE = 8% m 320 205 120
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes

Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 5 6

Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 7 8

Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5

Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8

Min. Crest Vertical Curve K m/% 67 37 17

Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 20 14 9
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 40 28 19
Headlights criterion

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 Table 7-12: Design Parameters for (H2-T3-M)
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain
Design Speed km/h 80 70 55
g = 0% m 140 110 75
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 155 120 82
Distance (2)
g = 10% m 182 140 90

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 240 210 167

% Passing Opportunity % 50 50 25

Minimum SE = 4% m 300 220 121

Horizontal SE = 6% m 265 190 108
Curve Radius(3)
SE = 8% m 240 175 100
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes

Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 3 7

Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 5 9

Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5

Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8

Min. Crest Vertical Curve K m/% 45 30 14

Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 16 12 8
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 32 25 17
Headlights criterion

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 Table 7-13: Design Parameters for (H2-T2-U)
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain
Design Speed km/h 80 65 55
g = 0% m 140 97 75
45Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 155 107 82
Distance (2)
g = 10% m 182 122 90

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 240 195 167

% Passing Opportunity % 50 33 25

Minimum SE = 4% m 300 185 121

Horizontal Curve SE = 6% m 265 162 108
Radius(3)
SE = 8% m 240 147 100
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes

Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 5 7

Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 7 9

Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5

Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8

Min. Crest Vertical Curve K m/% 45 23 14

Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 16 11 8
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 32 22 17
Headlights criterion

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 Table 7-14: Design Parameters for (H2-T3-U)
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain
Design Speed km/h 75 60 50
g = 0% M 125 85 65
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% M 137 95 70
Distance (2)
g = 10% M 160 105 75

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 225 180 155

% Passing Opportunity % 50 33 25

Minimum SE = 4% m 260 150 95

Horizontal Curve SE = 6% m 225 135 85
Radius
SE = 8% m 205 120 80
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes

Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 3 3

Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 5 5

Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5

Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8

Min. Crest Vertical Curve K m/% 37 17 10

Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 14 9 7
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 28 19 14
Headlights criterion

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 Table 7-15: Design Parameters for (H3-T3-U)
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain
Design Speed km/h 75 60 45
g = 0% m 125 85 55
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 137 95 58
Distance (2)
g = 10% m 160 105 63
Min. Passing Sight Distance m 225 180 145
% Passing Opportunity % 50 33 25
SE = 4% m 260 150 75
Minimum
Horizontal SE = 6% m 225 135 69
Curve Radius(4)
SE = 8% m 205 120 65
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes
Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 3 7
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 5 9
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5
Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8
Min. Crest Vertical Curve -K m/% 37 17 7
Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 14 9 6
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 28 19 12
Headlights criterion

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 Table 7-16: Design Standards for H3-T4-U
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain
Design Speed km/h 65 50 45
g = 0% m 97 65 55
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 107 70 58
Distance (2)
g = 10% m 122 75 63
Min. Passing Sight Distance m 195 155 135
% Passing Opportunity % 50 33 25
SE = 4% m 185 95 55
Minimum
Horizontal SE = 6% m 162 85 50
Curve Radius(4)
SE = 8% m 147 80 50
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes
Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 5 7
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 7 9
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5
Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8
Min. Crest Vertical Curve -K m/% 23 10 5
Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 11 7 4
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 22 14 9
Headlights criterion

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 Table 7-17: Design Standards H4-T4-U
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain
Design Speed km/h 60 50 40
g = 0% m 85 65 45
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 95 70 47
Distance (2)
g = 10% m 105 75 50

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 180 155 135

% Passing Opportunity % 33 33 25

Minimum SE = 4% m 150 95 55
Horizontal SE = 6% m 135 85 50
Curve Radius(3)
SE = 8% m 120 80 50
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes

Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 5 7

Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 7 9

Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5

Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8

Min. Crest Vertical Curve K m/% 17 10 5

Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 9 7 4
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 19 14 9
Headlights criterion

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 Table 7-18: Design Standards for Unpaved H3-T3 and H3-T4 Rural
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarp’t

Design Speed km/h 70 55 45 35

Road Width (1) m 10.0 10.0 9.0 -
g = 0% m 125 82 60 40
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 145 95 67 45
Distance
g = 10% m 175 110 75 48
Min. Passing Sight Distance to
m 210 170 145 125
abort
Min. Horizontal Radius
m 255 145 90 30(2)
4% Super elevation
Max. Gradient (desirable) % 4 6 6 7
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 6 8 8 8
Minimum Gradient (4) % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Max. Super-elevation % 6 6 6 6
Min. Crest Vertical Curve K m/% 35 15 8 4
Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 12 8 5 3
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 25 17 11 7
Headlights criterion
Normal Cross-fall(3) % 6 6 6 6

Notes

1 If the number of CEFs is high the width should be increased to 11.0 m.

2 On hairpin bends the minimum radius may be reduced to a minimum of 15m.
3 Cross-fall can be reduced to 4% where warranted (e.g. poor gravel - for safety, low
rainfall).
4 In some circumstances in very flat terrain this can be reduced to 0.3%.

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 Table 7-19: Design Standards for Unpaved H3-T3 and H3-T4 Urban
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarp’t

Design Speed km/h 65 50 40 35

Road Width (1) m 9.0 9.0 9.0 -
g = 0% m 110 70 50 40
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 125 80 56 45
Distance
g = 10% m 155 90 62 48
Min. Passing Sight Distance to
m 195 155 135 125
abort
Min. Horizontal Radius
m 215 115 65 30(2)
4% Super elevation
Max. Gradient (desirable) % 4 4 6 7
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 6 6 8 8
Minimum Gradient (4) % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Max. Super-elevation % 6 6 6 6
Min. Crest Vertical Curve K m/% 27 11 6 4
Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 11 6 4 3
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 22 14 9 7
Headlights criterion
Normal Cross-fall(3) % 6 6 6 6

Notes
1 If the number of CEFs is high the width should be increased to 10.0 m.
2 On hairpin bends the minimum radius may be reduced to a minimum of 15m.
3 Cross-fall can be reduced to 4% where warranted (e.g. poor gravel - for safety,
low rainfall).
4 In some circumstances in very flat terrain this can be reduced to 0.3%.

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Table 7-20: Design Standards for Unpaved H4-T4 Rural and Urban
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain
Design Speed km/h 60 50 40
g = 0% m 85 65 45
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 95 70 47
Distance (2)
g = 10% m 105 75 50

Min. Passing Sight Distance m 180 155 135

% Passing Opportunity % 33 33 25

Minimum SE = 4% m 150 95 55
Horizontal SE = 6% m 135 85 50
Curve Radius(3)
SE = 8% m 120 80 50
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes

Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 5 7

Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 7 9

Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5

Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8

Min. Crest Vertical Curve K m/% 17 10 5

Min. Sag Vertical Curve – K
m/% 9 7 4
Comfort criterion
Min. Sag Vertical Curve - K
m/% 19 14 9
Headlights criterion

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8 Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignments
Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road implies their coordination so
that the line of the road appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the creation of
hazards and visual defects. It is particularly important in the design of high-speed
roads on which a driver must be able to anticipate changes in both horizontal and
vertical alignment well within the safe stopping distance. It becomes more important
with small radius curves than with large.
Defects may arise if an alignment is mis-phased. Defects may be purely visual and do
no more than present the driver with an aesthetically displeasing impression of the
road. Such defects often occur on sag curves. When these defects are severe, they
may create a psychological obstacle and cause some drivers to reduce speed
suddenly. In other cases, the defects may endanger the safety of the user by
concealing hazards on the road ahead. A horizontal curve hidden by a crest curve is an
example of this kind of defect.

8.1 Types of Mis-phasing and Corrective Action

Several distinct types of mis-phasing occur. These are described and illustrated below
based on SANRAL, Geometric Design Guidelines together with the necessary corrective
action for each type.
When the horizontal and vertical curves are adequately separated or when they are
coincident, no phasing problem occurs, and no corrective action is required. Where
defects occur, phasing may be achieved either by separating the curves or by
adjusting their lengths such that vertical and horizontal curves begin at a common
station and end at a common station. In some cases, depending on the curvature, it is
sufficient if only one end of each of the curves is at a common station.

8.2 Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves

Especially for trunk and link roads where the algebraic difference between successive
gradients is often small, the intervening minimum vertical curve, obtained by applying
the formula in Chapter 6, becomes very short. This can create the impression of a kink
in the grade line. If the vertical alignment is allowed to contain many curves of short
length, the result can be a ‘hidden dip’ profile, and/or a ‘roller coaster’ type profile, as
indicated in Figure 8-1. For this reason, where the algebraic difference in gradient is
less than 0.5 %, a minimum curve length is recommended for purely aesthetic
reasons. The minimum length should not be less than twice the design speed in km/h
and, for preference, should be 400 m or longer, except in mountainous or escarpment
terrain.

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 Hidden Dip (Roller Coaster) Profile

Hidden Dips Eliminated

Figure 8-1: Hidden Dip (Roller Coaster) Profile

8.3 Crest and Sag Curve Have a Common Beginning and End
Where a crest curve and a succeeding sag curve have a common beginning and end,
the visual effect created is that the road has suddenly dropped away. In the reverse
case, the illusion of a hump is created. Either effect is removed by inserting a short
length of straight grade between the two curves. Typically, 60 m to 100 m is adequate
for this purpose.

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Figure 8-2 illustrates the appearance of ‘humps’ when short crests and sags are
included on a long horizontal curve. These should be avoided. Maintaining a constant
grade is the preferred option.

Maintaining a Constant Grade

Figure 8-2: Short Humps on Long Horizontal Curve

8.4 A Short Dip in the Alignment Preceding a Horizontal Curve

A short discontinuity or dip in the alignment preceding a horizontal curve creates a
particularly discordant view similar to the ‘roller coaster’ profile but with a horizontal

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component. Eliminating the crest curve in advance improves the appearance, as
shown in Figure 8-3.

Short Hump and Dip Preceding Horizontal Curve

Eliminating the Crest Curves in Advance and Following the Sag Curve.

Figure 8-3: Short Vertical Curves Preceding a Long Horizontal Curve

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8.5 Distorted Alignment
A common fault is illustrated in Figure 8-4. The roadway is often unnaturally curved to
cross a small stream at right angles. The advantages in the aesthetics alignment of a
skew crossing often far outweigh the savings deriving from a square crossing.

Distorted Alignment to Create a Square River Crossing

Skew Crossing Improves Horizontal Alignment

Figure 8-4: Distorted Alignment at Bridge Crossing

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8.6 Broken Back Curves
Figure 8-5 illustrates a broken-back curve which is two curves in the same direction
separated by a short tangent. Such a combination is unacceptable. Also a ‘broken
plank’ grade line, where two long grades are connected by a short sag curve, is
equally unacceptable.
The advantages of using a single radius curve throughout are illustrated in Figure 8-5.

Broken-back Curve

Figure 8-5: Replacement of Broken-Back Curve by Single Radius Long Curve.

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8.7 Sag curve at the start of a Horizontal Curve
A sag curve at the start of a horizontal curve has the effect of enhancing the sharp
angle appearance as shown in Figure 8-6, and should be avoided. Raising the
preceding grade will move the sag curve downstream. A longer radius on the
horizontal curve would cause it to start earlier. Applying both remedial measures
should result in a better phasing of the horizontal and vertical alignments.

Figure 8-6: Out-of-phase Vertical and Horizontal Alignments

8.8 Variations in Vertical Alignment on Long Horizontal Curves

Significant changes in grade of the vertical alignment, as shown in Figure 8-7, should
be avoided on long horizontal curves.

Figure 8-7: Variable Gradients (Rolling Grade-line)

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8.9 Start of Horizontal Curves not Visible
Figure 8-8 shows the effect when the start of a horizontal curve is hidden by an
intervening crest and the continuation of the curve is visible in the distance. The road
appears disjointed.

Figure 8-8: Break in Horizontal Alignment

8.10 Vertical Curve Overlaps One End of the Horizontal Curve

If a vertical curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a horizontal curve, a
driver’s perception of the change of direction at the start of the horizontal curve may
be delayed because his sight distance is reduced by the vertical curve. This defect is
hazardous, and the resulting accidents are usually head-on collisions. The position of
the crest is important because vehicles tend to increase speed on the down gradient
following the highest point of the crest curve, and the danger due to an unexpected

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change of direction is consequently greater. If a vertical sag curve overlaps a
horizontal curve, an apparent kink may be produced.
The defect may be corrected in both cases by completely separating the curves. If this
is uneconomic, the curves must be adjusted so that if the horizontal curve is of short
radius, they are coincident at both ends, or if the horizontal curve is of longer radius
they need be coincident at only one end.

8.11 Insufficient Separation between the Curves

If there is insufficient separation between the ends of the horizontal and vertical
curves, a false reverse curve may appear on the outside edge-line at the beginning of
the horizontal curve. Corrective action consists of increasing the separation between
the curves or making the curves concurrent.

8.12 Both Ends of the Vertical Curve Lie on the Horizontal Curve
If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of the
horizontal curve may appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the
crest curve. If the vertical curve is a sag curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may
appear to increase. The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves
coincident, or to separate them.

8.13 Vertical Curve Overlaps Both Ends of the Horizontal Curve

If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, a hazard may
be created because a vehicle has to undergo a sudden change of direction during the
passage of the vertical curve while sight distance is reduced.
The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident. If the horizontal
curve is less sharp, a hazard may still be created if the crest occurs off the horizontal
curve. This is because the change of direction at the beginning of the horizontal curve
will then occur on a downgrade (for traffic in one direction) where vehicles may be
increasing speed.
The corrective action is to make the curves coincident at one end so as to bring the
crest on to the horizontal curve. No action is necessary if a vertical curve that has no
crest is combined with a gentle horizontal curve.
If the vertical curve is a sag curve, an illusory crest or dip, will appear in the road
alignment. The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident or to
separate them.
It is important to note that local dips to minimise earthworks that result in a disjointed
alignment will be there for the life of the road. Figure 8-9 and Figure 8-10 illustrate
the advantages of co-ordinating the horizontal and vertical alignment. In each case
the vertical curve is contained within the horizontal curve.

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 Figure 8-9: Well-coordinated Crest and Horizontal Curves

Figure 8-10: Well-coordinated Sag and Horizontal Curves

8.14 The Economic Penalty Due to Phasing

The correct phasing of vertical curves restricts the designer in fitting the road to the
topography at the lowest cost. Therefore, phasing is usually bought at the cost of
extra earthworks and the designer must decide at what point it becomes uneconomic.
The designer will normally accept curves that have to be phased for reasons of safety.
In cases when the advantage due to phasing is aesthetic, the designer will have to
balance the costs of trial alignments against their elegance.

8.15 Vertical Clearances

Bridges over water normally have a minimum clearance height according to Table 8-1
unless a refined hydraulic analysis has been made. The standard minimum headroom
or clearance under bridges or tunnels is 5.1 m for all classes of roads. This clearance
should be maintained over the roadway(s) and shoulders. Where future maintenance
of the roadway is likely to lead to raising of the road level, then an additional

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clearance of up to 0.1 m may be provided. Light superstructures (e.g. timber, steel
trusses, steel girders, etc) over roadways should have a clearance height of at least
5.3 m. See ANE’s Bridge Design Manual for further reference.

Table 8-1: Vertical Clearance from Superstructure to Design Flood Level

Design Flow at Bridge (m3/s) Vertical Clearance (m)
5 to 30 0.6
30 to 300 0.9
>300 1.2

Underpasses for pedestrians and bicycles should not be less than 2.4 m. For cattle and
wildlife, underpasses must be designed as the normal height of the actual animal plus
0.5 m, and for horse-riding the clear height must be not less than 3.4 m. Bridges
above railways must have a clearance height of at least 6.1 m - if not otherwise stated
- to facilitate possible future electrification.
Over existing pipe culverts and box culverts, the roadway elevation cannot be less
than as indicated in the Drainage Design Manual, 2017.

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9 Design of At-Grade Intersections

9.1 Introduction
An intersection, or junction, is the area where two or more roads join. There are five
main types of intersection distinguished by the amount of traffic that they can carry
satisfactorily and by the method and degree of control of the traffic that they embody
(Table 9-1 and Table 9-2).
Once designed and constructed, almost all will be unique. This chapter deals with basic
principles and examples of some of the popular options.
The principal characteristics of intersections are that vehicles, pedestrians and non-
motorised traffic travelling in many directions must share a common area, often at the
same time. The mitigation of the resulting conflicts is therefore a major objective of
intersection design.
Good intersection design allows through movement and transitions from one route to
another with minimum delay and maximum safety. Thus, the layout and operation of
the intersection should be obvious to vehicle drivers, with good visibility between
conflicting movements.
Intersections for the higher traffic levels are expensive and, like bridges and other
major structures, should be designed for at least 30 years. Therefore, a careful
assessment of likely future traffic flows is required to ensure that a structure will
perform satisfactorily in future.

9.2 Intersection Types

Brief descriptions of the various types of intersection are shown in Table 9-1.

Table 9-1: Basic Types of Intersections

Intersection Type Characteristics
A simple at-grade junction of two roads that cross
Cross roads
approximately at right angles.
A simple at-grade junction of two roads, at which,
Simple
T- junctions usually, the minor road joins the major road
uncontrolled for
approximately at right angles.
low levels of
traffic An at-grade junction of three roads, at which the
Staggered T- major road is continuous through the junction and
junctions the minor roads connect with the major road to
form two opposed T-junctions.
Similar to the simple crossroads but with road
markings, give-way or stop signs on the minor
road, channelising islands and/or ghost islands
Crossroads
(Figure 9-1). For unsignalised junctions, traffic
from all directions must come to a complete stop
and give priority to those joining from the right.
Basic Priority Similar to the simple T junction but with road
Junctions markings, give-way or stop signs, channelising
islands and/or ghost islands shaped and located
T-Junction to direct traffic movement (Figure 9-2 and
Figure 9-3). For unsignalised T junctions,
adjoining traffic should give way to traffic on the
‘major’ road in both directions.
Staggered Staggered junction with channelising and ghost

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 Junction islands shaped and located to direct traffic
movement (Figure 9-4 and Figure 9-5).
An at-grade junction of two roads, at which the
Skew or Y minor road approaches the major road at an
junction oblique angle and terminates at the junction
(Figure 9-6).
For low to They provide minimum delays at lower flows and
medium traffic are safer than priority junctions. They require
flows, primarily attention to pedestrian movements and the
Roundabouts.
for urban and accommodation of slow-moving traffic.
metropolitan Roundabouts are discussed in Chapter 10.
conditions
Intersections As for priority As for priority junctions but for higher traffic flows
where traffic is intersections and more complex conditions such as additional
controlled by routes
traffic signals
Grade separated interchanges are expensive and
used only for high flows, but they result in
Grade-
minimum delays. Pedestrian movements need
Separation
special consideration. These interchanges are
dealt with in Chapter 11.

Table 9-2: Types of Traffic Control for At-grade Intersections

Basic Traffic Control

Intersection Type
category Major Road Minor Road
Simple None None Simple
A Unchannelised T
intersection
Stop or give B Partly Channelised T
Priority Priority
way signs intersection
C Channelised T
intersection
Priority to traffic already on the D Priority
Roundabouts roundabout but can also be E Signalised
traffic signal controlled
Traffic E Signalised Intersection
Traffic signals or give way signs
controlled

9.2.1 Simple and Priority Crossroads and T-Intersections

The basic intersection layouts for rural roads are crossroads and T-junctions with the
major road traffic having priority over the minor road traffic. However, except where
traffic is low on all arms, the crossroads form of priority intersection is not
recommended because it has a much higher accident risk than any other kind of
intersection. An existing crossroads should, where possible, be converted to a
staggered intersection, or roundabout, or be controlled by traffic signals.
Simple uncontrolled junctions are appropriate for most minor junctions on single
carriageway roads but must not be used for wide single carriageways or dual
carriageways. For new rural junctions they should only be used when the design flow
in the minor road is not expected to exceed about 300 vehicles 2-way AADT and that
on the major road is not expected to exceed 13,000 vehicles 2-way AADT.

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At existing rural and urban junctions upgrading a simple junction to provide a right
turning facility should always be considered where the minor road flow exceeds 500
vehicles 2-way AADT, a right turning accident problem is evident, or where vehicles
waiting on the major road to turn right inhibit the through flow and create a hazard. A
right turn from the main road is a dangerous manoeuvre hence different junction
designs are used to cater for increasing traffic levels. The use of partial channelisation,
full channelisation, ghost islands, single lane duelling and traffic signal control are all
techniques used to provide safe right turn facilities for increasing traffic flows. These
are illustrated in Figure 9-2, Figure 9-3, Figure 9-5 and Figure 9-6.
Where the flow levels are not large enough to justify the provision of a right turning
facility, and a right turning problem remains, a nearside passing bay should allow
through vehicles to pass the vehicles waiting to turn right, albeit at a reduced speed.
Intersections with more than four arms are not recommended. Where more complex
layouts involving the intersection of four or more roads are encountered, these should
be simplified by redesign to two junctions, or a roundabout should be used.
Experience in some countries has shown that converting crossroads into roundabouts
can reduce accident costs by more than 80 per cent.
T-intersections include the staggered T-intersection (Figure 9-4 and Figure 9-5), which
caters for cross-traffic. Staggered T-intersections are often the result of a realignment
of the minor route to improve the angle of the skew of the crossing.
When traffic on the main road is quite high and a staggered T-intersection is required,
there are two options namely the ‘turn left then turn right’ stagger and the ‘turn right
then turn left’ stagger. Both options have two conflict locations where a vehicle must
merge with one stream and cross the other stream at the same location (i.e. the
driver must identify two gaps at the same time) but the ‘turn right then turn left
stagger’ is preferred because the ‘turn left then turn right’ stagger might require an
auxiliary lane in the main road to store vehicles before they can turn across the
opposite stream of the main road into the minor road. In the case of the ‘right turn
then left turn’ option any required storage occurs in the minor roads.
The basic designs are modified for higher traffic flows and for higher traffic speeds.
Additional lanes are provided and traffic control by means of additional channelisation
and/or traffic signals (Figure 9-7) are added.

Figure 9-1: Crossroads with Stop Lines

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Figure 9-2: Partly Channelised T-Intersection with Ghost Islands

Figure 9-3: T-Intersections with Channelisation

Figure 9-4: Staggered Intersection

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 Figure 9-5: Partly Channelised Staggered Intersection with Ghost Islands

9.2.2 Skew Intersections

The angle of intersection of two roadways influences both the operation and safety of
an intersection (Figure 9-6). Large skews are undesirable because:
• The area of the pavement is increased and therefore also the area of possible
conflict;
• Crossing vehicles and pedestrians are exposed for longer periods;
• The driver's sight angle is more constrained and gap perception becomes more
difficult;
• Vehicular movements are more difficult and large trucks require more
pavement area;
• Defining vehicle paths by channelisation is more difficult.
For new intersections the crossing angle should preferably be in the range 75° to
120°. The absolute minimum angle of skew is 60° because drivers, particularly truck
drivers, have difficulty at this angle of skew in seeing vehicles approaching from one
side or the other. The designer should justify using an angle of skew of less than 75°.
In the remodelling of existing intersections, the accident rates and patterns will
usually indicate whether a problem exists and provide evidence of any problems
related to the angle of skew.
The location of an intersection may require modification to improve the angle of skew
between the intersecting roads. If the angle of skew is less than 60 O, the intersection
can be replaced by two relatively closely spaced T-intersections.

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 Figure 9-6: Skew or Y Intersection with Ghost and Channelising Islands.

9.2.3 Roundabouts
The key feature of roundabouts is that traffic entering the roundabout must give way
to circulating traffic already on the roundabout. Ideally the minor road incoming traffic
should be at least 10-15% of the total incoming traffic. Roundabouts are discussed in
Chapter 10.

9.2.4 Controlled Intersections

Controlled or signalised intersections are interchanges where the traffic is controlled
by traffic lights, Figure 9-7. No traffic conflicts are allowed between straight through
traffic movements. The choice of controlled intersections is discussed in Section 9.5.2
and their design in Section 9.9

Figure 9-7: Traffic Signal Controlled Cross Roads

9.2.5 Intersection Design Speed

The intersection design speed is the design speed of the major road at the
intersection. It is the main design parameter upon which the capacity and the

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geometrical layout of an intersection is based and greatly affects the safety and
efficiency of the intersection and the construction cost. For safety reasons, it should
never be less than 20 km/h lower than the average design speed for the major road

9.3 Other Considerations

9.3.1 Non-motorised Traffic and Non-road Users

Intersection design requires suitable facilities to be provided for non-motorised road
users and for non-road users who need to negotiate the engineered structures.
Correctly located crossings are critical to walking and cycling activities and can help
overcome severance created by busy roads. A balance needs to be struck between the
legitimate needs of all road users. This balance will be influenced by the location of the
intersection and the volume of pedestrian and cycle traffic.

9.3.2 Pedestrian Requirements

From a pedestrian perspective an ideal crossing facility would be safe, coincide with
desire lines, allow for crossing the intersection in all directions, provide sufficient space
to accommodate pedestrian capacity and provide adequate opportunity for traversing
the intersection with quick response to demand. In practice this ideal is difficult to
achieve and therefore some compromises are necessary, but these should not be at
the risk of reduced safety.
In an urban situation the location of at-grade cycle or pedestrian crossings, whether
controlled or uncontrolled, at locations where approach speeds are likely to be in
excess of 50 km/h should be avoided. The crossings should also be positioned away
from locations where drivers might be applying maximum acceleration. In such
circumstances segregated facilities may be more appropriate.

9.3.3 Traffic Control

Pedestrian facilities are sometimes provided by stopping all traffic movements and
introducing a ‘pedestrian phase’ during which pedestrians can cross all arms of the
intersection. The disadvantage of this method is that the pedestrian stage results in
considerable lost time which seriously degrades the capacity of the intersection and
forces the use of long signal cycle times. This, in turn, means that pedestrian waiting
times are long with the corresponding increased risk of pedestrians crossing against
the ‘do not cross’ signal.
Pedestrian facilities can often be designed in such a way that pedestrians are able to
cross when non-conflicting streams of traffic are running. In this case a specific signal
indicates when it is appropriate for pedestrians to cross. These are referred to as
‘walk-with-traffic’ pedestrian facilities. The provision of walk-with-traffic pedestrian
facilities separates pedestrian routes into a series of relatively short sections between
safe refuges. As a result, shorter ‘cross now’ periods are required at the points of
conflict and the pedestrian-to-traffic inter-green periods are shorter.

9.3.4 Shared Facilities

Pedestrian and cycle flows should initially be considered as two different movements.
If their individual requirements turn out to be similar, then consideration should be
given to providing joint facilities. The shared use of space by pedestrians and cyclists
should only be considered as a last resort when all other solutions have been
dismissed. Unsegregated shared use should be avoided, particularly in heavily used
urban contexts.

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9.4 Factors Affecting Selection of Intersection Type and Design

9.4.1 Principles of Intersection Design

The basic objectives of good intersection design are:
• Keeping the number of points of potential conflict to the minimum compatible
with efficient operation;
• Reducing the complexity of conflict areas whenever possible;
• Limiting the frequency of actual conflicts; and
• Limiting the severity of those conflicts that might occur.
An intersection is considered safe when it is visible, comprehensible and of
dimensions that allow easy vehicle movements. The physical aspects of the
intersection that enable these objectives to be realised are:

9.4.1.1 Visible
i) Intersections should not be located on horizontal curves with radii less than
those indicated in Table 9-3;
ii) Intersections should not be located on gradients steeper than 3%. The
gradient is more critical on the minor road than on the major road because
all vehicles on the minor road have to stop or yield;
iii) In a collision between vehicles, either or both may leave the road. Therefore
intersections should not be located on high fills;
iv) The intersection should be sited so that the major road approaches are
readily visible;
v) Early widening of the intersection approaches;
vi) Provision of visibility splays which ensure unobstructed sight lines to the left
and right along the major road;
vii) Use of traffic islands in the minor road to emphasize a ‘yield’ or ‘stop’
requirement;
viii) Use of medians;
ix) Use of early and eye-catching traffic signs;
x) Optical guidance by landscaping and the use of road furniture, especially
where an intersection must be located on a crest curve;
xi) Suitable pavement tapers and transitions;
xii) The angle of intersection of the major and minor roads should be between
70 and 110 degrees;
xiii) The use of single lane approaches is preferred on the minor road in order to
avoid mutual sight obstruction from two vehicles waiting next to each other
to turn or cross the major road.

9.4.1.2 Comprehensible
i) The right of way should follow naturally and logically from the intersection
layout;
ii) The types of intersections used throughout the whole road network should be
as similar as possible;
iii) The provision of optical guidance by the use of clearly visible kerbs, traffic
islands, road markings, road signs and other road furniture.

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 9.4.1.3 Providing easy manoeuvrability
(i) All traffic lanes should be of adequate width for the appropriate vehicle
turning characteristics. To accommodate truck traffic, turning radii shall be
at least 15 m. In restricted urban areas this could be reduced to an
absolute minimum of 12m;
(ii) The edges of traffic lanes should be clearly indicated by road markings;
(iii) Traffic islands and kerbs should not conflict with the natural vehicle paths.

Table 9-3: Minimum Radii for Location of Intersections on Curves

Design speed (km/h) Minimum Radius (m)
40 250
50 375
60 550
70 750
80 1000
90 1220
100 1500
Source: SANRAL. Geometric Design Guidelines.

The design is therefore concerned with the following aspects:

i) Safety and operational comfort;
ii) Capacity and proportion of traffic on each approach;
iii) Vehicle characteristics;
iv) Design speed;
v) Local environment;
vi) Functionality;
vii) Economy.

9.4.2 Safety and Operational Comfort

Poor design leads to significantly higher injury and total accident rates. Typically over
50 % of all urban accidents and over 30 % of all rural accidents occur at intersections.
Table 9-4 summarises the features of accidents at intersections and possible remedial
measures.

Table 9-4: Features Contributing to Accidents at Intersections and Remedial

Measures.
Traffic engineering actions that
Geometric features contributing to
reduce accident incidents and
accidents at intersections
severity
• Poor approach and sight distances • Improvement of sight distances
• Construction on high fill • Do not construct on high fill
• Curves within intersection • Avoid building on a horizontal curve
• Inappropriate kerb radii • Increasing corner radii
• Inappropriate traffic control • Upgrading of traffic control scheme

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• Multiple approaches • Addition of exclusive turn lanes
• Poor lighting • Installation or improvement of lighting
• Narrow lanes • Use of channelisation
• Poor drainage • Improved drainage paths
• Low surface friction • Improved surface skid resistance
• Steep grades at intersections • Avoid building on a gradient greater
than 3 % (stopping sight distances
increase quickly as down gradient
increases)

Accidents are minimised by appropriate design of the intersection based primarily on

the volume of traffic on both the major and the minor roads and on their speed. As
traffic levels and speed increases the degree of control of the traffic must increase to
maintain safety standards.
• Priority intersections can be safe and give sufficient capacity for certain
traffic volumes and speed limits;
• If a priority intersection is not sufficient for safety and capacity, the major
road traffic must also be controlled;
• Active traffic control by means of traffic signals is an essential component of
intersections whenever traffic flow exceeds certain thresholds;
• Depending on location, traffic conditions and speed limits, different types of
priority or control intersection should be selected;
• For the highest traffic levels grade separated interchanges are required.

9.4.3 Safety and Intersection Sight Distance

Intersections are inherently complex and therefore human factors as discussed in
Section 1.2.1 and elsewhere are of vital importance. Intersection design should reflect
and make provision for the characteristics of the drivers and their expectations on the
various classes of the roads.
The driver of a vehicle approaching an intersection should have an unobstructed view
of the entire intersection, including any traffic control devices, and sufficient distance
along the intersecting highway to permit the driver to anticipate and avoid potential
collisions. Decision sight distance must be available on all the approach legs (Section
4.3.6).
The recommended perception and reaction times for calculating sight distances are
shown in Table 9-5.

Table 9-5: Human Factors for Intersection Design

Human Factor Design Values Design Elements Affected
Perception/reaction time 2.0 to 4.0 seconds Intersection sight distance
Gap acceptance 5.5 to 7.5 seconds Intersection sight distance
Driver eye height 1.05 m Sight distance
Pedestrian walking speeds 1.0 to 1.5 m/s Pedestrian facilities

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It may be necessary to modify the alignment of either the major or the minor road, or
both, to ensure that adequate sight distances are available. If this is not possible, the
options available to the designer are to:
• Relocate the intersection;
• Provide appropriate Stop control; or
• Provide a Jug-handle (also called a Quarter link) interchange, as shown in
Figure 11-4.

9.4.4 Capacity
Figure 9.8 illustrates the relationship between recommended intersection type and
traffic on the major and minor roads and traffic speed on the major road based on
safety considerations. Traffic is expressed as AADT. Figure 9-8a (design speed
50km/h) is primarily for urban interchanges, Figure 9-8b (80km/h) is for metropolitan
or rural interchanges and Figure 9-8c (100km/h) is for rural interchanges.
The traffic flows are not constant throughout the day. Significant peaks occur at
certain times and interchange design must cater for peak flows to prevent congestion
and minimise traffic delays.

50 km/h
7000

6000
Minor Road Approaching AADT

5000
Select a controlled intersection
4000

Consider using a
3000 controlled
intersection
2000

1000
Select a priority intersection
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000

Major Road Approaching

AADT (total both directions)

9-8(a)

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 80 km/h
4000

3500

Minor Road Approaching AADT

3000
Select a controlled intersection
2500
Consider using a
2000 controlled intersection

1500

1000

500 Select priority intersection

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000

Major Road Approaching

AADT (total both directions)

9-8(b)

100 km/h
3500

3000
Minor Road Approaching AADT

2500

Select controlled intersection

2000

1500

Consider using a
1000
controlled intersection
500
Select priority intersection
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000
Major Road
Approaching AADT (total both directions)

9-8(c)

Figure 9-8: Selection of Intersection Types

Note: The lines in these figures cannot be precise. They are for guidance.

9.4.4.1 Priority Intersections

Figure 9-9 shows the relationships between capacity and traffic volumes in PCU/h
approaching the interchange during the ‘design hour’. The diagrams are for T-
intersections on 2-lane roads with speed limits of 50, 80 and 100 km/h.

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The desired level refers to a degree of saturation (actual traffic flow/capacity) of 0.5.
The acceptable level refers to a degree of saturation of 0.7.
Measuring and forecasting traffic flows and capacity analysis for major intersections is
a specialised subject and designers should refer to the Highway Capacity Manual for
details.

Figure 9-9 (a)

Figure 9-9 (b)

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 Figure 9-9 (c)

Figure 9-9: Peak Hour Capacity

Note: The lines in these figures cannot be precise. They are for guidance

Table 9-6: Typical Maximum Traffic Volumes

Road Type Design Traffic Volume (two-way vehicles/h)
Major Road 500 1000 1500
Minor Road 500 250 100

When traffic exceeds these values, additional features need to be included as

described in the following Sections.

9.4.4.2 Signalised Intersections

The ideal flow rate through an intersection is the saturation flow rate per hour of
‘green’ time. The vehicular ‘green’ time is the time dedicated to presenting vehicular
traffic with a green (or proceed) indication. The value selected is affected by the initial
driver reaction, vehicle acceleration and the behaviour of following vehicles. The
capacity of an approach or leg of an intersection is proportional to the green time for
that approach within the signal cycle in accordance with:

Ca = s x g/c
where
Ca = capacity (PCU/h)
s = saturated flow rate (PCU/h)
g/c = the ratio of useful green time to signal cycle time.

The important factors affecting saturation flow are:

• Number of lanes including turning lanes.
• Widths of lanes.
• Proportion of heavy vehicles.
• Gradients in excess of 3%.

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 • On-street parking.
• Pedestrian activity.
• Type and phasing of signals.
The critical factors are the total number of lanes and the need for exclusive turning
lanes at each approach.
Examples of signal-controlled intersections are shown in Figure 9-10 and Figure 9-11.
Note the pedestrian crossings.

Figure 9-10: Example of a Signal-Controlled Crossroads

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 Figure 9-11: Signal-Controlled Crossroads with a Staggered Pedestrian
Crossing and Refuge.

9.4.5 Vehicle Characteristics

The size and manoeuvrability of vehicles is a critical factor in design especially where
channelisation is considered. Table 9-7 summarises the factors to be considered. A
suitable design vehicle based on the likely traffic mix and road class/standard should
be selected from Table 4-1.

Table 9-7: Vehicle Factors for Intersection Design

Vehicle Characteristics Design Element Affected
Length Length of storage lanes
Width Width of lanes
Width of turning roadways
Wheelbase Nose placement
Corner radius
Width of turning roadways
Acceleration tapers and lane lengths
Acceleration
Gap acceptance
Length of deceleration lanes and tapers
Deceleration and braking capability
Stopping sight distance
Source: SANRAL. Geometric Design Guidelines.

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 9.4.6 Design Speed
The Intersection Design Speed, which is the principal design parameter upon which
the geometrical layout and capacity of an intersection is based, is the design speed of
the major road in the vicinity of the intersection. This speed is not the design speed of
the road because drivers tend to slow down when approaching intersections, even
when they are travelling on the major road. The selection of the Intersection Design
Speed greatly affects both the safety and efficiency of the intersection and the
construction cost. For safety reasons, the Intersection Design Speed should never be
less than 20 km/h lower than the design speed for the major road.
The time available to carry out a manoeuvre depends on the speed of traffic in the
lanes to be crossed. Models have been developed for carrying out these calculations
but require many assumptions and they are not reliable. The best information is
obtained from empirical data.

9.4.7 Sight Distances

The important factors are the time required to carry out the manoeuvre and the time
available to do so based on the sight distance and the speed of traffic. The sight
distance needs to be at least as great as the product of the traffic speed and the time
required to carry out the manoeuvre.
On a basic cross-road intersection the traffic manoeuvres are left turns and right turns
from both the minor road and the major road and crossing manoeuvres across the
intersection. The time required to carry out a manoeuvre depends upon:
i) Whether the vehicle is in motion and at what speed when it reaches the
intersection (yield control or approach control) or begins from a stopped
position (stop or departure control);
ii) The type and power of the vehicle;
iii) The length of the vehicle;
iv) The distance the vehicle needs to travel (number of lanes plus median, if
present);
v) The gradient of the road which the vehicle has to negotiate;
The required sight distances also depend on driver behaviour. Driver behaviour
generally differs from country to country depending on driving history and drivers
experiences and is not static, hence taking it into account is not a simple process. To
improve road safety, road safety research, which includes analysis and review of road
accidents, should be a continuous process.

9.4.7.1 Empirical Method of Estimating Sight Distances

It is therefore not a simple task to calculate the optimum or minimum sight distances
applicable to different intersection designs, different road classes and different mixes
of traffic. A pragmatic approach is to utilise the available empirical data but to select
conservative options for safety. Appendix C summarises the empirical approach and
shows how sight distances can be calculated for the majority of manoeuvres and for
different design vehicles.
The greatest sight distances are needed for the manoeuvres that take the longest to
execute (required time) and involve joining fast traffic (short available time). This
means that heavy truck and trailer combinations require the greatest sight distances
when joining a main road. Catering for this situation is not always possible. The
methods described in Appendix C can be used to calculate sight distances for different
design vehicles, but it is prudent to use DV4 for most designs.

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 9.4.7.2 Sight Triangles
Each quadrant of an intersection should contain a triangular area free of obstructions
that might block an approaching driver’s view of potentially conflicting vehicles. These
specified areas are known as clear sight triangles. The dimensions of the legs of the
sight triangles depend on the design speeds of the intersecting roadways and the type
of traffic control used at the intersection. Two different forms of sight triangle are
required. The approach triangle must have sides with sufficient lengths on both
intersecting roadways such that drivers can see any potentially conflicting vehicle in
sufficient time to slow, or to stop if need be, before entering the intersection. For the
departure sight triangle, the line of sight described by the hypotenuse of the sight
triangle should be such that a vehicle just coming into view on the major road will, at
the design speed of this road, have a travel time to the intersection corresponding to
the gap acceptable to the driver of the vehicle on the minor road. Details of sight
triangles for different situations are described in Appendix C.
Practical sight distances are summarised in Table 9-8 and Table 9-9. They are more
conservative than the values obtained using Appendix C which are based on NCHRP
Report 383. However, when the gradients on any of the legs exceed 3% and when
multiple lanes are involved (i.e priority junctions only), prudent use of Appendix C
should be made, and conservative options should be used.

Table 9-8: Minimum Sight Distances for ‘Yield’ or ‘Approach’ Conditions

Main road design speed (km/h) 40 50 60 70 85 100 120
Sight distance, LA (m) 80 95 115 140 190 215 270

Table 9-9: Minimum Sight Distances for ‘Stop’ or ‘Departure’ Conditions

Main road design speed (km/h) 40 50 60 70 85 100 120
Sight distance LS (m) 130 160 190 225 275 320 385

9.4.8 Local Environment

The type of area and adjacent land use governs the selection of an appropriate
intersection. In urban areas, pedestrian flows, on-street parking and bus and taxi
activity are commonplace. In residential areas, bicycles and school crossings need to
be considered. They are usually absent in rural areas, where utility and delivery
vehicles are more common.

9.4.9 Functionality
The functionality of the road is the key to identifying the most appropriate designs.
Table 1.2 defines over 60 design standards covering many aspects of functionality but
additional considerations concerning traffic composition are also included in Chapter 3.
Thus, design of intersections must be flexible, and compromises must be made in
many circumstances.

9.4.10 Economy
The cost of interchanges is always an important factor. Provided that safety is not
compromised the lowest cost option may be acceptable but it should be born in mind
that interchanges, especially the large ones and those constructed in urban areas
where space is restricted, need to be designed for long design lives (at least 30 years)
and for future traffic that may not be easy to predict accurately. A long-term transport
plan is required if the network is to develop logically and economically.

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9.5 Selection of Intersection Type

9.5.1 Priority Intersections

Priority intersections are introduced in Section 9.2.1 and examples are shown in
Figures 9.1 through to Figure 9.6. The selection of a priority intersection should be
based mainly on safety. The selection can be made by using known relationships
between safety levels and the average daily approaching traffic volumes (AADT in
vehicles/day) based on accident statistics. Figure 9-8 indicates the traffic flows where
priority intersections are recommended for T-intersections on 2-lane roads with 50, 80
and 100 km/h design speed. Crossroads should be avoided. The number of right
turning vehicles should also affect the decision.
A partly channelised T-intersection would normally be used if needed to facilitate
pedestrian crossings and also if a minor road island is needed to improve the visibility
of the intersection.

9.5.2 Control Intersections

For higher traffic levels Figure 9-12 provides guidance. (Table 9-10 is an alternative
representation of the details). Roundabouts are suitable for almost all situations
provided there is enough space. Roundabouts have been found to be safer than
signalised intersections. At very high traffic volumes they tend to become blocked
because drivers fail to obey the priority rules. Well-designed roundabouts slow traffic
down, which can be useful at the entry to a built-up area, or where there is a
significant change in road standard such as the change from a dual carriageway to a
single carriageway.
Traffic signals are the favoured option in the larger urban areas. Co-ordinated
networks of signals (Area Traffic Control) can bring major improvements in traffic flow
and a significant reduction in delays and stoppages. However, they must be demand-
responsive in order to get the maximum capacity from each intersection.

Figure 9-12: Intersection Selection Based on Traffic Flows

Source: The Highways Agency, UK.

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 Table 9-10: Intersection Selection Based on Traffic Flow (1000 vpd)
Type of Intersection
Traffic
Flow on Traffic Flow on Minor Road
Major Road
(<) (<) (>)
Range
Less than Less than Greater than
Roundabout/ Grade
Simple Priority
or Signalised Separation
<10 1.2
<10 1.2 - 7.0
10 - 12 7.0 7.0 - 12 >12

12 - 14 6.5 6.5 - 11 11
14 - 16 5.0 5.0 - 10 10
16 - 18 4.0 4.0 – 9.5 9.5
18 - 20 3.5 3.5 – 9.0 9.0
20 - 22 3.5 3.5 – 8.0 8.0
22 - 24 3.0 3.0 – 7.5 7.5
24 - 26 2.5 2.5 – 6.5 6.5
26 - 28 2.5 2.5 – 6.0 6.0
28 - 30 2.0 2.0 – 5.0 5.0
30 - 32 2.0 2.0 – 4.5 4.5
32 - 34 2.0 2.0 – 4.0 4.0
34 - 36 2.0 2.0 – 3.0 3.0
36 - 38 2.0 2.0

38 - 40 2.0 2.0

9.5.3 Steps in the Selection and Design Procedure

Table 9-11 lists the steps required for intersection design. In practice this process will
be dependent on ANE’s current methods

Table 9-11: Steps in the Selection and Design Procedure

Step Activity
1 Data collection
Defining the major road and determining the intersection
2
design speed).
3 Selecting the intersection category and type.
4 Take account of the requirements of all road users
5 Preliminary landscape recommendations
6 Develop traffic flows

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 7 Assemble design elements
8 Assess key geometric parameters
Checking that it offers adequate safety and capacity for the
9 predicted traffic manoeuvres. If not review a different
intersection type
10 Determine requirements for connecting roads
11 Check that an effective signing system can be provided
12 Carry forward to appraisal stage

9.6 Distance between Adjacent Intersections

Designers seldom have influence on the spacing of roadways in a network because it
is largely predicated by the original or the developed land use. Nevertheless, the
spacing of any type of intersections has an impact on the operation, level of service
and capacity of a roadway. Therefore, new intersection spacing should be based on
road function and traffic volume. Table 9-12 shows the recommended minimum
spacing between successive uncontrolled intersections.

Table 9-12: Minimum Spacings (m) between Uncontrolled Intersections

Design Speed Access Class

(km/h) Marginal Partial and Full
40 20 80
50 35 110
60 50 130
70 70 175
80 100 200
100 170 300
120 250 350
(Source: SANRAL, Geometric Design Guidelines)

For priority intersections the minimum distance between consecutive intersections

should, preferably, be equal to 10 x VD m; where VD is the major road design speed
in km/h. Where it is impossible to provide this minimum spacing, then the design
shall incorporate either, or both, of the following:
(i) A distance between minor road centre lines equal to the passing sight
distance appropriate for the design speed of the junction plus half the
length of the widened major road sections at each junction, or
(ii) A grouping of minor road junctions into pairs to form staggered T-
junctions and a distance between pairs as in (i) above.
For signalized roads the traffic signal cycle lengths and traffic speed should be
consistent with the intersection spacings as indicated in Figure 9-13. The minimum
spacing should be at least 400 m. Where spacings closer than the minimum already
exist and the LoS is deemed deficient, several improvement are possible, for example:
• two-way flows can be converted to one-way operation;
• minor connecting roads can be closed or diverted;

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 • channelisation can be used to restrict turning movements.
LoS and driver perception are both affected by the spacing of intersections. In certain
cases, it may be necessary to limit the number of intersections for reasons of safety
and serviceability.

Figure 9-13: Desirable Spacings of Controlled Intersections

Source: SANRAL, Geometric Design Guidelines)

9.7 Design of the Elements of Priority Junctions

The detailed principles of intersection design are described in the current Sections 9.7
under the following headings:
i) Horizontal and vertical alignment.
ii) Lane widths and shoulders, central reserves and traffic islands.
iii) Ghost islands.
iv) Channelisation.
v) Medians.
vi) Splitter islands.
vii) Speed change lanes.
viii) Merging and diverging.
ix) Turning roadways.
x) Private access

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 9.7.1 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
The horizontal and vertical alignments through and approaching an intersection are
critical features. Simple alignment design should enable early recognition of the
intersection and timely focus on the intersecting traffic and manoeuvres that must be
prepared. The following are specific operational requirements at intersections:
• The alignments should not restrict the required sight distance;
• The alignments should allow for the frequent braking and turning associated
with intersections; and
• The alignments should not require a driver’s attention to be detracted from the
intersection manoeuvres and conflict avoidance .
The intersection should not be over a crest, in a sag or on a curve. If there is no
choice, the horizontal curve radii at intersections should not be less than the radii
shown in Table 9-3. For high-speed roads with design speeds in excess of 80 km/h,
approach gradients should not be greater than -3 %. For low-speed roads in an urban
environment this can be increased to -6 %.

9.7.2 Lane Widths and Shoulders

Through lanes width should normally be unchanged through the intersection.
However, if they are wider than 3.5 m on the approaches to the intersection, they
could be slightly narrowed to discourage high speeds and overtaking, otherwise the
width should be kept.
A right turning lane width should normally be 3.0 m.
The width of a traffic island depends on the type. Thus, an island created with road
markings is normally 0.35 m wide for a double centre line. For a kerbed island space is
required for:
i) A ‘pass left side only’ traffic sign, 0.4 to 0.9 m
ii) Lateral clearances, minimum 0.3 m
iii) An inner hard shoulder, if needed, in the opposite direction, 0.25 to 0.5 m
for an edge line.
The widths of paved shoulders are as per the design class of road but should be
narrowed in two-lane roads to 0.5 m in order to discourage overtaking in the
intersection. Separate footways should be provided for pedestrians so that they do
not have to walk on the shoulder.
Where there are many long vehicles turning right into the main road, the central
reserve should be widened to provide some protection if the driver decides to make
the turn in two stages (i.e. crosses one major road traffic direction at a time).

9.7.3 Ghost Islands

A ghost island is traffic island comprising oblique parallel line markings on the road to
indicate that vehicles should not enter the painted area. Ghost islands have several
uses but one of the most important is at intersections to encourage drivers to maintain
lane discipline, especially when required to merge or diverge with another traffic
stream.
They effectively discourage overtaking where it is likely to be hazardous and provide
space for turning traffic to wait. Ghost islands should be used on new single
carriageway roads, or in the upgrading of existing junctions to provide right turning
vehicles with a degree of shelter from the through flow. They are effective in
improving safety, and are relatively cheap, especially on wide 2-lane single

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carriageway roads where very little extra construction cost is involved. Examples are
illustrated in the Figure 9-2, Figure 9-5, and Figure 9-6.

9.7.4 Central Reserves

The widening of the central reserve of a dual carriageway in the vicinity of a
junction may be required to allow more space for crossing vehicles to wait in
safety. A width of 10 m will normally provide the appropriate balance between
safety and cost.
To ensure that vehicles can turn right without difficulty to, or from, a major road,
the gap in the central reserve should extend beyond the continuation of both kerb
lines of the minor road to the edge of the major road. Normally an extension of 3.0
m will be sufficient, but each layout should be checked. The ends of the central
reserve should be curved to ease the paths of turning vehicles.
On single carriageway roads where a right turn lane is to be provided, a hatched
central reserve should always be used unless lighting is provided, in which case the
central reserve may be kerbed.
On dual carriageway roads the central reserve in the vicinity of junctions should be
edged with (mountable) flush kerbs unless lighting is provided, in which case raised
kerbs may be used.

9.7.5 Channelisation
A traffic island is a defined area between traffic lanes for the control of vehicle
movements. Traffic islands are used for ‘channelling’ traffic to manage the conflicts
that are inherent in any intersection by guiding vehicles safely through the intersection
area from an approach leg to the selected departure leg.
There are various aspects of good channelisation:

• Traffic streams should cross at close to right angles and merge at flat angles.

• Vehicle paths should be clearly defined.

• It provides protection and storage for turning and crossing vehicles.

• Points of conflict should be separated whenever possible.

• Undesirable or ‘wrong-way’ movements should be discouraged or prohibited.

• Islands provide locations for traffic signs.

• The islands provide refuges for pedestrians and the handicapped where
appropriate.

• The design should encourage safe vehicle speeds.

• High priority flows should have the greater degree of freedom to manoeuvre.

• Decelerating, slow-moving or stopped vehicles should be separated from

higher speed through lanes.
Guidance is provided by lane markings that clearly define the required vehicle path
and also indicate auxiliary lanes for turning movements. For example, road markings
are used to indicate that turns from selected lanes, either to the left or to the right,
are mandatory.
The fully channelised T-junction design (Figure 9-3) is for intersections with a
moderate volume of turning traffic. An important feature is that there is only one
through lane in each direction on the major road. This form of junction is designed to

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prevent overtaking and excessive speeds through the conflict zones. It is formed by
widening the major road to provide a central reservation, a right turning lane and
space for vehicles waiting to turn right from the major road into the minor road. A
limiting factor is the left-hand sideways visibility from the driver's seat, which can be
very restricted in some cabs and leaves the driver with no option but to make the
manoeuvre in one stage. It usually has a traffic island in the minor road. In urban
areas this would normally be kerbed to provide a refuge for pedestrians.
Typical island shapes are illustrated in Figure 9-14. (Note traffic control signals are
not shown in the Figures).

Figure 9-14: Typical Traffic Islands

Islands are generally either long or triangular in shape, with the circular shape being
limited to application in roundabouts. They are situated in areas not intended for use
in vehicle paths. Directional islands are typically triangular with their dimensions and
exact shape being dictated by:
• The corner radii and associated tapers;
• The angle of skew of the intersection; and
• The turning path of the design vehicle.

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Drivers tend to find an archipelago of small islands confusing and are liable to select
an incorrect path through the intersection area. As a general design principle, a few
large islands are preferred to several small islands.
The designer should bear in mind that islands are hazards and should be less
hazardous than whatever they are replacing. Islands should not be less than 5 m2
in area to ensure that they are easily visible to approaching drivers and, where
necessary, additional guidance should be given by carriageway markings in
advance of the nose supplemented, if necessary, by speed humps.
Islands may be kerbed, painted (see Ghost Islands Section 9.6.3) or simply non-
paved. Kerbed islands provide the most positive traffic delineation and are normally
used in urban areas to provide some degree of protection to pedestrians and traffic
control devices. The island kerbs should be offset a minimum of 0.3 m from the edge
of through-traffic lanes even if they are mountable. Painted islands are usually used in
suburban areas where speeds are low (in the range of 50 km/h to 70 km/h) and space
is limited.
Traffic islands bordered by raised kerbs should not be used in the major road. In rural
areas, kerbs are not common and, at the speeds prevailing in these areas, typically
100 km/h or more, they are a potential hazard. If it is necessary to employ kerbing at
a rural intersection, the use of mountable kerbing should be considered.
As an additional safety measure, a kerbed island should always be preceded by a
painted island with oblique parallel line (chevrons) markings limited by continuous
longitudinal lines.
Non-paved islands are defined by the pavement edges and are usually used for large
islands at rural intersections. These islands may have delineators on posts and may be
landscaped.
A typical triangular island is illustrated in Figure 9-15. The approach ends of the island
usually have a radius of about 0.6 m as shown and the offset between the island and
the edge of the travelled way is typically 0.6 m to 1.0 m to allow for the effect of
kerbing on the lateral placement of moving vehicles. Where the major road has
shoulders, the nose of the island is offset about 1.0 m from the edge of the usable
shoulder. The side adjacent to the through lane is tapered back to terminate at the
edge of the usable shoulder, thus offering some guidance and redirection. A kerbed
cross-section on the major road suggests that the nose of the island should be offset
by about 1.6 m from the edge of the travelled way, with the side adjacent to the
through lane being tapered back to terminate 0.6 m from the edge of the through
lane.

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 Figure 9-15: Typical Triangular Island

Generally, two basic layouts for traffic islands and minor road widening will be used
but each junction should be carefully checked to ensure that adequate clearance is
given for the types of vehicles expected to use the junction.

9.7.6 Medians
Median islands are discussed in detail in Section 3.11. The general layout of median
openings at intersections is normally dictated by wheel-track templates. However,
median openings should not be shorter than:
• The surfaced width of the crossing road plus its shoulders.
• The surfaced width of the crossing road plus 2.5 m (if kerbing is provided).
• 12.4 m.
A further control on the layout of the median opening is the volume and distribution of
traffic passing through the intersection area. If the median is wide enough to
accommodate them, it may be advisable to make provision for speed-change and
storage lanes. The additional lanes reduce the width of the median at the point where
the opening is to be provided and thus influence the median end treatment.
The median end treatment is determined by the width of the median. Where the
median is 3 m wide or less, a simple semicircle is adequate. For wider medians, a
bullet nose end treatment is recommended. The bullet nose is formed by arcs dictated
by the wheel paths of turning vehicles and an assumed nose radius of 0.6 to 1.0 m.
This results in less intersection pavement area and a shorter length of opening than
the semi-circular end.
Above a median width of 5 m, the width of the minor road controls the length of the
opening. A flattened bullet nose, using the arcs as for the conventional bullet nose but
with a flat end as dictated by the width of the crossing road, is recommended. These
end treatments are illustrated in Figure 9-16.

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The bullet nose and the flattened bullet nose have the advantage over the semi-
circular end treatment that the driver of a turning vehicle has a better guide for the
manoeuvre for most of the turning path. Furthermore, these end treatments result in
an elongated median, which provides a better refuge area for pedestrians crossing the
dual carriageway road.

Figure 9-16: Median End Treatment

9.7.7 Splitter Islands

Dividing, or splitter, islands usually have a teardrop shape as shown by the splitter
island in Figure 9-17. They are often employed on the minor legs of an intersection
where these legs have a two-lane, two-way or four-lane undivided cross-section. With
4-lanes there should also be traffic lights.
The principle function of a dividing island is to warn the driver of the presence of the
intersection. This can be achieved if, at the widest point of the island, its edge is in
line with the edge of the approach leg. To the approaching driver, it appears as though
the entire lane had been blocked off by the island. If space does not permit this width
of island, a lesser blocking width must be applied, but anything less than half of the
approach lane width is not effective.
Splitter islands are also used in the approach to roundabouts where there is a need to
redirect vehicles entering a roundabout through an angle of not more than 30o.
Dividing islands are usually kerbed to ensure that the island is visible within normal
stopping sight distance. However, it may be advisable to draw the driver's attention to
the island by highlighting the kerbs with paint or reflective markings. As in the case of
the triangular island, the nose of the dividing island should be offset by 0.6 m from

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the centreline of the minor road. For the sake of consistency, the radius of the nose
should be of the order of 0.6 m.
The balance of the shape of the island is defined by the turning paths of vehicles
turning both from the minor road to the major road and from the major road to the
minor.

9.7.8 Channelised Intersection Layout

A channelised intersection, as shown on Figure 9-17, is to be used whenever a
separate right turn lane is required. This layout also includes a left turn lane.
The partly channelised intersection shown on Figure 9-18 is to be used whenever a
separate right turn lane is not required. The layout shown on Figure 9-17 does not
include a left turn lane but such a lane may be included if required, as in Figure
9-16.
A variety of intersections and recommended dimensions are provided in the UK’s
Highways Agency publication, TD42/95 Geometric Design of Major/Minor Priority
Junctions.

Notes:
1. RC = Central radius dependent upon vehicle turning characteristics (minimum turning
radius) recommended value: 15m.
2. The ratio R1:R2:R3 to be 2:1:3 and the recommended value for R2 is 12.0m.
3. W1 is equal to the minor road lane width but shall not be less than 3.0m.
4. W2 is 5.5m (excluding offsets to raise kerbs)
5. For detail of major road widening, see Section 9.7.9

Figure 9-17: Layout of a Channelised Intersection

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Notes:
1. RC = Central radius dependent upon vehicle turning characteristics.
2. The ratio R1:R2:R3 to be 2:1:3 and R2 will be dependent on vehicles turning characteristics
and proportion of large vehicles. Recommended range for R2 is 8.0-12.0m.
3. W1 is equal to the minor road lane width.
4. W2 is dependent upon vehicle turning characteristics.

Figure 9-18: Layout of a Partially Channelised Intersection

9.7.9 Widening of the Major Road at the Intersection

In order to accommodate the right turn lane on a single carriageway road the
carriageway has to be widened to provide the required width. The width of the
through lanes at the junction should be the same as the approach lanes and the
widening should be designed so that the through lanes are given a smooth and
optically pleasing alignments.
On straight alignments, the widening should be provided by the deviation of the
through lane opposite the minor road. This deviation should be effected gradually by
introducing a radius of between 5,000 and 10,000m at the beginning and end of the
widening and 1 in 45 tapers.
On curved alignments, a smooth alignment for the through lanes can be achieved by
widening on the inside of the curve. This is done by introducing transition curves
which approximate to 1 in 45 tapers.

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If the intersection is located on a crest or in a horizontal curve it is advisable to
lengthen the island because this will make the intersection more visible to approaching
traffic.
Excessive intersection widths should be avoided in order to discourage high speeds
and overtaking.
Where intersecting roadways have shoulders or sidewalks, the shoulder of the main
road should be continued through the intersection. Lane widths should be 3.7 m for
through lanes and 3.6 m for turning lanes. Where conditions are severely constrained,
lane widths as low as 3.3 m can be considered provided that approach speeds are
below 80 km/h. In constricted urban conditions on low speed-roadways, lane widths of
3.0 m should be the minimum adopted.
All traffic lanes should be of adequate width and radius for the appropriate vehicle
turning characteristics. To accommodate truck traffic, turn radii must be a minimum of
12 m.
Offsets from the edge of a turning roadway to kerb lines should be 0.6 to 1.0 m.
The edges of traffic lanes should be clearly indicated by road markings.

9.7.10 Speed Change Lanes

Deceleration lanes for vehicles turning left or right from a major road are of particular
importance on higher speed and higher volume roads when a vehicle slowing down to
leave the major road may impede the following vehicles and cause a hazardous
situation. Similarly, a vehicle joining a high-speed road will also cause a hazardous
situation unless it can increase its speed to that of the traffic on the road before
merging; hence an acceleration lane is also desirable. Thus, speed change lanes
comprising a taper section and deceleration lane should be provided for:
• T1, T2 class roads;
• T3 roads (and others) if the design speed exceeds 85km/h;
• The present year traffic on the major route exceeds 1500 AADT or the peak
hour flows exceed the values shown in Figure 9-19;
• The present turning traffic onto the minor route exceeds 750 AADT or the peak
hour flows exceed the values shown in Figure 9-19.
The length of such speed-change lanes is based on acceptable levels of discomfort for
decelerating (and for accelerating), which are approximately half of those used in the
calculation of stopping sight distance because the latter is concerned with emergency
braking. These lengths are therefore greater than stopping sight distances.

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 Figure 9-19: Conditions Requiring a Right Turn Lane

9.7.11 Decelerating Lane: Left Turn

It is assumed that a vehicle will leave the through lane at operating speed and
negotiate the taper at unaltered speed, i.e. zero speed differential, and then
decelerate on the portion of the lane that is parallel with the through lane.
Deceleration rates are a function of the design speed of the major road and the ramp
or exit control speed. As both speeds increase, so does the deceleration rate, which
varies between 1.0 and 2.0 m/s2. The rate used to develop Table 9-13 is 2.0 m/s2.
A detail of the layout for the Left Turn Lane is shown in Figure 9-20.

Figure 9-20: Layout for Left Turn Lane

The length of the left turn lane including the taper, measured as shown in the Figure,
is related to design speed as indicated in Table 9-13. On up-hill gradients these
distances are shorter and on down-hill grades they are longer. The increase or
decrease in length is linear and is 5% for every 1% change in grade. Thus, for
example, for a down-hill grade of 4 % the length should be increased by 20%.

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 Table 9-13: Length of Left Turn Lane
Main Length of deceleration section (LD)
Length of
road
diverging Exit control speed (km/hr)
design
(taper)
speed
(LT) (m) 0 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(km/hr)
60 65 70 40 25 - - - - -
70 75 95 60 50 25 - - - -
80 80 125 90 75 55 30 - - -
90 85 155 125 110 85 60 30 - -
100 90 190 160 145 125 100 70 35 -
110 100 235 200 190 165 140 110 75 40
120 110 280 245 230 210 180 155 120 85
130 115 325 290 275 255 230 200 170 135

(Source: SANRAL, Geometric Design Guidelines)

The actual entrance or exit lane from the major road to the minor road can take the
form of a taper or a parallel lane. A taper is preferred. Table 9-14 indicates the taper
rates for exit lanes.
The width of the major approach lane must be the same as the width of the traffic
lanes.

Table 9-14: Taper Rates for Exit Lanes (or Ramps)

Radius (m) for
Design Speed Taper Length
2% super- Taper rate
(km/h) (m)
elevation
60 1000 1:14 67
70 1500 1:17 76
80 1500 1:17 76
90 2000 1:20 86
100 2500 1:22 92
110 3000 1:25 102
120 3500 1:27 108
130 4000 1:28 112

9.7.12 Acceleration Lanes

Acceleration lanes are less useful than deceleration lanes because entering drivers can
always wait for an opportunity to merge without disrupting the flow of through traffic.
Their principal application is on high volume roads where, at peak periods, gaps
between vehicles are infrequent and short.
The ideal length of an acceleration lane depends on the acceleration of the slower
vehicles, namely large, heavy trucks. The wide range of truck sizes and designs means
that these acceleration characteristics also cover a wide range of values hence
choosing an acceptable value that provides a satisfactory speed for merging, and
therefore a satisfactory level of safety, at acceptable cost is essentially a matter of
judgement. An acceleration rate of 0.7 m/s2 has been selected and the lengths of the

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acceleration lanes for different speed differentials are as shown in Table 9-15.
Acceleration also takes place on the taper, which is thus included in the overall length
of the acceleration lane.

Table 9-15: Length of Acceleration Lanes including Taper (m)

Main road Entry/ramp control speed (km/h
design
speed 0 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(km/h)
60 200 150 150 - - - - -
70 270 180 150 150 - - - -
80 350 265 215 155 150 - - -
90 450 360 310 250 175 150 - -
100 550 460 415 350 280 200 150 -
110 670 580 530 470 395 315 220 150
120 790 705 655 595 525 440 345 240
130 930 840 795 735 660 580 485 380

The designs are incorporated into the Standard Detailed Drawings for all intersections
on trunk and link roads.

9.7.13 Right Turn Lanes

Right turn lanes are required when the traffic flows exceed the values shown in Figure
9.19. A right turn lane consists of a taper section, a deceleration section and a storage
section. The minimum lengths are as for left turn lanes shown in Table 9-13. Details
of the layout for a right turn lane are shown in Figure 9-21 for a single carriageway
and in Figure 9-22 for a dual carriageway. The length of the storage section is shown
in Table 9-16. Figure 9-17 contains additional details of a right turn lane.

Table 9-16: Lengths of Storage Sections for Right Turn Lanes

Right-Turning Traffic Length of Storage
(AADT) Section (LS) (m)
0-1500 20
1500-3000 40
>3000 60

Provision of right turn lanes can be made for the major road. On single carriageway
roads a painted central reserve must always be used, and traffic control is also
necessary (not shown in the Figure). In order to accommodate a right turn lane, the
carriageway must be widened to provide the required width (Section 9.7.9). The
widening must be designed so that the through lanes are given smooth and optically
pleasing alignments. The width of the through lanes at the intersection must be the
same as the approach lanes.
The widening must be provided by the deviation of both through lanes from the
centreline. This should be achieved by introducing a taper of 100 m length at the
beginning and end of the widening or by introducing a horizontal curve of large radius
as described in Section 9.7.9.

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 Figure 9-21: Layout for Right Turn Lane, Single Carriageway

Figure 9-22: Layout for Right Turn Lane, Dual Carriageway

9.7.14 Merging and Diverging

Merging and diverging lanes are required for most intersections. Where more than one
lane merging with one other is being designed, ghost islands or other means of
keeping traffic safely separated are required. Figure 9-23 illustrates some designs
based on The Design of Major Interchanges, TD 39, 1994, The Highways Agency. UK.

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 (a) Simple parallel merge with offside lane drop showing typical lengths

(b) Lane drop on merging carriageway using ghost islands

(c) Simple parallel diverge

Figure 9-23: Examples of Merge and Diverge Lanes

9.7.15 Turning Roadway

Turning roadways are channelised roadway sections at an at-grade intersection. Traffic
movements are accommodated either within the limitation of the crossing roadway
widths or through the application of turning roadways. Turning roadways can be
designed for three possible types of operation:
• Case 1 One-lane one-way with no provision for passing stalled vehicles.
• Case 2 One-lane one-way with provision for passing stalled vehicles.
• Case 3 Two-lane one-way operation.

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Three traffic conditions must also be considered:

• Condition A Insufficient trucks in the traffic stream to influence design.

• Condition B Sufficient trucks to influence design.
• Condition C Sufficient semi-trailers in the traffic stream to influence design.

The lengths of turning roadways at intersections are normally short, so that design for
Case 1 operation is sufficient. Even in the absence of traffic counts, there will usually
be enough trucks in the traffic stream to warrant consideration hence Condition B is
normally adopted for design purposes. Widths of turning roadway for the various cases
and conditions are shown in Table 9-17. The radii in the Table refer to the inner edge
of the pavement. The values supersede any value quoted elsewhere that do not
include provision for large semi-trailers.

Table 9-17: Turning Roadway Widths

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
Inner
Radius Condition Condition Condition
(m)
A B C A B C A B C
15 4.0 5.5 7.9 6.1 8.8 13.4 7.9 10.7 15.2
20 4.0 5.2 6.7 5.8 8.2 11.0 7.6 10.1 12.8
30 4.0 4.9 6.4 5.8 7.6 10.4 7.6 9.4 12.2
40 3.7 4.9 6.4 5.5 7.3 8.8 7.3 9.1 10.7
60 3.7 4.9 5.2 5.5 7 8.2 7.3 8.8 10.1
80 3.7 4.6 5.2 5.5 6.7 7.6 7.3 8.6 9.4
100 3.7 4.6 4.9 5.2 6.7 7.3 7.0 8.4 9.1
150 3.7 4.3 4.6 5.2 6.7 7.3 7.0 8.2 9.1
Source: SATCC: Code of Practice for the Geometric Design of Trunk Roads.

Figure 9-24 shows the design of a typical cross road intersection illustrating turning
sections, channelisation islands, deceleration lanes, tapers, medians and mountable
kerbs.

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 Figure 9-24: Typical Cross-road Intersection showing all Elements

9.7.16 Private Access

A private access is defined as the intersection of an unclassified road with a classified
road. An access must have entry and exit radii of 6 m or greater, depending upon the
turning characteristics of the expected traffic. The minimum width must be 3 m. A
typical access is shown in Figure 9-25. A dotted line shows the possible edge of the
corresponding shoulders. The location of the access must satisfy the visibility
requirement for ‘stop conditions’ described in Section 4.3.3. A traversable drainage
pipe must be placed as required. The access must be constructed back to the road
reserve line, with a taper to match the existing access.

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 Figure 9-25: Typical Access

9.8 Design of Signalised Intersections

Well-designed signal control at an intersection enhances traffic safety and efficiency by
reducing congestion and conflicts between vehicle movements. The principle is that
vehicles passing a steady green signal or green arrow signal (a protected turn) must
not encounter any primary conflicts (i.e. crossing vehicles). However lower order
conflicts (i.e. with turning vehicles) may be acceptable in some circumstances.
When total peak hour traffic is similar on both the major and minor road, traffic signal
control is usually justified when the sum of vehicle flows on the major road plus that
on the minor road exceeds 900 vph. When the traffic on the minor road is low (<100
vph) this threshold guideline increases to 1500 vph.
The major advantages compared to priority-controlled intersections are:
• maximum waiting time is fixed and known (if the intersection capacity is not
reached);
• available capacity is distributed fairly between approaches; and,
• drivers on the minor road do not have to make a judgment about when it is
safe to proceed.
Close co-operation is necessary with the signal control and electrical engineers
throughout the design process, especially in the early stages.
Most of the safety problems that arise with signalised intersections are related to
drivers passing the signal at red. Rear-end collisions also occur when the signal
changes from green to red because some drivers attempt to cross late. This has
implications for signal visibility and timings.
The control strategy of a signalised intersection is called the ‘phases’ or the ‘stage
sequence’. An example of a stage sequence for a T-intersection with a protected right
turn (controlled by a green arrow) is shown in Figure 9-26.

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 Stage 1 2 3

Figure 9-26: Protected Right Turn Sequence

The signal control can work on fixed or vehicle-actuated timings which adapt to traffic
conditions by means of vehicle detectors. Vehicle actuated (i.e. demand-responsive)
signals are much more efficient and drivers are more likely to comply with them.
On a vehicle-actuated system each stage has a minimum and maximum green time.
There should always be an inter-green period (i.e. a short period when no green
signals are showing) between conflicting stages to allow for safe stage changes. The
length of the inter-green period depends on the size of the intersection, the speed
limit and whether pedestrians and cyclists are being accommodated. For details of
traffic signal management, the reader should consult FHWA (2008), Traffic Signal
Timing Manual, Report HOP-08-024.

9.8.1 Control Strategy and Layout

Signalised intersections should normally be restricted to roads with a speed limit 50
km/h and never where the speed exceeds 70km/h. Where signals are needed on roads
with speeds higher than 50km/h additional equipment is needed to ensure safety, for
example, overhead mounted signals on each high-speed approach. For more
information see the SADC Road Signs Manual.
Protected right turns are always preferable from a safety viewpoint. They give positive
control and are easy to understand. The disadvantage is that they use up significant
intersection capacity, so waiting times can be longer.
Pedestrian crossing signals may also be provided at signalised intersections. Ideally,
they should have their own stage during, which there should be no conflicts with
vehicle movements. Table 9-18 shows the criteria to be met for installing pedestrian
crossing signals.

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 Table 9-18: Criteria for Traffic Signalisation of Cross Walks
Pedestrians/Cyclists
Speed Limit Traffic Volume
(Number in maximum
(km/h) (ADT)
hour)
5000 – 8000 >30
30
>8000 >20
5000 – 8000 >20
40
>8000 >10
5000 – 8000 >20
50
>8000 >10
60 2000 >20

70 1500 >20

The capacity analysis should be based on expected traffic volumes during the design
hour, normally both morning and evening peaks.

9.8.2 Visibility
Each traffic lane must have clear vision of at least one primary signal head associated
with its particular movement from the desirable stopping sight distance (70m at 50
km/h and 110m at 70 km/h). It is also important that the desirable stopping sight
distance is available to all traffic entering the queue estimated from the capacity and
traffic flow calculations. Warning sign for traffic signals must be used where the
visibility is impaired.
The intersection inter-visibility zone is defined as the area bounded by measurements
from a distance of 2.5 m behind the stop-line extending the full carriageway width for
each arm, as indicated in Figure 9-27. Designers should aim to achieve the greatest
level of inter-visibility within this zone to permit manoeuvres to be completed safely
once drivers, cyclists and pedestrians have entered the zone.
Signalisation may be an appropriate accident countermeasure for higher volume
intersections with restricted sight distance and a history of sight-distance related
accidents. However, traffic signals may fail from time to time. Furthermore, traffic
signals at an intersection are sometimes placed on two-way flashing operation under
off-peak or night time conditions. To allow for either of these eventualities, the
appropriate departure sight triangles as set out for Case B in Appendix C, should be
provided for the minor-road approaches to ensure a minimum level of safety when the
signals are out of order.

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 Figure 9-27: Inter-visibility Zone without Pedestrian Crossing

9.8.3 Lane Design

Traffic lanes should normally be 3.0 to 3.5 m wide. Nearside (kerb) lanes that are
well-used by cyclists should be widened to 4 m if possible. The lane width may be
narrowed to 2.75 m if space is very limited but only if there are few trucks or buses.
The required lane lengths depend on estimated queue lengths to be decided based on
the capacity analysis.
Additional entry lanes for through traffic will improve capacity and level-of-service, but
the larger intersection area can result in the need to set longer inter-green periods.
The entry taper Li of a kerbed entry lane should be a minimum of 30 m (taper 1:10) to
allow a semi-trailer to cope with it. Tapers can be narrowed to 1:5 to allow more
queuing space within the same total length, Figure 9-28.

Figure 9-28: Right Turn Lane Design

Minimum design measurements for a right turn with a ghost island are shown in
Figure 9-29.

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 7.5 m 1
direct 10
taper ghost island taper

Figure 9-29: Ghost Island Layout

Filter lanes for left turning vehicles can be signalised or uncontrolled (i.e. give way
signs and markings). They can be used when left turn manoeuvres for large vehicles
are required (Figure 9-30). Uncontrolled left turn lanes improve the efficiency of the
traffic signal control, as inter-greens can be decreased, especially at high left turn
volumes. Uncontrolled traffic should be separated with a triangular separation island.

taper

set back

Figure 9-30: Left Turn Filter Lane with Taper to Facilitate Large Vehicles

If left turn filter lanes are used, a consistent design approach should be adopted for
ease of understanding. Uncontrolled filter lanes can be confusing for pedestrians.
Uncontrolled and controlled pedestrian crossings should not be mixed within the same
intersection.
The number of straight-ahead entry and exit lanes should be balanced in order to
reduce conflicts caused by traffic merging or diverging within the intersection (Figure
9-31). Lane drops should take place beyond the visibility zone over a distance of at
least 100 m for a single lane reduction. The lane drop may be carried out on either the
nearside or offside dependant on traffic condition

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 Figure 9-31: Lane Drop Design Principles

9.8.4 Swept Paths and Corner Curves

The design of corner curves and channel width depend on what design vehicle and
level-of-service is chosen (Chapters 3 and 4). Signalised intersections with very low
volumes of large trucks and buses could have simple 6 m corner radiuses to minimise
the intersection area and optimise the signal control strategy. The radius should be
increased to 10 m if rigid trucks or buses are common and 15 m in rural areas where
larger trucks might operate. The following combinations of tapers and corner radii can
be used in urban areas to accommodate semi-trailers, see Figure 9-32.

Minor Minor
road road

1
T
R
Major A
T road R
Major
1

road
B

R T A B
Urban 10 5 30 30
Rural* 15 10 25 25

Figure 9-32: Combinations of Tapers and Corner Radii

It is also essential to ensure that adequate turning radii are provided for the swept
paths of all types of vehicles using the intersection as shown in Figure 9-33. Swept
paths must be checked for all permitted turning movements to control locations of
traffic islands, signals etc. The example on the left of the Figure indicates that there is
an unnecessary taper; the example on the right indicates that the stop-line must be
set back.

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Simple swept path templates, if available at the correct scale, can be used for
checking whether semi-trailers can negotiate intersections, but the use of specialist
computer software gives a more accurate simulation.

Stop-line set back

Unecessary to allow swept path
carriageway

Figure 9-33: Examples of Swept Path Checks

Nosings of central reserves and pedestrian refuges should be set back a minimum of
1.5 m, measured from a line extended from the edge of the intersecting roads.
Minimum clearances should be provided and must be controlled if the super-elevation
is over 2.5 %.

9.8.5 Signals
There should be at least two signals visible from each approach, usually comprising a
primary and a secondary signal, and stop-lines (Figure 9-34) (see SATCC Road Traffic
Signs Manual). Where separate signalling of turning movements is used this advice
applies to the approach lane(s) associated with each turning movement. One signal
post can display information for more than one turning movement.
The primary signal should be located to the left of the approach a minimum of 1 m
beyond the stop line and in advance of crossing marks for pedestrians, if any. The
secondary signal should be located within a 30-degree angle on a maximum distance
of 50 m with priorities as shown in Figure 9-34.

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 Figure 9-34: Signal Location Advice

The following alternative designs may be used where there are approaches with three
or more traffic lanes and protected right turns. The primary right turn arrow is
mounted on the exit separation island, Figure 9-35a, or on an extra separation island
in the approach, Figure 9-35b.

ALT 1 ALT 2

3 colour standard signal head

3 colour arrow signal head
(a) (b)

Figure 9-35: Alternative Signal Locations for Right Turn Lanes

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The standard traffic signal head width is 300 mm (with 450 mm as oversize), which
results in island width requirements, including clearances, of 0.3 to 0.6 m or from 0.9
m to 1.65 m. Wider islands can be needed if they are also to serve as pedestrian
refuges.

9.8.6 Pedestrian and Cyclist Facilities

Pedestrian crossings should be perpendicular to the edge of the carriageway to assist
inter-visibility and to benefit visually impaired people. The footway should have a
dropped kerb.
Minimum measures for pedestrian refuges for pedestrian crossings are timed to permit
crossing in one movement. The normal width should be 2.5 m, with 1.5 m as the
absolute minimum.
Pedestrian phases should preferably have no conflicts with turning traffic. This could
be arranged with staggered pedestrian crossings as illustrated in Figure 9-36.

Figure 9-36: Example of a Signal-Controlled Intersection

with a Staggered Pedestrian Crossing

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9.9 Checklist for Intersection Design
The following is a checklist of factors that need to be considered in the design of
intersections.

❑ Will the intersection be able to carry the expected/future traffic levels without
becoming overloaded and congested?

❑ Have the traffic and safety performance of alternative intersection designs been
considered?
❑ Is the route through the intersection as simple and clear to all users as
possible?
❑ Is the presence of the intersection clearly evident at the decision sight distance
to approaching vehicles from all directions?
❑ Are warning and information signs placed sufficiently in advance of the
intersection for a driver to take appropriate and safe action given the design
speeds on the road?
❑ Are warning and information signs visible and readable at the operational
speed?
❑ On the approach to the intersection, is the driver clearly aware of the actions
necessary to negotiate the intersection safely?
❑ Are turning movements segregated as required for the design standard?
❑ Are drainage features sufficient to avoid the presence of standing water?
❑ Is the level of lighting adequate for the intersection, location, pedestrians, and
the design standard?
❑ Are the warning signs and markings sufficient, particularly at night?
❑ Have the needs of pedestrian and non-motorised vehicles been met?
❑ Are sight lines sufficient and clear of obstructions including parked and stopped
vehicles?
❑ Are accesses prohibited a safe distance away from the intersection?
❑ Have adequate facilities such as footpaths, refuges, and crossings, been
provided for pedestrians?
❑ Do the design, road marking and signing clearly identify the designated
passage ways and priorities?
❑ Is the design of the intersection consistent with road types and adjacent
intersections?
❑ Are the turning lanes and tapers where required of sufficient length for speeds
and storage?

Date: ................... Designer................................................

Date: ................... Responsible Engineer............................

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10 Roundabouts

10.1 Introduction
A roundabout is a one-way circulatory system around a central island, entry to which
is controlled by markings and signs. Priority is given to traffic already on the
roundabout. Roundabouts thus operate by deflecting the vehicle paths to slow the
traffic and promote yielding.
Roundabouts provide relatively high capacity and minimum delay. They also have a
good safety record largely because traffic speeds are low and the number of potential
traffic conflicts is greatly reduced, typically by 75%, for example, from 32 at a cross-
roads to just 8 at an equivalent four-legged roundabout.
The key elements of a roundabout are:
• Entries and exits.
• Splitter islands
• The circulatory roadway.
• The central island.
• Sight distances.
The main types of roundabout are mini, compact, normal, signalised and grade
separated.

10.1.1 Normal Roundabouts.

A ‘normal’ roundabout has a kerbed central island at least 4 m in diameter (Figure
10-1). Its approaches may be dual or single carriageway roads. Usually, a normal
roundabout has flared entries and exits to allow two or three vehicles to enter or leave
the roundabout on a given arm at the same time. If so, its circulatory roadway needs
to be wide enough for two or three vehicles to travel alongside each other on the
roundabout itself.
If four or more arms are required, the roundabout becomes large and a signalised
roundabout is usually required.

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 Figure 10-1: Basic Roundabout Showing Key Features

10.1.2 Compact Roundabout

A compact roundabout has single-lane entries and exits so that only one vehicle can
enter or leave it from a given arm at any one time (Figure 10-2). The width of the
circulatory carriageway is such that it is not possible for two cars to pass one another.
On roads with a speed limit of 65 km/h or less a compact roundabout may have low
values of entry and exit radii in conjunction with high values of entry deflection and is
particularly suitable where there is a need to accommodate the movement of
pedestrians and cyclists. A central overrun is normally provided (See Figure 10-2) to
allow longer vehicles with a wider swept path to navigate the compact roundabout
safely.

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 Figure 10-2: A Compact Roundabout

10.1.3 Mini Roundabout

A mini-roundabout does not have a kerbed central island. The central island is a flush
or domed circular marked area between 1 and 4 m in diameter capable of being driven
over where unavoidable.

10.1.4 Signalised Roundabout

A signalised roundabout has traffic signals on one or more of the approaches and at
the corresponding point on the circulatory carriageway itself. An example is illustrated
in Figure 10-20.

10.2 The use of roundabouts

Roundabouts should be considered when:
a) Intersection volumes do not exceed 3,000 vph at three-legged intersections
or 4,000 vph at four-legged intersections;
b) Roundabouts should generally be used if the major road flow is less than 3
times the minor road flow;
c) The use of roundabouts may also be considered close to built-up areas where
the through road may be crossed by local roads carrying high traffic volumes;
d) As a traffic calming measure.

They may not be appropriate in the following circumstances:

a) Where traffic flows are unbalanced, with high flows on one or more approaches
leading to serious delays to traffic on the major road;
b) Where there are substantial pedestrian flows;
c) As an isolated intersection in a network of linked signalised intersections;
d) In the presence of ‘reversible’ lanes;

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 e) Where semi-trailers and/or abnormal vehicles are a significant proportion of the
total traffic passing through the intersection and where there is insufficient
space to provide the required layout; and
f) Where traffic congestion downstream (e.g. from a signalised intersection)
causes a queue to back up through the roundabout.
Roundabouts generally take more land than fully channelised intersections. The
additional land acquisition costs for roundabouts should be balanced with the
increased capacity offered and less maintenance cost.
Roundabouts are usually more difficult for pedestrians to cross than normal
intersections hence arrangements should be made to provide adequate facilities.

10.3 Design Requirements

10.3.1 Safety and Speed Control

Entry width and sharpness of flare are the most important determinants of capacity,
whereas entry deflection is the most important factor for safety because it governs the
speed of vehicles through the roundabout.
The design speeds of the roundabout and its approach roads are the critical
parameters controlling safety. Approaching vehicles must be slowed down to 50km/h
or less. To help reduce speed a deflection is forced on the vehicles of up to 30O. All
roundabouts must be designed with some entry deflection.
Splitter islands should also be used to help achieve adequate speed reductions and to:
(i) Allow drivers time to perceive the upcoming roundabout as soon as is
practicable;
(ii) Provide space for a comfortable deceleration distance;
(iii) Physically separate entering and exiting traffic;
(iv) Prevent deliberate and highly dangerous wrong-way driving;
(v) Control entry and exit deflections;
(vi) Provide a refuge for pedestrians and cyclists;
(vii) Provide a place to mount traffic signs.
The sizes of splitter islands are dictated by the dimensions of the central island and
inscribed circle. As a general guideline they should have an area of at least 10 m2 so
as to ensure their visibility to the oncoming driver. The length of splitter islands should
be equal to the comfortable deceleration distance from the design speed of the
approach to that of the roundabout. Ideally, the nose of the splitter island should be
offset to the right of the approach road centreline by about 0.6 m to 1 m.
Entry and exit deflection angles and a suitable central island radius should also
prevent speeds in excess of 50 km/h on the roundabout itself. This is accomplished by
maximising the difference between the shortest path a driver could take through the
roundabout versus the straight-line distance from an entry to the opposite exit. No
vehicle path should allow a vehicle to traverse the roundabout at a radius greater than
100 m, which corresponds to the recommended design speed of 40 to 50 km/h (Figure
10-3).

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 Figure 10-3: Vehicle Path through Roundabout

10.3.2 Key requirements

The key requirements are:
• It must be easily seen and identified when drivers are approaching it;
• The layout must be simple and easy to understand; and it should be clearly
signed and marked;
• The global exit capacity must exceed the global entry capacity;
• Speed patterns on entry, exit and through the roundabout should follow a
safe and acceptable profile and be guaranteed by application of adequate
deflection to the vehicles’ movements;
• Vehicles should be guided through the full length of the trajectory from
upstream to downstream of the roundabout by applying adequate
channelisation principles and solutions;
• Adequate sight distances must be provided at the different positions of the
vehicles throughout the full trajectories.
• Where possible, lighting at night should be considered for safety.

10.3.3 Number and Alignment of Entry Roads

Roundabouts work best with four arms or entries, but they can also be used where
there are three or five entries. More than five legs should not be considered.
Ideally the entry roads should be equally-spaced around the perimeter with a
minimum angle of 60 degrees between them.
In three-arm intersections, the angles between the entry roads can be adjusted by
displacement of the central island from the intersection point of the centrelines of the
connecting roads or by deflection of the road alignments.
In five-arm intersections, the space for the extra connection can be created by making
the central island elliptical or by increasing the radius of the central island to at least
20 m. However, elliptical central islands can be confusing.

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 10.3.4 Visibility and Sight Distances
Roundabouts should be located where approaching drivers can have a good overview
of the roundabout with its entries, exits and circulating carriageway. Roundabouts
should therefore not be located on crest curves. Stopping sight distances must be
provided at every point within the roundabout and on all approaches.
The visibility splays shown in Figure 10-4 must be provided to allow drivers to judge
whether it is safe to enter the roundabout. It must be possible to see vehicles at the
preceding entry and the following exit as well as the nearest parts of the circulating
carriageway. However, drivers should not be able to see the preceding entry from
more than 15m before the ‘give way’ line, as this might encourage excessive approach
speeds.

shrubs possible

60m
>=50m
5m

Figure 10-4: Required visibility towards approaching vehicles from the right
and required visibility forwards to the left

Once within the roundabout, drivers must be able to see the area shown in Figure
10-5. Signs and landscaping on the centre island should be designed and located so
that they do not obstruct the view more than absolutely necessary, as illustrated.

Stopping sight

Figure 10-5: Required Visibility for Drivers within a Roundabout.

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10.4 Dimensions of Roundabouts

The dimensions of roundabouts are defined by the radii and widths shown in Figure
10-6 and Table 10-1 :

Figure 10-6: Nomenclature for Dimensions of Roundabouts Showing Design

Vehicle.
The labels are defined as follows:
a Main central island radius;
b Central overrun area, where provided;
c Remaining circulatory carriageway width = 1.0-1.2 x maximum entry;
d Vehicle;
e 1 m clearance minimum;
f Inscribed Circle Diameter;
R1 a + e.

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 Table 10-1 Roundabouts Dimensions

Central Island Minimum ICD

R1 R2
Diameter (m) (m)
4 3 13.0 28
6 4 13.4 28.8
8 5 13.9 29.8
10 6 14.4 30.8
12 7 15.0 32
14 8 15.6 33.2
16 9 16.3 34.6
18 10 17.0 36.0

The inscribed circle diameter (f) of the roundabout is the diameter of the largest circle
that can be fitted into the junction outline (Figure 10-6). The inscribed circle diameter
of a Normal Roundabout should not exceed 100m. Large inscribed circle diameters can
lead to vehicles exceeding 50 km/h on the circulatory carriageway. The minimum
value of the inscribed circle diameter for a Normal or Compact Roundabout is the
smallest roundabout that can accommodate the swept path of the Design Vehicle.
If the inscribed circle diameter lies between 28m and 36m, a Compact Roundabout
should be considered if the traffic flows can be accommodated.
The circulatory carriageway of Normal or Compact Roundabouts should generally be
circular and of constant width. The width of the circulatory carriageway must be
between 1.0 and 1.2 times the maximum entry width.
A suitable Design Vehicle is an articulated vehicle with a single axle at the rear of the
trailer, of length 15.5 metres. The turning space requirements of this vehicle on a
roundabout with an inscribed circle diameter of between 28 m and 36 m are shown in
Figure 10-6. The turning requirements of such a vehicle are greater than those for all
other vehicles within the normal maximum dimensions permitted. The requirements
for other vehicles including an 11 m long rigid vehicle, 12m long coach, 15 m bus,
17.9m, 18.35 m drawbar-trailer combination, and a 16.5 m articulated vehicle are less
onerous.
A mountable area or apron may be added to the central island to accommodate
occasional Large Heavy Vehicles and to allow the circulatory width to be reduced to
9.5 m. The apron should have crossfall steeper than that of the circulatory road,
principally to discourage passenger vehicles from driving on it, and a crossfall of 4 to
5% is recommended.

10.4.1 Normal Roundabouts

These are roundabouts where the radius at the edge of the carriageway is at least
18m and the central island radius is between 10m and 25m. It is difficult to control
speeds if the roundabout is larger than this, and this would mean that cyclists and
other vulnerable road users would be at risk. In most cases the size of the site will
determine the size of the roundabout.

10.4.1.1 Circulating Carriageway

The width of the circulating carriageway depends on whether it is to be one lane or
two-lane. Normally one-lane roundabouts are designed for an articulated vehicle and

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two-lane roundabouts are designed for an articulated vehicle and a passenger car.
Figure 10-7 shows the minimum width of circulating carriageway after determining the
design vehicle and the inscribe diameter (outer diameter).
At Normal and Grade Separated Roundabouts, the width of the circulatory carriageway
should not exceed 15 m. At Compact Roundabouts, it should not exceed 6 m, although
an additional overrun area may be required for small values of inscribed circle
diameter, depending on the types of vehicles using the roundabout.

Figure 10-7: Minimum Width of Circulating Carriageway – One Lane

For normal one-lane roundabouts (central island radius 10 m or greater) and two-lane
roundabouts, the central island radius, the edge of carriageway radius and the width
of the circulating carriageway are determined by the graphs in Figure 10-7 and Figure
10-8.
The designer should check that the circulating carriageway is no more than about 1.2
x the maximum entry width. Very wide carriageways encourage unsafe speeds.
The circulatory roadway should be sufficiently wide to allow a stalled vehicle to be
passed. The minimum roadway width for single-lane operation is therefore about 6.5
m between kerbs. Two-lane operation requires a roadway width of about 8.5 m. If
trucks are present in the traffic stream in sufficient numbers, the circulatory road
width should be increased by 3 m both in the single-lane and in the two-lane situation.
A significant proportion of semi-trailers would require the width of the circulatory road
to be increased even more to 13 m and 16 m in the single-lane and the two-lane
situation respectively.
The width should be constant throughout the circle. Drivers tend to position their
vehicles close to the outside kerbs on entering and exiting the roundabout but close to
the central island between these two points. The vehicle path, being the path of a
point at the centre of the vehicle, should thus have an adequate offset to the outside
and inside kerbs. For a vehicle with an overall width of 2.6 m, the offset should be not
less than 1.6 m, with 2.0 m being preferred.
A circulatory road width of 13 m makes it possible for passenger cars to traverse the
roundabout on relatively large radius curves and at correspondingly high speeds. To
avoid this possibility, the central island should be modified as discussed below.

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The cross-slope on the roadway should be away from the central island and equal to
the camber on the approaches to the intersection.

10.4.1.2 The Central Island

The central island consists of a raised non-traversable area (except in the case of
mini-roundabouts) that is usually circular. The island is often landscaped but the
landscaping must not obscure the proper sight lines across the island as shown in
Figure 10-4 and Figure 10-5.
It is important that a direct sight line across the island is not provided. Such a sight
line is a distraction for drivers and is not required by them. The sight line across the
central island must be obscured by the elevation of its core, or the central island when
there is no apron. This elevation should be in the form of a cone (slant slope = 15%),
planted with bushes, to cut the sight line across the island.
The central island should be circular and at least 4 metres in diameter. Mini-
roundabouts have central markings rather than kerbed islands with diameters of up to
4 m capable of being be driven over where unavoidable.
The inscribed circle diameter, the width of the circulatory carriageway and the central
island diameter are interdependent. Once any two of these are established, the
remaining measurement is determined automatically.

Figure 10-8: Radius of Central Island and Circulating Carriageway for Normal
Roundabouts.

10.4.2 Small Roundabouts (Compact and Mini)

These are roundabouts where the radius of the edge of carriageway is less than 18 m
and should have an inner central island radius of at least 2 m. Where space is limited,
such as in built-up areas, a slightly different design of roundabout is needed in order
to accommodate long trucks without sacrificing speed controlling features.
The problem with small roundabouts is that it is difficult to control car speeds because
the circulating carriageway has to be very wide in order to accommodate semi-trailers
and long vehicles. The solution is to build a centre island with an outer fringe which is
traversable by long vehicles. The traversable area should be a maximum of 40mm
high, have a rough surface (to discourage

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 light vehicles) and be edged with a mountable kerb. The intention is that light
vehicles will go around the outside of the traversable area, thus forcing the drivers to
travel slowly. Drivers of long vehicles will be able to negotiate the roundabout by
letting the rear wheels cross the traversable area. Guidance on the selection of central
island radii and traversable area are given in Figure 10-9.

Figure 10-9: Roundabout Radii for Small Roundabouts

10.5 Entries

10.5.1 Number of Entry Lanes

One-lane roundabouts are preferred from a safety viewpoint. For higher traffic
volumes, a two-lane circulating roadway may be necessary. Guidance is provided in
Figure 10-10.

Figure 10-10: Number of Entry Lanes

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The need for two lanes must be checked for each entry and circulating flows during
the design hour. If two lanes are necessary for one entry, the whole roundabout
should be designed with two lanes.

10.5.2 Approach Alignment

Entry deflection is essential in order to reduce the speed of approaching vehicles to
50km/h or less. The size of the deflection is dependent on the alignment of the entry
and should normally be at least one lane wide (3.5 m). Figure 10-11 shows one way of
achieving entry deflection. The designer should avoid making the deflection too sharp
because this could cause vehicles to overturn or overshoot (i.e. driver unable to stop
at the ‘give way’ line).
The entry road must be level with the circulating carriageway for a distance of at least
15 m before the ‘give way’ line. Typically, the centrelines of each of the approaches
should intersect in the middle to form a polygon as shown in Figure 10-11.

Figure 10-11: Design of Approach Deflection.

10.5.3 Splitter Islands

Splitter islands are used on each arm, located and shaped so as to separate and direct
traffic entering and leaving the roundabout. They are usually kerbed, but if there is
insufficient space to accommodate a kerbed island, they may consist entirely of
markings. Markings may also be used to extend a splitter island on the approach, the
exit or the circulatory carriageway.
Kerbed splitter islands can act as pedestrian refuges if they are large enough to give
adequate safe standing space for accompanied wheelchair users and pedestrians with
pushchairs or pedal cycles. Signs and other street furniture can be sited on kerbed
islands if there is sufficient room to maintain the required clearances.

10.5.4 Entry Design

A number of variables need to be considered in selecting an entry design which is safe
and has adequate capacity. These variables are:
• approach half width;
• entry width;
• entry flaring;
• entry angle;

10.5.4.1 Approach Half Width

The approach half width, v, is the width of the approach carriageway, excluding any
hatching, in advance of any entry flare (see Figure 10-12). It is the shortest distance
between the median line, or the edge of the central reserve on dual carriageway
roads, and the nearside edge of the road. Where there is white edge lining or

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hatching, the measurement should be taken between markings rather than kerb to
kerb.

Figure 10-12: Approach Half Width and Entry Width

10.5.4.2 Entry Radius and Width

The entry width, e, is the width of the carriageway at the point of entry. It is
measured from the point A at the right-hand end of the give way line along the normal
to the nearside kerb (see Figure 10-12). For capacity assessment, the measurement
should be taken as the total width of the lanes which drivers are likely to use i.e. the
effective width, which is normally between any white edge lining or hatching.
The entry width is one of the most important factors in increasing the capacity of the
roundabout and can be increased above the width of the approach by flaring, i.e. by
providing a passive taper with a taper rate of 1:12 to 1:15. If the approach volumes
are high, the flaring could add a full lane to the left of the entry to increase capacity.
As a general rule not more than two lanes should be added.
If space is scarce, especially likely in an urban environment, this could be reduced to a
minimum of 6 m.
Lane widths at the give way line (measured along the normal to the nearside kerb, as
for entry width) must be not less than 3m or more than 4.5 m, with the 4.5 m value
appropriate at single lane entries and values of 3 to 3.5 m appropriate at multilane
entries.
On a single carriageway approach to a Normal Roundabout, the entry width must not
exceed 10.5 m. On a dual carriageway approach to a Normal Roundabout, the entry
width must not exceed 15 m.
If flaring is provided, tapered lanes should have a minimum width of 2.5m.
On a single-carriageway road, where predicted flows are low and increased lane width
is not operationally necessary, a Compact Roundabout with single lane entries should
be used. The entry may need to be closed to carry out any form of maintenance so the
design of traffic management for maintenance should be discussed at an early stage in
the design process.
The development of entry lanes must take account of the anticipated turning
proportions and possible lane bias, since drivers often have a tendency to use the
nearside lane. The use of lane bifurcation where one lane widens into two should
maximise use of the entry width.

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For highway improvement schemes on trunk roads, it is usual to consider design year
flows sometime after opening. This can result in roundabout entries with too many
lanes for initial flows, subsequently leading to operational problems. A layout based on
projected flows will determine the eventual land requirements for the roundabout, but
for the early years it may be necessary for the designer to consider an interim stage.
This approach can result in reduced entry widths and entry lanes.
The entry widths in Table 10-2 should normally be used for one and two-lane
roundabouts respectively. The transition to normal lane width should be at least 30
metres long.

Table 10-2: Entry Widths

Entry width
Number
Design vehicle(s) Entry radius Entry radius
of lanes
≤15 m >15 m
1 Semi-trailer 6.5 m 6.0 m
2 Semi-trailer + passenger car 10.0 m 9.5 m

10.5.4.3 Alignment of Entry Lanes

The alignment of entry lanes is critical. Except at Compact Roundabouts in urban
areas, the kerb-line of the splitter island (or central reserve in the case of a dual
carriageway) should lie on an arc which, when projected forward, meets the central
island tangentially (see Figure 10-13) in order to reduce the likelihood of vehicle paths
overlapping.

Figure 10-13: Example Showing an Arc Projected Forwards from the Splitter Island
and Tangential to the Central Island.

10.5.4.4 Design of Multilane Entries

On multilane entries, it is important to ensure that entries are used equally. On flared
entries, the queue from an overused lane may back up and block access to other
lanes.

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 10.5.5 Entry Flaring
Entry flaring is localised widening at the point of entry. Normal Roundabouts usually
have flared entries with the addition of one or two lanes at the give way line to
increase capacity. Single lane entries e.g. those at Compact Roundabouts, should be
slightly flared to accommodate large goods vehicles. Even a small increase in entry
width may increase capacity.
The effective flare length, l’, is the length over which the entry widens. It is the length
of the curve CF', shown in Figure 10-14.

1. AB = entry width.
2. GH = v (approach half width at point G which is the best estimate of the start of the
flare).
3. GD is parallel to AH and distance v from AH (v is measured along a line perpendicular
to both AH and GD.
4. CF' is parallel to BG and distance ½ BD from the kerb line BG.

Figure 10-14: Average Effective Flare Length

The total length of the entry widening (BG) will be about twice the average effective
flare length.
The capacity of an entry can be improved by increasing the average effective flare
length. However, effective flare lengths greater than 25 m may improve the geometric
layout but have little effect in increasing capacity. A minimum length of about 5m in
urban areas and 25 m in rural areas is desirable.
The entry width and the flare length are related. The capacity of a wide entry
combined with a short flare can be similar to that of a narrow entry combined with a
long flare.

10.5.6 Entry Path Radius

The entry path radius is a measure of the deflection to the left imposed on vehicles
entering a roundabout. The smallest radius of this path occurs on entry as it bends to

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the left before joining the circulatory carriageway (Figure 10-15). It is the most
important determinant of safety at roundabouts because it governs the speed of
vehicles through the junction and whether drivers are likely to give way to circulating
vehicles.
The entry path radius must not exceed 70 m at Compact Roundabouts in urban areas
(where the speed limit and the design speed within 100 m of the give way line on any
approach do not exceed 70 kph. At all other roundabout types, the entry path radius
must not exceed 100 m.

a. Entry path radius should be measured over the smallest best fit circular curve over
a distance of 25m occurring along the approach entry path in the vicinity of the
give way line, but not more than 50m in advance of it.
b. Commencement point 50m from the give way line and at least 1m from the
nearside kerb or centre line (or edge of central reserve).

Figure 10-15: Determination of Entry Path Radius for Ahead Movement at a 4-

arm Roundabout

10.6 Driving Paths

The alignment of the connecting roads can make it necessary to adjust the exit and
entry curve radii. If larger radii than normal are used, the designer must check that all
possible 2 m wide driving paths for passenger cars fulfil the requirement R1≤ R2≤
R3≤ 100 m to achieve speed control (Figure 10-16).

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 R3

R2
R2

R3
R1 R1

Figure 10-16: Driving Paths for Passenger Cars

It is preferable to avoid reverse curvature between the entry and the following exit
(Figure 10-17). For roundabouts with big central islands or long distances between
entry and exit, this can be difficult to avoid. If possible, the alignment of the
connecting roads should be adjusted.

Figure 10-17: Alignment between entry and exit

A method for creating entry deflection at a Normal Roundabout is to stagger the arms
as shown in Figure 10-18. This will:
• reduce the size of the roundabout;
• minimise land acquisition;
• help to provide a clear exit route with sufficient width to avoid conflicts.

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 Figure 10-18: Staggering of East-West Arms to Increase Deflection

10.7 Exit Width

The exit width is the width of the carriageway on the exit. It is the distance between
the nearside kerb and the exit median (or the edge of any splitter island or central
reserve) where it intersects with the outer edge of the circulatory carriageway. It is
typically similar to or slightly less than entry widths (exits have less flaring). Except
for Compact Roundabouts, the exit width should, where possible, accommodate one
more traffic lane than is present on the link downstream.
For example, at a Normal Roundabout, if the downstream link is a single carriageway
road with a long splitter island, the exit width should be between 7m and 7.5m and
the exit should taper down to a minimum of 6m (see Figure 10-19), allowing traffic to
pass a broken down vehicle. If the link is an all-purpose two-lane dual carriageway,
the exit width should be between 10m and 11m and the exit should taper down to two
lanes wide.
The width should be reduced in such a way as to avoid exiting vehicles encroaching
onto the opposing lane at the end of the splitter island. Normally the width would
reduce at a taper of 1:15 to 1:20.
Where the exit is on an up gradient, the exit width may be maintained for a short
distance before tapering in. This helps reduce intermittent congestion caused by
slowly accelerating large goods vehicles by giving other drivers an opportunity to
overtake them. If the exit road is on an up gradient combined with an alignment which
bends to the left, it may be necessary to maintain the exit width over a longer
distance to help ensure that overtaking manoeuvres can be completed before the
merge is encountered.
At a Compact Roundabout, the exit width should be similar to the entry width.

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Figure 10-19: Typical Single Carriageway Exit at a Normal Roundabout with a
Long Splitter Island

10.8 Signalised Roundabouts

For large flows and therefore large roundabouts, traffic control will be required. Figure
10-20 is an example of such a roundabout. For details about the design of such
roundabouts the reader is referred to TD50 published by the UKs Highways Agency or
any similar publication.

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 Figure 10-20: Example of a Signalised Roundabout

10.9 Capacity of Roundabouts

The capacity of roundabouts has been the subject of much study and has led to
comparatively simple relationships which have proved remarkably robust. Of the
significant variables, three are of particular importance namely entry width, approach
width and flare length. The remaining geometries have lesser effects.
Typical values are an entry capacity of 2000 pcu/h when the circulating flow is 1000
pcu/h and no pedestrian facilities, decreasing to 1700 pcu/h when pedestrian crossing
facilities are required.
More detailed information is available from TD 16, TD 50 and TD 54(see references).

10.10 Pedestrian and Cycle Crossings

Pedestrian/cycle crossings are normally placed according to one of the two
alternatives shown in Figure 10-21. They should never be located within the
roundabout.

Give Way Line

>6m
Give Way Line

Alt. 1 Alt. 2
Figure 10-21: Location of pedestrian crossings

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In alternative 1 the give way line is placed after the pedestrian crossing. In alternative
2 it is placed before the pedestrian crossing.
With a sufficient distance between the crossing and the ‘give way’ line (alternative 1),
vehicles can yield separately for the pedestrian crossing and the roundabout. This
improves capacity but safety might be compromised. An exiting vehicle can also give
way to a pedestrian without blocking the roundabout with obvious capacity
advantages.
A disadvantage is that the traffic island may have to be extended and widened to
accommodate pedestrians and cyclists. Another disadvantage is that pedestrians have
to make an extra detour.

10.11 Typical Step by Step Design Procedure

The following steps may be followed in laying out a trial geometry for a roundabout:
1. Select the general design criteria to be used;
2. Select the appropriate design vehicle for the site;
3. Adopt a minimum design vehicle turning radius;
4. Determine from traffic flows the number of lanes required on entry, exit and
circulation;
5. Identify the needs of pedestrians;
6. Identify the location of controls such as right-of-way boundaries, utilities,
access requirements, and establish the space available;
7. Select a trial outer diameter and determine the width needed of the
circulating carriageway;
8. Draw the roundabout;
9. Check that the size and shape is adequate to accommodate all intersecting
legs with sufficient separations for satisfactory traffic operations;
10. Lay out the entrance/exit islands;
11. Check the achievement of adequate deflection. Adjust as required;
12. Check site distances at approaches and exits;
13. Layout lane and pavement markings;
14. Layout lighting plan; and,
15. Layout sign plan.

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11 Grade Separated Interchanges

11.1 Scope
Grade-separated interchanges are divided into two functional classes, referred to as
‘access’ interchanges (minor interchanges or merely grade separated interchanges),
and ‘systems’ (or major) grade separated interchanges.
Access interchanges are between freeways and roads on which at-grade interchanges
occur. They serve local areas by providing access to freeways. Systems interchanges
are the nodes of the freeway network itself, linking the individual freeways into a
cohesive unit. These two fundamentally different applications require different types of
interchange layout.
The fundamental difference between a freeway and any other road is that it is subject
to rigid control of access. Entrance and exit to and from a freeway may take place only
at specified points, typically remote from each other, and then only at very flat angles
of merging and diverging. A freeway is characterised by the fact that all interchanges
along its length are interchanges.
This manual does not deal in detail with the design of major grade-separated
interchanges between restricted access freeways (motorways) although the topic is
introduced sufficiently for some of the simpler designs to be carried out. More
comprehensive design guidelines for this topic are contained in the Geometric Design
Guidelines published by the South African National Roads Authority Limited, Pretoria,
RSA, and the Code of Practice for the Geometric Design of Trunk Roads published by
the Southern African Transport and Communications Commission (SATCC). More
detailed design information is available in the Advice Notes of the UKs Highways
Agency listed in the References that are freely available on the internet.

11.2 General
Systems interchanges have ramps with free-flowing terminals at both ends. The
volume of turning movements is high so there is a need for high design speeds on the
ramps. They provide uninterrupted movement for vehicles moving from one main
route to another by the use of connector roads with a succession of diverging and
merging manoeuvres. All turning movements are separated, and, ideally, weaving in
the interchanges is reduced to a minimum. The layout of these interchanges is
invariably complex, involving a substantial area and possibly more than one structure
constructed on two or more levels.
The most efficient form of grade separation is that which presents drivers with the
minimum number of clear unambiguous decision points as they drive through the
interchange and in merging and diverging. Additionally, on a motorway or an all-
purpose road that is generally grade separated, consistency of design for successive
interchanges is an important consideration involving the adoption of the same design
speed. This need for consistency also applies to signing and road markings.
At any road interchange, the flow of traffic, expressed in terms of a level of service,
can be enhanced by an interchange. The circumstances in which the use of a grade
separated interchange is warranted are usually as follows:
• Where roads cross freeways/motorways.
• Insufficient capacity of an at-grade junction. An interchange is then
justified economically from the savings in traffic delays and accident costs.
• Grade separation is cheaper on account of topography or on the grounds
that expensive land appropriation can be avoided by its construction.

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 • Reduction in accident rates. Some at-grade interchanges exhibit high
accident rates that cannot be lowered by improvements to the geometry or
the use of control devices. Such situations are often found at heavily
travelled urban interchanges.
Accident rates also tend to be high at the interchanges on heavily travelled rural
arterials where there is a proliferation of ribbon development. A third area of high
accident rates is at interchanges on lightly travelled low volume rural locations where
speeds tend to be high. In these cases, low-cost interchanges may be a suitable
solution.
Closely spaced successive off-ramps are often a source of confusion to the driver
leading to erratic responses and manoeuvres. Thus, an interchange should have only a
single exit for each direction of flow and exits should be located in advance of the
interchange structure. Directing traffic to alternative destinations on either side of the
freeway should then take place clear of the freeway itself. Thus, drivers are required
to make two separate decisions. First, to leave the freeway or not and, if not, to
decide which route to take for their next destination. This spreads the workload and
simplifies the decision process, hence improving the operational efficiency and safety
of the entire facility.
Single entrances are also preferred. Merging manoeuvres by vehicles entering the
freeway are a perturbation to the free flow of traffic in the left lane. Closely spaced
entrances exacerbate the problem and could influence the adjacent lanes as well.
There are several advantages in carrying the minor crossing road over the freeway
rather than under it. These are:
• Exit ramps on up-grades assist deceleration and the corresponding entrance
ramps on downgrades assist acceleration.
• Rising exit ramps are highly visible to drivers and provide advanced warning of
the interchange ahead requiring a decision from the driver whether to stay on
the freeway or to depart from it.
• Placing the freeway into cut reduces noise levels to surrounding communities
and also reduces visual intrusion.

11.3 Spacing of Interchanges

The distance between two successive grade-separated junctions is an element of great
importance in ensuring the desired level of service. Rural interchanges are typically
spaced at distances of 8 km or more. In a metropolitan environment closer spacing is
often needed.
In a metropolitan environment the spacing should provide sufficient distance for the
weaving manoeuvres required between interchanges and, most importantly, for the
sequence of signs required to inform drivers that are unfamiliar with the road of the
location of exits to specific destinations. (Transportation Research Board, Highway
Capacity Manual), SANRAL, Geometric Design Guidelines). The recommended absolute
minimum distance is 2.5 km.
Rest areas (Section 12.7) are an integral part of a modern highway system and should
be located at suitable spacings along the main freeways.

11.4 Choice of Scheme

In deciding on the location of a grade-separated interchange, the following factors
should be taken into account:
i) Predicted traffic volumes.
ii) Cost.

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 iii) Congestion control.
iv) Trip lengths (travel distance).
v) Size of urban areas.

From a study of conflicting traffic movements, it should be apparent which traffic

streams must be grade-separated, leaving the other streams to be dealt with by
interchanges at grade. The choice of these will depend upon the capacities needed. A
study of the characteristics of various types of grade-separated junctions is necessary,
and a number of alternative designs should be prepared. The final choice of scheme
must satisfy capacity requirements, geometric standards, and operational needs, and
represent an economical design.
The exact layout and configuration of the ramps of the interchange depends on the
interchange angles between the freeway and the intersecting road, the position of the
interchange in the network and the layout of the total network. All movements may
not necessarily be provided in all interchanges, however, the non-availability of certain
movements in the interchange may lead to unwanted behaviour by drivers. It is good
practice to plan for the possible inclusion of additional ramps and to acquire adequate
road reserve, if possible, if all movements are not provided for from the outset.
In some instances, the choice of a particular design will be determined by the adoption
of two-stage construction, i.e. constructing an at-grade junction first and providing
grade separation later.

11.5 Types of Interchanges

Each major type is discussed briefly in Table 11-1 with reference, where appropriate,
to the basic line diagram layouts shown in Figure 11-1. For additional designs the
reader should consult the references quoted above. Grade-separated interchanges
generally fall into four categories depending upon the number of roads involved and
their relative importance. These categories are as follows:
• Three-way junctions.
• Junctions of major/minor roads.
• Junctions of two major roads.
• Junctions of more than two major roads.

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Table 11-1: Characteristics of some common Grade Separated Interchanges
Type of
Basic Properties Considerations
interchange
The movements associated with the missing
leg are channelled to another location and this
A is only appropriate if the traffic volumes on the
missing leg are low and capable of being
Grade separation of only served by an at-grade junction.
one traffic stream This configuration is appropriate for traffic
volumes of up to 30,000 AADT on the four-lane
B major road (3,000 vehicles per hour). With a
single loop lane, it is appropriate for loop
traffic of 1,000 vehicles per hour.
Layout C shows the ‘half clover leaf’ type of
C The simplest for major/ junction which has the advantage of being
minor road junctions that easily adapted to meet difficult site conditions.
both transfer the major Layout D shows the normal ‘diamond’ junction
traffic conflicts to the which requires the least land appropriation.
D minor road. The choice between these options is generally
dependent on land requirements.
Layouts E and F show the
two basic layouts for use
where high traffic flows
make the simpler layouts
Layout E shows a ‘full clover leaf’ junction
unsatisfactory. They are
E involving only one bridge but requiring a large
appropriate for traffic
land appropriation.
volumes on both crossing
roads of between 10,000
and 30,000 AADT (3,000
vehicles per hour).
Layout F shows a typical
roundabout interchange. It
is only suitable if the
secondary road containing
Layout F shows a typical roundabout
F the roundabout is of a
interchange involving two bridges.
relatively low design speed
but carries a
comparatively high volume
of traffic.

11.5.1 Three-way Interchanges (Layouts A and B).

The Y-Interchange (also called a Trumpet Interchange) is a three-legged interchange
where one freeway terminates at its interchange with another freeway. It is therefore
the interchange equivalent of a T-junction. Grade separation of only one traffic stream
is provided therefore the movements associated with the missing leg must be
channelled to another location and this is only appropriate if the traffic volumes on the
missing leg are low and capable of being served by an at-grade junction elsewhere.
There are two possible layouts for the interchange, both of which make provision for
direct ramps for all but one of the movements (Figure 11-1). Type A has the loop
ramp before the structure. The alternative (Type B) has the loop ramp after the
structure. A traffic study will show which flows are the highest and the local
topography and existing or planned developments around the site will all influence the
final layout.
The Y-interchange is also suitable when the intersecting roads are on a skew angle (ie
not 90o).

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The Y-interchange may also be a part of a phased construction, for example, if the
freeway which currently ends at the interchange, is planned to continue at some time
in the future. In such a case the alignment of the freeway should be in the final
position, or as near to it as possible, to minimise future construction work, and the
bridges should be built in their final position, so that the future extension can make
use of them.

LAYOUT A LAYOUT B

Figure 11-1: Typical Layouts for Grade-Separated Interchanges.

11.5.2 Junctions of Major/Minor Roads (Layouts C and D)

Layouts C and D are the simplest for major/minor road junctions and both transfer the
major traffic conflicts to the minor road. Layout C shows the ‘half clover leaf’ type of
interchange which has the advantage of being easily adapted to meet difficult site
conditions. Appendix F illustrates variations of Layout C, including dimensions.
Layout D shows the normal ‘diamond’ interchange. Approaching the interchange from
either direction, an off-ramp diverges only slightly from the major road and runs
directly across the minor road becoming an on-ramp that returns to the major road in
a similar way. The two places where the ramps meet the minor road are treated as

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conventional priority interchanges with stop signs or traffic lights. This form of
interchange is very common, particularly in rural areas
The diamond interchange uses less space than most types of freeway interchange and
avoids the interweaving traffic flows that occur in interchanges such as the cloverleaf.
Thus, diamond interchanges are most effective in areas where traffic is light and a
more expensive interchange type is not needed. But where traffic volumes are higher
additional traffic control measures such as traffic lights and extra lanes dedicated to
turning traffic are required.
The ramp intersections with the minor road can be configured as a pair of
roundabouts. This is the ‘dumbell’ layout shown in Figure 11-2. The advantages are
that it can be adapted to fit either a diamond or half cloverleaf; it has increased
junction capacity and reduced land take compared with the diamond.
Roundabouts can generally handle traffic with fewer approach lanes than other
intersection types therefore this configuration allows other roads to form approach
legs to the roundabouts and also allows easy U-turns.

Figure 11-2: Dumb-bell Layout (One Bridge, Two Roundabouts)

11.5.3 Interchange between Two Major Roads

Layouts E and F show the two basic junction layouts for use where high traffic flows
make the simpler layouts unsatisfactory. They are appropriate for traffic volumes on
both crossing roads of between 10,000 and 30,000 AADT (3,000 vehicles per hour).
Layout E shows a ‘full clover leaf’ interchange involving only one bridge but requiring a
large land appropriation. It is well suited for the intersection of two freeways
especially in rural or suburban locations where space is available. The cloverleaf is
characterised by having all the right–turning movements accommodated by loop
ramps, i.e. a 270 degree change of direction. To maximise capacity all left turns are
enabled before reaching the intersection by ramps (referred to as ‘collector-distributer’
roads) shown on the outside of each quadrant in the Figure 11-2. To facilitate the
turning and weaving movements, auxiliary lanes should be provided on each
carriageway thereby allowing unhindered traffic flow on the straight-through freeway
lanes.
The right turn movements occur on the loop ramps, with a design speed of 30 to 50
km/h, giving radii of 30 - 100 m respectively. The additional travel distance around
the loop varies from 200 - 500 m. The larger the radius of the loop ramp, the larger

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the radius of the left turn ramps have to be as well, thus the overall size of the
interchange area also increases.
There are two (relatively minor) disadvantages of the cloverleaf. Firstly, the low
radius, and consequent low design speed, of the loops, restricts them to being single
lane thereby limiting their capacity. Secondly the requirement to turn left first in order
to turn right is not intuitive to a driver. The advantage of the cloverleaf interchange is
that it can handle large volumes of traffic and, unless the traffic on one ramp becomes
very high, can serve most situations adequately.
Interchanges with loops in all four quadrants are referred to as full cloverleafs and all
others are referred to as partial cloverleafs. A full cloverleaf may not be warranted at
major-minor crossings where, with the provision of only two loops, freedom of
movement for traffic on the major roadway can be maintained by confining the direct
at-grade left turns to the minor roadway.
Layout F (Figure 11-1) shows an interchange involving two bridges. This layout is
suitable if the secondary road containing the minor circulating roadway is of a
relatively low design speed but carries a comparatively high volume of traffic. If high
speeds on the circulating roadway occur, it can lead to problems for joining traffic
hence the dimensions of the circulating roadway need to be selected to avoid this or
traffic control can be used to alleviate this problem.

11.5.4 Roundabout Layouts

The ‘dumb-bell’ roundabout layout (Figure 11-2) has the advantage of reduced cost
(only one bridge) and less land take than the two-bridge arrangement of Layout F. An
alternative to layout F is to reduce the size of the interchange by using a roundabout
as shown in Figure 11-3. The same considerations apply as for layout F and traffic
control will be required.

Figure 11-3: Use of a large roundabout

11.5.5 Junctions of more than Two Major Roads

Interchanges of more than two main roads are difficult to design; they
• occupy large areas of land;
• require numerous bridges; and

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 • are extremely expensive.
The need for this type of interchange, although unlikely to be required on rural roads
in Mozambique for some time, can often be reduced by changes in the major road
alignments (which will simplify the traffic pattern) to a combination of the simpler and
more economic layouts described above.

11.6 Interchanges on Non-freeway Roads

Major routes that warrant interchanges are usually freeways. A major route that is not
a freeway is unlikely, but it might arise where traffic flows are so heavy that a
signalised intersection cannot provide sufficient capacity or it might be an intersection
with a particularly poor accident history that requires upgrading. As a general rule, a
simple and relatively low-cost interchange (grade-separated junction) should suffice
(e.g. Figure 11-4 and Appendix F). The accident history should provide some
indication of the required type of interchange.

Figure 11-4: Jug Handle Interchange

11.7 Geometric Standards

11.7.1 Design Speed

The design speed for through traffic movements is determined in accordance with
Chapter 4. Stopping sight distances appropriate for the design speed should always be
provided.
The design speeds for loops and ramps depend whether their terminations are free
flowing or a stop junction. The term ‘free flowing’ implies that the ramp terminals can
be negotiated at more or less the speed prevailing on the through road. Traffic on the
terminals thus diverges from or merges with traffic on the through road at very flat
angles.
For the ramps or loops of access-type interchanges, where the end of the exit loop
terminates at a road junction, the design speed should, ideally, be 40-50 km/h. Higher
design speeds require higher radii of curvature and longer loops and therefore have a
significant cost implication. However, the design speed should not be so low that it is
requires drivers who are leaving the freeway to reduce speed too quickly hence either
compound curves are required suitable for an entry speed of 65% of the design speed
of the freeway or a deceleration lane must be provided on the freeway.
If a high volume of turning (exiting) traffic is expected, free flowing terminals at each
end of the loop or ramp will accommodate traffic entering and leaving at speeds close
to the operating speeds of the through and intersecting roads. A lower design speed in

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the middle of the loop or ramp will have a restrictive effect on the capacity of the
ramp and is therefore unacceptable.
Where a dual carriageway intersects with another dual carriageway (a major
interchange), the interchange between the facilities must be designed so that the
linking ramps do not entail any significant reduction in the design speeds of the
crossing carriageways. That is, a sufficient deceleration to cause discomfort to vehicle
occupants (Section 9.7.10).
Deceleration and acceleration lanes must also be provided on the freeway.

11.7.2 Acceleration and Deceleration Lanes

The minimum standards to be applied for left turn deceleration lanes are the same as
for at-grade junctions (Section 9.7.11 and 9.7.12). The total length of an acceleration
lane (i.e. not including the merging taper) must never be less than 150 m or more
than 400 m.

11.7.3 Horizontal Curves and Super-elevation

The geometric principles described in this manual apply equally to the ramps for
interchanges. The maximum super-elevation for loops is 8% which, at a design speed
of 50 km/h, leads to a minimum radius of 80 m. Where smaller radii are unavoidable,
warning signs are necessary.
Where transitions occur from high to low speeds, the curves must be compound or
transitional, the radius at any point being appropriate for the vehicle speed at that
point.

11.7.4 Vertical Curves and Gradients

To ensure reasonable standards of visibility, comfort and appearance, vertical curves
should be introduced at all changes in gradient. Vertical curve lengths should be
determined in accordance with Chapter 6 to provide safe stopping sight distances.

11.7.5 Widths and Gradients of Ramps

If a stalled vehicle blocks an off-ramp, the line of stopped vehicles will soon extend
back to the freeway creating a hazardous situation and also affecting the quality of
traffic flow on the freeway. The blocking of an on-ramp will lead to the blocking of the
stop-condition terminal, impeding the flow of traffic along the crossing road. An overall
ramp width of 8.0 m, comprising a shoulder of 2.0 m on the nearside and 1.5 m on
the far side (widened by 0.5 m where a safety barrier is required) is adequate and
also allows for future conversion of the single lane into two narrower lanes.
For ramps on radii of 150 m or less, the minimum carriageway width must be in
accordance with Table 11-2.

Table 11-2: Minimum Widths for Ramps

Radius (m) 25 30 40 50 75 100 150
Carriageway Width (m) 5.3 5.0 4.6 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0

The maximum up gradient should be 5% and the maximum down gradient should be
7%.

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 11.7.6 Clearances
The required vertical and horizontal clearances must be in accordance with those
described in this manual for principal roads.

11.7.7 Capacity
Grade-separated junctions are generally designed using traffic volumes given in terms
of the Daily High Volume (DHV) rather than Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADTs). A
detailed traffic study and analysis can be made to determine these values. In the
absence of such a study, it can be assumed that the DHV in an urban area is 10% of
AADT and 15% in rural areas. The capacity of each traffic lane, in DHV, is normally
about 1000 vehicles per hour.
Thus, for example, Table 1-1indicates a design traffic flow of 10,000 to 15,000 AADT
for design standard H1. The expected DHV is therefore 1000 to 1500. The capacity of
this facility would be exceeded at more than 1000 vehicles per hour per lane, which
equates to 4,000 vehicles per hour for all four lanes, hence capacity will not be
exceeded at 15,000 AADT.
These DHV values are necessary in choosing the number of lanes for the ramps
corresponding to the junction.

11.7.8 Basic Lanes and Lane Balance

Basic lanes are those that are maintained over an extended length of a route
irrespective of local changes in traffic volumes and requirements for lane balance.
Alternatively stated, the basic number of lanes is a constant number of lanes assigned
to a route, exclusive of auxiliary lanes.
The number of basic lanes changes only when there is a significant change in the
general level of traffic volumes on the route. Short sections of the route may thus
have insufficient capacity. This problem can be overcome by the use of auxiliary lanes.
In the case of spare capacity, reduction in the number of lanes is not recommended
because this area could, at some future time, become a bottleneck. Unusual traffic
demands, created by accidents, maintenance or special events, could also result in
these areas becoming bottlenecks.
The basic number of lanes is derived from consideration of the design traffic volumes
and capacity analyses. To promote the smooth flow of traffic there should be a proper
balance of lanes at points where merging or diverging manoeuvres occur. In essence,
there should be one lane where the driver has the choice of a change of direction
without the need to change lanes. The application of lane balance and coordination
with basic number of lanes is illustrated in Figure 11-5.
At merges, the number of lanes downstream of the merge should be one less than the
sum of the number of lanes upstream of the merge plus the number of lanes in the
merging ramp. This is typified by a one-lane ramp merging with a two-lane
carriageway that, after the merge, continues as a two-lane carriageway as is the case
on a typical Diamond Interchange layout. This rule precludes a two-lane ramp
immediately merging with the carriageway without the addition of an auxiliary lane.
At diverges, the number of lanes downstream of the diverge should be one less than
the total number upstream of the diverge plus the number of lanes in the diverging
ramp. The only exception to this rule is on short weaving sections, such as at
Cloverleaf Interchanges, where a condition of this exception is that there is an
auxiliary lane through the weaving section. When two lanes diverge from the freeway,
the above rule indicates that the number of freeway lanes beyond the diverge is
reduced by one. This can be used to drop a basic lane to match anticipated flows
beyond the diverge. Alternatively, it can be an auxiliary lane that is dropped.

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Basic lanes and lane balance are brought into harmony with each other by building on
the basic lanes, adding or removing auxiliary lanes as required. The principle of lane
balance should always be applied in the use of auxiliary lanes. Operational problems
on existing roadways can be directly attributed to a lack of lane balance and failure to
maintain route continuity. The application of lane balance and coordination with basic
number of lanes is illustrated in Figure 11-5

Figure 11-5: Principles of Lane Balance

11.8 Design Principles

Specific design principles apply to grade-separated intersections. These are:
1. The high speeds normally found on roads where grade separation is required, and
the low design speeds of ancillary roads make it necessary to pay particular
attention to the transitions between high and low speed. This not only influences

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 the use of long speed-change lanes and compound curves but also the choice of
types of interchange which do not result in abrupt changes in vehicle speeds.
2. Weaving between lanes on the main roadway within the interchange is undesirable
and can be avoided by arranging for diverging points to precede merging points.
3. On a road with many grade-separated interchanges, a consistent design speed is
desirable for ramps. This speed must be not less than 65% of the speed of the
adjoining major road.
4. As a general rule, right-turning movements that are grade separated should be
made through a left-hand loop.
5. Unexpected prohibited traffic movements, especially where traffic is light, are
difficult to enforce and cause danger. If possible, the geometric layout should be
designed to make prohibited movements difficult, for example on one-way ramps,
entry contrary to the one way movement can be restricted by the use of suitably
shaped traffic islands to supplement the traffic signs.

11.9 Design Procedures

Step 1 Develop a Basic Plan

It is important that grade separated intersections and lengths of the principal roadway
between interchanges are considered together from the outset. Choices of one will
affect the other and vice versa.

Step 2 Determine Design Year

Careful consideration of the design year will be required, bearing in mind the design
year strategy adopted for the routes connected by the interchange. It will often be
easier to add capacity to a motorway route than to reconstruct a major interchange
and therefore high design year traffic flows should be considered.

Step 3 Establish Urban or Rural Standards

Major interchanges will normally be located on inter-urban routes designed to rural
standards. However restricted space available around existing interchanges may
require consideration of speed restrictions and possibly lower urban design standards,
especially in peri-urban areas. A clear and definite change between rural and urban
standards will be required so that drivers are made aware of the changed driving
environment. This can be made by the introduction of a transition zone including
posted speed limit either for the whole complex or for those elements linking directly
to the local urban network.

Step 4 Determine Constraints

Choice of location for major interchanges on existing routes will be limited, compared
with new routes. In many instances development, attracted by easy access to the
motorway system, may have extended up to the existing highway boundary.
Constraints may include the following:
A) Environmental Constraints:
• Land take
• Effect on
▪ property
▪ landscape
▪ ecology
▪ rights of way
▪ heritage

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 • Noise and air quality
• Visual impact

B) Engineering Constraints:
• Condition of existing structures
• Topography
• Geology
• Existing traffic flows
• Existing interchange layout
• Ability to manage traffic during construction
• Ability to manage traffic during maintenance.

Step 5 Develop Local Network and Interchange Strategy

This stage follows initial consideration of the broad network strategy and constraints.
It includes assessment of the need to maintain provision for all existing traffic
movements at the interchange or the redirection of traffic to adjacent junctions or
interchanges via motorway link roads or other routes.

Step 6 Select Options for Appraisal

The aim is to identify a satisfactory minimum cost solution. A comparison of at least
two solutions should be made, even for relatively straightforward problems. For more
complex problems several solutions should be prepared for analysis. Options should
include those with minimum effect on existing traffic together with options that may
cause greater disturbance during construction but would provide a potentially more
efficient and/or compact layout for future use. The incremental cost of each should be
compared with the quantified benefits/costs of the alternative solutions.

Step 7 Select Appraisal Criteria

It may be appropriate to apply different weighting to different criteria, depending on
local factors but this should be agreed with ANE. Where identified, minimum values to
be achieved should be included.

Step 8 Develop Traffic Flows

Derive low and high growth design year traffic flows for each section of mainline and
connector road in accordance with ANE procedures.

Step 8 Lane Requirements

Determine mainline and connector road lane requirements for each option

Step 9 Merge, Diverge and Weaving Requirements

Check merge, diverge and weaving layouts including lane balance. If the route is
particularly constrained by the proximity of interchanges or by high weaving flows,
controlled speed environments may need to be considered, either all day or for part of
the day.

Step 10 Road Signs

Ensure that an effective road signing scheme has been designed incorporating both
advance direction signing and subsequent route confirmation.

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Step 11 Appraisal Process
In many cases the scale and effect of the works required will necessitate preparation
of a full environmental appraisal either for the interchange works alone or in
conjunction with adjacent motorway widening or construction proposals.

The Public Consultation type framework for the comparison of several options provides
a suitable basis for the assessment. This will therefore ensure that consideration is
given to:
• The effects on travellers
• The effects on occupiers of property
• The effects on users of facilities
• Conservation policies
• Development and transport policies
• Costs
The effects on travellers will include an appraisal of the complexity and safety of the
proposed interchange layouts. Where there are significant differences between the
times and/or distances involved in negotiating the interchange, economic assessments
of operating costs and time savings or delays should be carried out.
Driver stress and driver comprehension of the layout will depend on the number and
timing of decisions and manoeuvres required. These will be affected by the speed of
traffic and its density which may mean short gaps for manoeuvres and increased
stress when weaving.
Travellers will also be affected by delays during construction and the economic
assessment must take account of these costs. Solutions that result in the best final
arrangement may cause the greatest disturbance to traffic during construction. It is
therefore important that consideration is given to the provision of temporary works.
Such measures, while increasing construction costs, can significantly reduce the cost
of delays. It is also important that the costs of future maintenance, including traffic
delay costs, are taken into account.
Safety of both motorway users and construction personnel is of prime importance in
the design of major interchange improvement schemes. It is essential that designers
consider the safety implications of the construction methods and traffic management
measures necessary for execution of the work.
It will also be necessary to establish the importance given to the feasibility of
providing additional capacity at a future date for each option.
Environmental factors are likely to be significant. There will often be limitations on the
land available for new highway works and amelioration measures due to the presence
of development along some parts of the motorway boundaries. The use of long lengths
of elevated carriageway or the provision of additional levels over existing interchanges
is likely to be environmentally intrusive.

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12 Additional Safety and Miscellaneous Design Items
Road user safety has economic consequences in terms of property damage, loss of
earnings or production and hospital costs resulting from physical injury, in addition to
the emotional consequences of pain, suffering and death. Safety and economy are the
foundations on which competent design rests. Inadequate consideration of either will
automatically result in inadequate design.
It is difficult to correct many safety defects at a later stage without major
reconstruction hence designing for safety should occur at the very beginning of a road
project. Road safety audits by an independent person or team should be undertaken
during each stage of the design and a system for doing so has been under
development (H J S Lotter (2011) Interim Road Safety Audit Procedures).
Good geometric design of roads has an important part to play in reducing the number
and severity of road accidents. Road safety aspects have been highlighted throughout
this manual:
• Human factors have been addressed in the design process;
• Road and shoulder widths have been increased to accommodate pedestrians,
NMT, and intermediate forms of transport (IMT);
• Moderate design speeds have been used for elements of road alignment;
• Parking places and lay-bys for buses have been included in populated areas;
• Account has been taken of reduced friction on unpaved roads;
• Adequate sight distances have been provided.
Indeed, many aspects of geometric design that have been described in previous
chapters are dictated by road safety requirements. The scope of this chapter is to
introduce the design and specifications of other important safety features that have
not been covered in detail in earlier chapters. However, some of the principles, for
example, the effects of human factors, are given additional emphasis.
Miscellaneous design items in this chapter include bus lay-bys and parking bays,
parking lanes, safety barriers, emergency escape ramps, brake check areas, safety
rest areas and scenic overlooks, public utilities, and railway grade crossings.

12.1 The Road Accident Situation

The road accident statistics in Mozambique, in common with many other countries,
show that death rates from road accidents are 30 to 50 times higher than in the
countries of Western Europe. The numbers of serious injuries resulting from road
accidents are equally alarming. Economic analysis has shown conclusively that this
high level of road accidents has economic consequences for the country that is
equivalent to a reduction of between 2% and 3% of GDP. This is a very significant
drain on the economy. Furthermore, the consequences of the road accidents impose a
great deal of grief and anguish on a considerable proportion of the population. Every
effort should therefore be made to reduce the number of serious accidents.

12.1.1 Pedestrians
In Africa about 38 % of all road fatalities are pedestrians. Methods and designs that
improve the safety of pedestrians are therefore vital.
• Pedestrian actions are less predictable than those of motorists. They tend to
select paths that are the shortest distance between two points and avoid using
underpasses or overpasses that are not convenient. As a consequence, they
frequently take risks that vehicle drivers have difficulty anticipating.

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 • Walking speeds vary from 1.0 m/s to 1.8 m/s, with an average of 1.4 m/s. For
design purposes 1.0 m/s is recommended because of the aging population.
• In urban areas it is necessary to make provision for boarding and alighting
public transport passengers (Section 3.13), disabled persons and other non-
vehicular users of the facility in addition to accommodating pedestrians and
cyclists
• Pedestrian safety is enhanced by the provision of median refuge islands of
sufficient width at wide intersections (Section 3.14), and lighting at complex
locations.
• In urban areas, the presence of large numbers of pedestrians will require
adequate sidewalk widths (Section 3.15).
• On rural roads, speeds are high so that accidents involving pedestrians are
inevitably fatal. Provision should be made for protecting pedestrians on rural
roads, even though their numbers may be low (Section 3.16).
• As implied above, age is an important factor that may explain behaviour that
leads to collisions. It is recommended that older pedestrians be
accommodated, not only by assuming lower design speeds as stated above,
but also by using simple designs that minimize crossing widths. Where complex
elements such as channelisation and separate turning lanes are featured, the
designer should assess alternatives that will assist older pedestrians.

12.1.2 Cyclists
Bicycle use is increasing and should be considered in the road design process.
Improvements such as:
• Wider paved shoulders;
• bicycle-safe drainage gratings (flat metal grids to prevent unwanted debris
from entering a drain underneath but with transverse bars and slots which
cannot snag bicycle wheels);
• maintaining a smooth, clean riding surface.
Cyclists can often be accommodated on the normal travelled lanes but, when the
number of cyclists increases, it may be necessary to widen these lanes or to provide
cycle paths adjacent to or, for preference, away from the travelled lane. At certain
locations it may be appropriate to supplement the existing road system by providing
specifically designated cycle paths.

12.2 Improving Safety

There are a number of other steps that could be taken to improve safety. These
include:
i) Traffic calming measures to reduce speeds in populated area;
ii) Road markings, signing and lighting;
iii) Segregating pedestrians and motorised vehicles in populated areas;
iv) Providing safety barriers at dangerous locations;
v) Providing a road safety audit (RSA) at all stages of design.

A checklist of engineering design features that affect road safety is given in Figure
12-1. Many of these have been discussed in the appropriate chapters of this manual
but for more detail the TRL publication ‘Towards Safer Roads’ is recommended.

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Figure 12-1: Engineering Design Features Affecting Road Safety

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12.3 Traffic Calming
The seriousness of road accidents increases dramatically with speed and hence very
significant improvements to road safety are possible if traffic can be slowed down. This
process is called traffic calming. All such methods have both advantages and
disadvantages and the effectiveness of the methods also depends on aspects of driver
behaviour that can vary considerably from country to country. Therefore, research
needs to be carried out in Mozambique to identify the most cost effective approaches.
The likely effect of any traffic calming measure on all the road users should be
reviewed before they are installed. Some are unsuitable if large buses are part of the
traffic stream; some are very harsh on bicycles, motorcycles and motor cycle taxis;
and some are totally unsuitable when there is any animal-drawn transport.
The most common methods are:
i) Chicanes;
ii) Rumble strips and other textured surfacings;
iii) Speed reduction humps and cushions;
iv) Roundabouts;
v) Horizontal deflection of a straight road when approaching a roundabout or
junction;
vi) Narrowing the width of the carriageway by, for example, channelising;
vii) Road markings such as painted chevrons, ghost islands, go slow signs, speed
limit signs etc.;
viii) Gateways for the entrance to a village area;
ix) Prohibition of certain vehicle types by physical width or height restrictions or
signs (but with enforcement);
x) Adding crossing facilities for pedestrians and cyclists.
The effectiveness of these methods is very variable but those that require a physical
intervention rather than merely a text warning are the most effective and those that
directly affect speed for 100 % of the time such as the first four in the list (i.e. not
dependent on the presence of third parties, are the most effective of all.

12.3.1 Chicanes
These are designed to produce minor turning movements along straight streets in
established urban areas by reducing the width of the road to one lane for a very short
distance (3-5 m) at intervals (typically 300 m) along it. They are usually built on
alternate sides of the road. They cause drivers to slow down provided that the traffic
level is high enough to make it very probable that they will meet an oncoming vehicle.
The method is obviously unacceptable if traffic flow is high because the congestion
that it causes will be severe. For safety, they must be illuminated at night.

12.3.2 Rumble strips

These are essentially a form of artificial road texture that causes considerable tyre
noise and vehicle vibrations if the vehicle is travelling too fast. They are used in two
ways. The first is to delineate areas where vehicles should not be. Here they are
provided as a line running parallel to the normal traffic flow so that if a vehicle
inadvertently strays onto or across the line the driver will receive adequate warning.
Secondly, they are used across the road where they are placed in relatively narrow
widths of 2 to 4 m but at intervals along the road of typically 50 to 200 m. They are
uncomfortable, although not significantly for heavy vehicles, to drive across at speed

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hence they are effective in providing moderate slowing down of the traffic. They do
not need to be illuminated at night.

12.3.3 Speed Reduction Humps and Cushions

A road hump is a device for controlling the speed of vehicles consisting of a raised
area across the roadway. There are two main types of road humps i.e. circular topped,
which are intended for traffic speed reduction only, and flat-topped humps, which are
intended for speed reduction and for use as a pedestrian crossing.
The shape of the hump is important to reduce the severity of the shock when a vehicle
drives over it. Ideally, they should cause driver discomfort but not vehicle damage.
Road humps may be used on roads where it is proven to be necessary. Standard
circular road humps are 100mm high with standard lengths of 3.7 m and 9.5 m for
speed limits of 30 and 50km/h respectively as shown in Figure 12-2.

Figure 12-2 Circular humps

However, other sizes may be adopted depending on site conditions as indicated in

Table 12-1. The circular road hump must also have a short run-on fillet at both ends
to smoot the passage of vehicles onto the hump.

Table 12-1: Design of Circular Road Humps (Height = 0.1 m)

(Note, lead on and lead off fillet not shown)

Car speed Truck speed

Radius (m) Length (m)
(km/h) (km/h)
30 15 20 3.7
35 20 31 5.0
40 25 53 6.5
45 30 80 8.0
50 35 113 9.5
40 180 12.0

Flat-topped road humps are an alternative to the circular road humps but are longer
and with a flattened top, used to give pedestrians a level crossing between footways.
They can especially be useful where there are a lot of pedestrians. Normally,
pedestrian crossings should only be installed at busy crossing points. Where it is
necessary to use traffic calming measures to reduce speed, the most suitable
arrangement is to install circular road humps a short distance from the pedestrian
crossing. If it is necessary to provide a hump at the crossing, a flat-topped hump

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should be used, which is easier for pedestrians. It should however be noted that flat-
topped humps cause more discomfort to bus passengers, so they should not be
installed on busy bus routes.
The standard size in usually 8.4 m long and 100 mm high as shown in Figure 12-3.

Figure 12-3 Flat-topped Humps

However, other sizes may be adopted depending on site conditions as indicated in

Table 12-2.

Table 12-2: Design of Flat-topped Road Humps

Car speed Truck speed Ramp Grade of step

(km/h) (km/h) Length (m) i%
30 15 1.0 10
35 20 1.3 7.5
40 25 1.7 6.0
45 30 2.0 5.0
50 35 2.5 4.0
40 3.3 3.0

Based on a similar principle to the speed hump, speed reducing cushions are more
versatile. They are essentially very similar to the speed hump, but the hump is not
continuous across the road. The width of a two-lane road is usually covered by two or
three cushions with gaps between them of 750 – 1200 mm. The idea is that large
heavy vehicles will not be able to pass without at least one wheel running over one of
the humps, but bicycles and motorcycles can pass between them without interference.
If suitably designed the wheels of animal drawn carts can also avoid the humps.

12.3.4 Village Treatment

The roads serving villages are often required to serve two conflicting functions in that
they must cater for both inter- and intra-village traffic and urban related functions and
users. As a result, traffic entering the village often does so at speeds that are much too
high for a village environment where there is slow moving, turning traffic, parking, shops
and stalls and pedestrians who require to move along or across the road. Such a
situation requires the need for a comprehensive village treatment which will induce, or
even force, a driver to reduce speed significantly.
The traffic calming measures described above can be introduced within villages to
contribute to reducing vehicle speed and thus improving the safety of road users.

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Specific measures include calming traffic with speed humps, rumble strips, road
narrowing, pedestrian crossings and specially demarcated low speed zones.
However, the functional characteristics of the through road will dictate to some
extent the kind of safety measures that are acceptable.
The objective of the village treatment approach to traffic calming is to develop a
perception that the village is a low-speed environment and to encourage drivers to
reduce speed as a result of this perception. To this end, the road through the village is
divided in three zones, namely:
(i) The approach zone.
(ii) The transition zone.
(iii) The core zone.

The Approach Zone is the section of road prior to entry into the village where the driver
needs to be made aware that the open road speed is no longer appropriate. This is the
section of road where speed should be reduced typically from above 60/70 km/h down
to 50 km/h before entering the village. The village entry should be marked by an
obvious Gateway that marks the beginning of the village. Drivers should be clearly
informed that they are entering a section, typically a village, where they are required
to drive more slowly and carefully, and this can best be done by installing a gate or
gateway at the point where the built-up area begins. The gateway sign shall be
double-sided and combines the speed limit sign with a panel showing the place name.
Gates are likely to achieve greater speed reductions if they incorporate traffic islands
that prevent the driver from continuing straight ahead - some typical designs are
shown in Figure 12-4. However, to avoid the islands becoming a hazard, especially at
night, they must be very clearly marked with reflective markings and road studs and
they should be designed so that, if errant vehicles hit them, the consequences are not
severe.
The gate should preferably be designed such that the toughest vehicle path for a
passenger car through the gate or portal should have an entry radius below 100 m for
50 km/h speed control and 50 m for 30 km/h speed control. Curves that follow should
have a radius greater than or equal to the entry radius. The gate could be one-sided
with speed control only in the entry direction or two-sided with speed control also in
the exit direction. The design can be tapered or smoothed with curves as shown in
Figure 12-4

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 Figure 12-4: Village Gateway Designs

The Transition Zone is the section of road between the village entrance, or Gateway,
and the core zone of the village. The target speed, and posted speed limit in this zone
should be maintained at typically 50 km/h. The first road hump or humps in a series of
humps should be sited in this zone. In this context, with adequate advance warning
provided by the approach zone and Gateway, properly designed road humps should be
quite safe.
The Core Zone is the section identified as being in the centre of the village where most of
vehicle/pedestrian conflicts are expected to take place. This would normally be where the
majority of shops, bus-bays or other pedestrian generating activities are located. This is
the section where pedestrian crossing facilities are most likely to be established and
where the target speed, and posted speed limit, should be reduced to 40 km/h or lower.
Road humps should be provided within this zone with advisory speed limits in order to
enforce the lower speed environment required.

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12.4 Brake Check Areas
Brake check areas for trucks are areas set aside before a steep descent. They provide
opportunity for cooling the brakes system and they ensure that drivers begin the
descent at low speed and in a low gear that may make the difference between
controlled and out-of-control operation on the downgrade. They also provide an
opportunity to display information about the grade ahead, escape ramp locations and
maximum safe recommended descent speeds. They should be provided on routes that
have long, steep downgrades and commercial vehicle numbers of around 500 per day,
especially on National Roads and principal traffic routes. They need to be large enough
to store several semi-trailers, the actual numbers depending on volume and predicted
arrival rate. Their location requires good visibility and acceleration and deceleration
tapers. Adequate signage should be provided to advise drivers in advance of the
facilities.

12.5 Parking Lanes

Parking lanes differ from parking bays in that they allow for parking of vehicles rather
than solely buses and taxis. They should be provided at all congested business and
shopping areas. The parking lane width for parallel parking is 2.5 m, which may be
increased to 3.0 m where space is available. Where additional parking capacity is
desired and sufficient carriageway width is available, angle parking may be adopted
where it is clear that this kind of solution will not become a safety hazard, due to
significant flow and or speed of traffic in adjacent carriageway.

12.6 Passing Points

Single lane roads do not allow most vehicles to pass in opposite directions or to
overtake, hence passing places must be provided. A clear distinction should be drawn
between passing points and lay-bys. Lay-bys are provided for specific purposes, such
as parking or bus stops. A passing point is a short length of widened road with a taper
at each end. It is similar to an elongated bus stop or a lay-by. The structure and
surface of the passing point is the same as the main carriageway. The increased width
provided by a passing place should allow two vehicles to pass at slow speed and hence
depends on the design vehicle.
The most important feature of passing points is the frequency at which they are
constructed along the road. The frequency depends upon the following factors:
(i) Meeting sight distances.
(ii) Traffic volume and mix.
(iii) Acceptable reversing distance for vehicles.
(iv) Terrain.
(v) Strength of surrounding ground.
Meeting sight distance refers to the length of road where drivers in vehicles travelling
towards each other begin to see each other. Ideally, at least one passing point should
be placed within each sight distance and the next passing point should always be
visible from the one before.
In hilly terrain the spacing of passing points must be more flexible and responsive to
both sight distance and the constraints of the surrounding landscape. As a general rule
the optimal spacing should be equal to the sight distance, up to a maximum of 500 m.
An alternate approach is to locate passing places at regular intervals (say every
500m).

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Drivers of heavy or wide vehicles may be unwilling to reverse long distances hence
where trucks are travelling in both directions, it may be necessary to reduce the
passing point spacing.
After determining the spacing and location of passing points, the length and width
should be set. The length is primarily dependent on the traffic volume. If the traffic
volume is high, the passing point should be long enough to accommodate several
vehicles waiting for oncoming traffic to pass.
A suitable width depends upon the width of the road itself. The criterion is to provide
enough overall width for two design vehicles to pass each other safely at low speed
hence a total trafficable minimum width of 5.5 m is required. Allowing for vehicle
overhang when entering the passing bay, a total width of 6.5 m is suitable.

12.7 Safety Rest Areas and Scenic Overlooks

Safety rest areas and scenic overlooks are desirable elements of the complete
highway development and are provided for the safety and convenience of the highway
user.
A safety rest area is a roadside area with parking facilities separated from the
roadway. It is provided for vehicle drivers to stop and rest for short periods. The rest
area should provide the user with an opportunity to stop in an atmosphere that affords
a distinct change from the monotony of driving.
A scenic overlook is a roadside area provided for drivers to park their vehicles, beyond
the shoulder, primarily for viewing the scenery or for taking photographs in safety.
The attraction of such a facility depends upon the presence of scenic and historical
points of interest. The facilities should be designed so as to avoid marring the
landscape.
Site selection for safety rest areas and scenic overlooks should consider the scenic
quality of the area, accessibility, and adaptability to development. Site plans should be
developed that should include proper and safe location of entrances and exits, road
signs and markings, acceleration and deceleration lanes as required, and parking
areas for cars and trucks. They may also include certain types of rest facilities
(benches, tables, shelters, drinking fountains, rest rooms).
Where such facilities are specified, the average distance between rest areas should be
15 to 25 km. As far as possible, such facilities should be avoided where adjacent
roadway gradients are in excess of 4%.

12.8 Safety Barriers

12.8.1 General
Many accidents on high-speed roads involve vehicles leaving the road and coming into
collision with hazardous obstacles such as trees, bridge supports, or simply rolling
down a high embankment. Similarly, a vehicle leaving a lane on a dual carriageway
runs the risk of collision with an oncoming vehicle.
The design of a safe roadside requires the identification of the dangerous obstacles
that are present. Once identified, it is possible to establish strategies or measures
necessary to protect the traffic from them.
Two classes of dangerous objects are defined: point obstacles and linear obstacles.
These two classes correspond to different procedures for the selection of mitigation
measures. However, the general strategy to be applied to both classes is common and
consists of the following steps:
1) Assessment of dangerous obstacles;

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2) If possible, removal of the dangerous obstacle out of the free zone;
3) When removal is not possible, assess the possibility of modification of the
dangerous obstacle;
4) If these options are not possible, protect the traffic with a vehicle restraint
system.

12.8.2 Basic Principles

As part of the vehicle restraint systems, safety barriers should be the last resort to
protect traffic from existing hazardous obstacles in the road zone. The presence of
these devices is an acceptance that the removal of a dangerous obstacle is not
practical or economically possible. However, the high number of fatalities with fixed
obstacles in which collisions with safety barriers are considered the most dangerous,
demonstrate that this protection is not a completely effective solution.
There is no standardisation of the configuration of safety barriers at present, but
safety barriers should be placed sufficiently far from the carriageway edge so as not to
cause a hazard to vehicles, nor to reduce the effective width of the carriageway.
A description of each type of safety barrier and a brief discussion of the positive and
negative elements of each type follows.
Safety barriers are used to prevent vehicles from hitting or falling into a hazard; for
example, falling down a steep slope, hitting an obstruction, or crossing a median into
the path of traffic on the other carriageway. These events happen when a driver has
lost control of the vehicle because of excessive speed, lack of concentration, failure of
a tyre or collision.
Safety barriers are designed to redirect errant vehicles and provide guidance for
pedestrians or other road users. Ideally, the safety barrier will:
a) prevent the vehicle from passing through the barrier;
b) absorb (cushion) the impact of the vehicle without injuring the occupants
(no severe deceleration);
c) re-direct the vehicle along the road parallel to the other traffic;
d) enable the driver to retain control of the vehicle (no spinning or overturning
of the vehicle).
e) Reduce the severity of accidents
When a roadside hazard is identified, the best solution is to remove the hazard. Where
the hazard is a drop, it is worth considering whether the slope can be flattened to
make it less hazardous. If this cannot be done it may be possible to shield the hazard
with a barrier.
There are various types of safety barrier:
1) Longitudinal barriers:
• Flexible steel beam guardrail with posts made of steel or timber
• Wire rope barrier
• Concrete barrier.
2) Terminals:
• Redirective
• Non-redirective.
3) Transitions.
4) Crash cushions.
The specification, installation and maintenance of safety barriers are a highly technical
subject, and this manual can only give a brief introduction to the subject. The designer

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should always seek advice from experts; a safety barrier can be ineffective and even
dangerous if not properly designed and installed. The components of safety barrier
should always be purchased from a specialist manufacturer and their advice obtained.
If possible, arrangements should be made for them to install it, or supervise the
installation.

12.8.3 Alternative Solutions to Safety Barriers

All elements of risk along the roads such as obstacles, steep side slopes, bridges and
underpasses might cause serious personal injuries in the case of a vehicle accident.
Protection from such elements of risk can be done by:
a. Remove or relocation of risk elements.
b. Making risk elements harmless by protection.
A safety barrier is also an element of risk in itself and should only be used when it is
more dangerous to drive off the road than to hit a safety barrier.

12.8.4 Containment Requirements for Safety Barriers

Various standards of safety barriers and bridge parapets are defined depending on the
level of impact that they need to withstand. Table 12-3 indicates containment levels.

Table 12-3: Containment Level

Level Road Type and Condition

1 • Roads with speed limits ≤ 60 km/h and AADT ≤12,000

• Roads with speed limits ≥70 km/ and AADT ≤1,500
• Roads with speed limits ≥ 60 km h and AADT > 12,000
2 • Roads with speed limits ≤ 70 km/ h and AADT > 1,500
• Freeways carrying high traffic volumes
• Bridges and large culverts
• Retaining walls with drop > 4 m
• Cliff or a rock face with a drop of more than 4 metres and a slope
steeper than 1:1.5) (On condition of satisfactory space for
3 deformation and fastening of the post)
• Narrow medians (<2m) on freeways with design speed >80 km/h
and high portion of HGV (>20%)
• Sensitive locations where errant vehicles may cause substantial
damage e.g. at railways, drinking water reservoirs, etc.
4 • On and under bridges where an accident can cause bridge collapse

Source: NPRA

12.8.5 Design and Performance Criteria

The performance criteria are shown in Table 12-4. The manufacturer shall
demonstrate or document by calculation that the performance criteria is fulfilled. With
this impact criterion, the errant vehicle shall be redirected safely to the road without
crossing the line to the opposite direction of traffic. The vehicle shall remain in an
upright position after the test to assure that the driver can control the vehicle. The
safety barrier, or the bridge parapet, shall not be fractured into pieces which can harm
pedestrians close to the vehicle.

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 Table 12-4: Containment Level – Requirement of Design of Safety Barriers
Theoretical
Impact Impact
Containment Total mass Type of kinetic
speed angle
Level Kg vehicle energy
(km/h) (degree °)
KNm

1 80 20 1,500 Car 43.3

2 110 20 1,500 Car 81.9

3 70 20 13,000 Bus 287.5

4 65 20 30,000 Rigid HGV 572

When a safety barrier is hit by a vehicle, it will deform. The deformation of safety
barriers during impact tests is characterised by the working width. The barrier’s
working width (W) is the maximum horizontal distance between the front edge of the
barrier before deformation and the rear edge after. If the vehicle body deforms around
the road safety barrier, so that the latter cannot be used for the purpose of measuring
the working width, the maximum lateral position of any part of the vehicle shall be
taken as an alternative. The barrier’s dynamic deformation or width of deformation, D,
is the horizontal distance between the front edge of the barrier before deformation
and after (Figure 12-5).

Figure 12-5: Deformation of safety barriers

Source: NPRA

The safety barrier including parapet shall contain the vehicle without complete
breakage of any of its principal longitudinal elements. Elements of the safety barrier
including parapets shall not penetrate the passenger compartment of the vehicle.
Deformations of the passenger compartment that can cause serious injuries shall not
be permitted.
The vehicle shall not spin and/or roll over (including rollover of the vehicle onto its
side) during or after impact.

12.8.6 Requirement for Using Safety Barriers

On existing roads, the main consideration will be the accident history. If collisions with
the hazard are occurring repeatedly and the hazard cannot be removed there may be
justification for safety barrier. Cost-benefit analysis can help determine whether it is
worthwhile installing a barrier.

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SATCC has developed general criteria for installation of guardrails. These are shown in
Figure 12-6 and should be used as a general guideline and starting point for
determining need.

Figure 12-6: Guide for determining need for a guard rail

In addition to installing safety barriers when the fill is high and the side slopes are
steep, there is a substantial risk caused by obstacles within the clear zone area. Such
obstacles include:
• Bridge piers, abutments and culverts walls.
• None yielding light columns, gantries and trees with diameter > 18 cm.
• Concrete bumpers, solid concrete elements, culvert outlets, end of retaining
walls.
• Solid stones or rock outcrops which have a top more than 20 cm above the
terrain or steep rock slopes where protruding parts should be less than 30 cm.
• Solid installations.
Such dangerous roadside obstacles should be removed, replaced with yielding road
furniture or protected with a safety barrier. If, however, a back slope is built in front of
the obstacles in the clear zone, safety barriers are not necessary if the following
criteria are satisfied, i.e.:
• When the gradient of the back slope is 1:2, the height of the slope measured
from the adjacent road surface shall be minimum 1.8 m.
• When the gradient of the back slope is 1:1.5 the height of the slope measured
from the adjacent road surface can be reduced to 1.4 m.

12.8.7 Required Length of a Safety Barrier

To reduce costs, steel beam safety barriers are often installed in lengths that are too
short to be effective. Generally, at least 30 m of steel beam strong post guardrail are
needed for it to perform satisfactorily. Figure 12-7 and Table 12-5 give guidance on
determining the length required. Note that on a two-way single carriageway road,
both directions of travel have to be considered - it cannot be assumed that vehicles
will not hit the downstream end of a barrier. One of the common design faults on
hazardous bends is to stop the barrier at the point where the bend meets the tangent.
Experience shows that some of the vehicles that fail to negotiate the bend will run off

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the road just beyond the tangent point. Any gaps through which vehicles may fall
should always be closed.

Figure 12-7: Length of Safety Barriers

The set-back shall normally be 50 cm beyond the edge line of the road to the face of
the barrier. With roads having AADT of 12,000 and above and a speed limit greater
than 80km/h, the set-back shall be 75cm.

Note that this is the starting point for estimating the need. Engineering judgement
is required to determine the precise length for specific situations

Table 12-5: Length of Safety Barriers

Speed km/h Run out length (m)
60 50-60
80 80-90
100 100-110
110 120

12.8.8 Steel Beam Strong Post Guardrail

Steel beam strong post guardrails are the most common type of safety barrier
(Figure 12-8). The precise design varies in detail, but the basic characteristics are that
the steel beams:
• have a W-shape (this is the part that comes into contact with the vehicle);
• are 4130 mm long;
• are mounted on steel posts that are set either 1905 mm or 3810 mm apart;
• are mounted so that the centre of the beam is 600 mm above the height of
the road surface; and,
• there is a steel spacer block between the post and the beam to prevent the
vehicle from hitting ("snagging") on the post ("snagging" will usually result in
the vehicle spinning out of control).

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When an out-of-control vehicle hits the barrier the beam flattens, the posts are
pushed backwards, and the tension in the beam builds up to slow the vehicle and
redirect it back onto the road. That is, if it performs successfully. The speed, mass and
angle of the vehicle is critical to success. With heavy vehicles, high angles of impact
and very high speeds the barrier may be torn apart or crushed. The containment
capability can however be increased by using two beams, one mounted above the
other.

Figure 12-8 Typical Post Details

12.8.8.1 Installation of Steel Beam Strong Post Guardrail

a) The beams must be overlapped in the direction of travel, so that if they
come apart in an impact there is not an end that can spear the vehicle;
b) The beams must be bolted together with eight bolts and the whole structure
must be rigid;
c) The beam centre must be 600 mm ± 5 mm above the adjacent road
surface -if it is lower, vehicles may ride over it; if it is higher, vehicles may
go under it;
d) The spacer block must be fitted to the post with two bolts, otherwise it may
rotate in a collision;
e) There must be two layers of beam at each spacer block, so at the
intermediate posts (i.e. those where there is no beam splice) insert a short
section of beam between the main beam and the spacer block - this is often
called a backup plate and it helps to prevent the beam hinging or tearing at
this point;
f) If the posts and spacer blocks are made of steel channel they must be
installed so that the flat side faces the traffic - this reduces the risk of injury
if they are hit by a person who has fallen from a vehicle;
g) There must be a space of at least 1000 mm between the back of the post
and any rigid obstacle - this can be reduced to 500 mm if the barrier is
stiffened by putting in extra posts (at 952 mm centres), putting two beams

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 together (one nested inside the other) and using extra-large concrete
foundations;
h) When installed on top of an embankment there must be at least 600 mm
between the back of the post and the break of slope in order to have
sufficient ground support for the post - where this is not possible, much
longer posts must be used;
i) The guardrail should not be installed behind a kerb, because when a vehicle
hits the kerb it will be pushed upwards and so will hit the guardrail too high
- with a risk that the vehicle will go over the guardrail;
j) The guardrail shall be set back from the shoulder edge (or carriageway
edge if there is no shoulder) by at least 600 mm - putting it at the edge of
the shoulder reduces the effective width of the shoulder and increases the
risk of minor damage.

12.8.9 Concrete Barriers

Concrete barriers are strong enough to stop most out-of-control vehicles and, being
rigid, there is no deflection on impact. This makes them suitable for use on narrow
medians and where it is essential to keep vehicles on the road, such as at bridges.
Small angle impacts usually result in little damage to the vehicle. However, large
angle impacts tend to result in major damage to the vehicle and severe injuries to the
occupants. Research has shown that the conventional profile (commonly called New
Jersey Barrier) tends to cause small vehicles to overturn, and the preferred shape is
now a vertical or near-vertical wall (Figure 12-9). Concrete barrier generally requires
very little routine maintenance except after very severe impacts.
The ends of concrete barriers are very hazardous, therefore every effort should be
made to terminate the barrier where speeds are low. The end of the barrier should be
ramped down. If approach speeds are unavoidably high, the end of the barrier should
be protected by fitting a section (of at least 20 m) of semi-rigid guardrail.

Figure 12-9: Various Barriers

12.8.10 Wire-Rope Barriers

This type of barrier consists of two strands of cables fed through steel or concrete
posts. These barriers are the least desirable configuration because:

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 • If the cable is snapped due to an impact, the entire length of guardrail can
become ineffective.
• The cable can be stolen.

12.8.11 Jersey Barriers

Of the safety barriers types available, the Jersey barrier is the best known.
Constructed of concrete, this rigid barrier has the best chance of preventing the
vehicle from proceeding beyond the barrier.
However, the following problems have been noted:
• Jersey barriers must be continuous, because an opening, in addition to
providing no protection, is in itself a hazard.
• The beginning and end of the barriers usually include no transition sections,
and thus represent a hazard when hit head-on. A suitable metal barrier should
be installed before the Jersey barrier with the adequate length and transition to
deflect a potential head on collision with the Jersey barrier.
• Jersey barriers deflect the vehicle, and the decelerations suffered by occupants
of vehicles might be very severe.

12.8.12 Grouted Rock Barrier

This rigid type of barrier makes economic sense in that it employs materials available
locally in its construction and also provides labour-intensive employment. However,
the barrier tends to be of a wider configuration than the others, and therefore requires
a larger construction width. It is of solid and substantial construction, therefore it can
also represent a hazard of itself. It suffers from the same problems as a Jersey
barrier.

12.8.13 Median Barriers

High-speed dual carriageway roads with medians less than 1.5 x Minimum Clear Zone
width may need to have median barriers to reduce the risk of cross-over accidents
and/or to provide protection against collision with obstacles (e.g. lighting columns).
Median barriers should not normally be used on urban dual carriageways with speed
limits of less than 70 km/h. If such roads have a cross-over problem, it should be
tackled through speed calming measures.
If the median is less than 9 m it shall have a safety barrier or a soil embankment
when the design speed is greater or equal to 90 km/h or with speed limits greater or
equal to 70 km/h. In principle, there are four types of safety barriers that can be used
as median barrier (Figure 12-10).
• One-sided steel beam/pipe barrier (One at each side of the median)
• Double-sided steel beam/pipe barrier (placed as below)
• Concrete barrier - either cast in situ or built by connecting pre-cast sections
• Or soil embankment.

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 Figure 12-10: Different Types of Median Barrier

Median barriers often take the form of two guardrail beams mounted back to back on
one post. These are not suitable where the median is narrower than 2.0 m because
they deflect too much on impact. A mono rail barrier with a box rail on top of the posts
can sometimes be a good solution.
Concrete can be preferred in situation where higher performance is needed. Concrete
barrier can be made in situ casted or by elements mounted together so it acts as a
continuous barrier.
As always with safety barriers it is a problem to terminate them safely. If possible, the
barrier should be terminated at points where speeds are low, such as at roundabouts.
Failing this, the guardrail beams should be flared and ramped down, or at least be
capped with a protective end-piece (bull-nose end treatment). Concrete barriers
should be ramped down.

During provision of Median Barriers, the following shall be observed:

• Kerbs should never be used when median barriers are installed;
• The consequences of no barrier are greater than barrier installations; and
• The clear zone problems relating to rigid objects and ditches in the median.

12.8.14 Terminals
The approach and departure ends of a steel beam guardrail are its most dangerous
features, therefore they shall be constructed with leading and trailing terminal
sections. Also, short (<80m) gaps should not be left in guardrails; instead they should
be made continuous.
There is no wholly safe way of terminating guardrail, but the general advice is to:
• stiffen the end section by installing the posts at 1905 mm spacing, and

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 • flare the end section of the guardrail away from the edge of the shoulder
until it is offset by at least 1m - use a flare rate of at least 1 in 10 - this
reduces the risk of a direct impact; and
• use a special impact-absorbing terminal piece or ramp the beam down
sharply into the ground.
With both treatments the post spacing is halved over the first three to five lengths, as
shown in Figure 12-11.
On a two-way road both the upstream and downstream ends of the guardrail will need
to be terminated in this way. One of the problems of ramped ends is that they can
launch out-of-control vehicles into the air, with disastrous consequences. This problem
can be reduced by ramping the beam down sharply. Flaring is an effective way of
reducing the risk of impact, but this can be difficult to achieve in some situations, such
as on narrow embankments.

Figure 12-11: Guardrail End Treatment

(Source SATCC)

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 12.8.15 Transition from Guardrail to Bridge Parapets and Concrete
Barriers
Collisions with the ends of bridge parapets and concrete barriers are usually very
severe. It is essential that these obstacles are shielded so that out-of-control vehicles
are redirected along the face of the parapet or concrete barrier. This is best done by
installing a semi-rigid steel beam guardrail on the approach, normally at least 30 m
long. It must line up with the face of the parapet/barrier and be strongly connected to
it. The guardrail must be progressively stiffened so that deflection is reduced to zero
as the parapet/barrier is reached. This is called a transition section. The stiffening is
achieved by putting in extra posts, putting two beams together (one nested inside the
other) and using extra-large concrete foundations (Figure 12-12). A steel connecting
piece is used to bolt the end of the guardrail to the parapet or barrier - the design of
this will vary to suit the design of the parapet/barrier.

Figure 12-12: Typical Transition (W-beam Guard-rail to Rigid Object)

12.8.16 Pedestrian Barriers and Parapets

Uncontrolled pedestrian movements are a significant factor in urban traffic and safety
problems. Pedestrian barrier can bring big improvements by segregating pedestrians
from vehicular traffic and channelling them to safe crossing points. At intersections,
barrier can:
• reduce conflicts by channelling pedestrians to crossing points on the
approaches;
• discourage buses, minibuses and cyclists from stopping and parking within the
intersection;
• discourage delivery vehicles from loading or unloading within the intersection;
and
• discourage roadside vendors from occupying the road space in the intersection

Other applications include:

• Schools – barrier can be used to prevent children from running into the
roadfrom the school gate;
• Bus parks, cinemas, stadiums, etc, – barrier can channel pedestrian flows at
areas of heavy pedestrian movement;

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 • Pedestrian crossings, underpasses’, footbridges – barrier helps channel
pedestrians to the crossing facility; and,
• Medians – barrier can be used to deter pedestrians from using the median to
cross the road, though barriers on the footways are more likely to be effective.

Ideally, pedestrian barriers should:

• be strong and easily maintained;
• cause no serious damage to vehicles and the occupants when hit;
• not be hazardous to pedestrians, including the disabled;
• not interfere with visibility; and,
• look acceptable.

Pedestrian parapets are designed to safeguard pedestrians but are not intended to
contain vehicles. These are used where there is a safety barrier between the vehicle
lanes and the footway. Figure 12-13 shows a typical design for a lightweight steel
parapet.
The requirements are:
1) The minimum height for parapets is 1.2 m, but this should be increased to
1400 mm for cycleway, and 1500 mm for bridges over railways and other
bridges where containment is essential;
2) Metal parapets should have no openings wider than 100mm. If necessary
the parapet should be faced with wire mesh panels. When the bridge has no
facilities for pedestrians, the openings could be increased to 300 mm.

Figure 12-13: Details of a Vehicle/Pedestrian Parapet

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 12.8.17 Summary - Use and Placement of Barriers
The use of barriers is questionable for several reasons:
• In addition to the construction cost of the guardrail itself, there are other
related costs. These include the need to construct a wider roadway to provide a
platform for the construction of the barrier or guardrail. This is necessary,
particularly in mountainous terrain and in rock cuts, and adds more to the
construction costs than the cost of the barrier itself.
• When traffic volumes are low a cost/benefit analysis will often show that they
are not cost effective.
• Where mountainous terrain with steep side slopes is encountered, the
conscientious driver will automatically adjust his behaviour to compensate for
the safety hazards anticipated with the terrain, minimising the need for the
guidance provided by the guardrail.
• Guidelines rather than ‘standards’ usually govern the placement (or non-
placement) of guardrails. Thus, they are not an essential requirement.
• The above factors can create problems with liability. Liability is minimised when
guardrail placement is not a requirement. Conversely, if guardrails are placed
but not maintained, the chances of problems associated with liability are much
greater.

The conclusion reached from consideration of the above is that barriers/guardrails

should not be constructed routinely where long and steep side slopes are encountered.
However, a compromise in the interest of safety is to provide delineators at all such
sections.
• Short sections of guardrail should be employed on the approaches to all
bridges. Without these, an errant driver can impact on the blunt end of the
bridge rail, or proceed down the steep side slope into the river. Guardrails
should be used at all four corners of the bridges, and should be of a parabolic
end section configuration such that the guardrail begins a distance from the
edge of the lane. The end treatment should not be blunt, but should be buried
into the ground. Decreasing the spacing of the guardrail posts to provide a
transition from the deformable rail section to the solid bridge railing should
strengthen the section closest to the bridge railing. The end of the last rail
should be doweled into the face of the bridge rail. Details are as indicated in
the Standard Detail Drawings.
• Where guardrails are employed, they should include reflectors to aid in the
guidance of vehicles at night.
• Safety barriers, or guardrails, are a compromise between the conflicting
demands of construction costs and safety, and are themselves a hazard. To be
warranted, guardrails should be a lesser hazard than that which they are
intended to replace.
• On existing roads an important warrant for guardrail installation is an adverse
accident history. Another warrant for the installation of guardrails is to install
these where the driver cannot anticipate the danger associated with the
roadway segment.
• In the case of new roads, it is necessary to consider whether an accident would
be more likely with or without guardrails, and whether the outcome of such an
accident is likely to be more serious without guardrails than with them. In
certain areas where guardrails may be of benefit, for instance in mountainous
terrain, it is probable that the additional width required for such an installation
cannot be achieved without significant earthwork costs, often comprising rock
materials.

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 • Where guardrails are employed they need to be maintained. The responsible
authority cannot be held liable for not installing guardrails, but could be held
liable for an accident due to an un-maintained portion of guardrail.

12.9 Emergency Escape Ramps

Where long, descending gradients exist, the provision of an emergency escape ramp
at an appropriate location is desirable for the purpose of stopping an out-of-control
heavy vehicle away from the main traffic stream.
Highway alignment, gradient, length, and descent speed contribute to the potential for
out-of-control vehicles. For existing highways, a field review of the problem grade may
reveal damaged guardrail, gouged pavement surfaces or spilled oil, indicating
locations where operators of heavy vehicles have had difficulty negotiating a
downgrade.
While there are no universal guidelines available for new and existing facilities, a
variety of factors are used in selecting the specific site for an escape ramp. Each
location presents a different array of design needs requiring analysis of factors
including topography, length and % of grade, potential speed, economics,
environmental impact, and accident experience. Ramps should be located to intercept
the greatest number of runaway vehicles, such as at intermediate points along the
grade.
Escape ramps may be built at any feasible location where the main road alignment is
tangent. An escape ramp with an arrester bed should be built in advance of a singular
point of the highway (interchange, curves that cannot be negotiated safely by a
runaway vehicle, engineering structure, tunnel, service area, etc.) situated in a
descending grade after a vertical gap of 130 m and in advance of populated areas.

12.9.1 Types
There are four types of emergency escape ramps. The first is a sand pile, the others
are arrester beds, classified by grade (descending grade, horizontal grade, and
ascending grade). They are illustrated in Figure 12-14. All function by application of
the decelerating effect of loose material.
Sand piles, composed of loose, dry sand dumped at the ramp site are usually no more
than 120 m in length. The influence of gravity is dependent on the slope of the
surface. The increase in rolling resistance is supplied by the loose sand. Deceleration
characteristics of sand piles are usually severe, and the sand can be affected by
weather. Because of these characteristics, the sand pile is less desirable than the
arrester bed. However, at locations where inadequate space exists for another type of
ramp, the sand pile may be appropriate because of its compact dimensions.
Escape ramps are constructed adjacent to the carriageway. The use of loose material
in the arrester bed increases the rolling resistance to slow the vehicle. Descending
ramps can be rather lengthy because gravitational effects are not acting to help
reduce the speed of the vehicle.

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 SAND PILE

DESCENDING GRADE

HORIZONTAL GRADE

ASCENDING GRADE

Figure 12-14: Basic Types of Emergency Escape Ramps

The preferred type of escape ramp is the ascending type with an arrester bed. Ramps
of this type use gradient resistance to advantage, supplementing the effects of the
aggregate in the arrester bed, and generally reducing the length of ramp necessary to
stop the vehicle. The loose material in the arresting bed increases the rolling
resistance, and also serves to hold the vehicle in place on the ramp grade after it has
come to a safe stop.
Each one of the ramp types is applicable to a particular situation and must be
compatible with location and topographic controls at possible sites.

12.9.2 Design Considerations

The design and construction of effective escape ramps involve a number of
considerations as follows:
1. To safely stop an out-of-control truck, the length of the ramp must be sufficient
to dissipate the energy of the moving vehicle.
2. The alignment of the escape ramp should be tangential to the carriageway to
relieve the driver of undue vehicle control problems.

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 3. The width of the ramp should be adequate to accommodate large heavy
vehicles. Widths of ramps range from 3.6 to 12 m.
4. The in-fill material used in the arrester bed should be clean, not easily
compacted, and have a high coefficient of rolling resistance. In-fill material
should be single-sized natural or crushed coarse granular material or sand.
Such material will maximize the percentage of voids, thereby providing
optimum drainage and minimising compaction. The use of single-size aggregate
also minimises maintenance, which must be performed by scarifying when the
material is prone to compaction. Loose gravel or sand can also be used. A
maximum particle size of 40 mm is recommended.
5. Contamination of in-fill material can reduce the effectiveness of the arrester
bed by creating a hard surface layer at the bottom of the bed. Therefore, an
aggregate depth up to 1.0m is recommended. To assist in decelerating the
vehicle smoothly, the depth of the bed should be tapered from a minimum of
75 mm at the entry point to the full depth of aggregate in the initial 30 to 60 m
of the bed.
6. A positive method of draining the arrester bed should be provided to avoid
contamination of the arrester bed material. This can be accomplished by
grading the base to drain, intercepting water prior to entering the bed or by
edge drains. Geotextiles can be used between the sub-base and the bed
materials to prevent infiltration of fines.
7. The entrance to the ramp must be designed so that a vehicle travelling at high
speed can enter safely. Sight distance preceding the ramp should be provided
and the full length of ramp should be visible. The angle of a departure for the
ramp should be small. The main roadway surfacing should be extended to a
point at the bed entrance such that both front wheels of the out-of-control
vehicle will enter the arrester bed simultaneously.
8. Advance warning signs and markings are required to inform a driver of the
existence of an escape ramp and to prepare him well in advance so that he will
have enough time to decide whether or not to use the escape ramp. It should
indicate whether the ramp is occupied or not. Regulatory signs near the
entrance should be used to discourage stopping or parking at the ramp.

To determine the distance required to bring a vehicle to a stop with consideration of

the rolling resistance and gradient resistance, the following equation may be used:

V2
L=
254(R  G ) / 100
Where:
L = distance to stop (i.e. the length of the arrester bed), m,
V = entering velocity, km/h,
G = % gradient of ramp,
R = rolling resistance expressed as equivalent % gradient

For example, assume that topographic conditions at a site selected for an emergency
escape ramp limit the gradient of an ascending ramp to 10 %. The arrester bed is to
be constructed with loose gravel for an entering speed of 140 km/h. Using Table 12-6,
R is also determined to be 10 %. The length necessary is determined from the above
equation. For this case the length of the arrester bed is about 385 m.

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 Table 12-6: Rolling Resistance of Roadway Surfacing Materials
Rolling
Equivalent
Surfacing Material Resistance
Grade (%)1
(kg/100 kg GVM)
Crushed aggregate, loose 50 5
Gravel, loose 100 10
Sand 150 15
Pea gravel 250 25
Note 1 Rolling resistance expressed as equivalent gradient.

A plan and profile of an emergency escape ramp with typical appurtenances is shown
in the Standard Detail Drawings.
Where a full-length ramp is to be provided with full deceleration capability for the
design speed, a ‘last chance’ device should be considered when the consequences of
leaving the end of the ramp are serious. The use of a ramp end treatment should be
designed with care to ensure that the advantages outweigh the disadvantages.
Mounds of in-fill material between 0.6 and 1.5 m high with 1:1.5 slopes have been
used at the end of ramps in several instances as the ‘last chance’ device.

12.9.3 Maintenance
After each incident the in-fill materials should be reinstated. The arrester beds should
be inspected periodically, and the in-fill materials replaced as necessary.

12.10 Road Safety Research and Audits

The subject of road safety is remarkably complex in that, although many unsafe
practices are glaringly obvious, there are many situations where it is difficult to
identify what is likely to be unsafe. The history of road safety is full of ideas that were
thought to improve road safety but often had no discernible effect. The problem has
always been lack of reliable data; there is no substitute for a systematic method of
recording the characteristics of road accidents and analysing the data when there is
sufficient for reliable conclusions to be drawn.
Professional road safety auditing is also an important procedure that should be
regularly undertaken on every road project to improve the safety design from the very
beginning of a road project. A system for doing so has been under development (H J S
Lotter (2011) Interim Road Safety Audit Procedures). It is anticipated that this
practice will become increasingly common especially for road projects located in
populated areas.

12.11 Public Utilities

All highway improvements, whether upgraded within the existing road reserve or
entirely on new road reserve, generally entail adjustment of utility facilities. The costs
of utility adjustment vary considerably depending on the location of project. Surface
utilities include:
a) Sanitary sewers.
b) Water supply lines.
c) Overhead and underground power and communications lines.
d) Drainage and irrigation lines.
e) Street lighting.

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 Underground utilities include:
a) Buried telephone lines.
b) Gas pipelines.
c) Power transmission cables.
d) Storm drains and sewers
The following factors should be considered in the location and design of utility
installations.
1) Utility lines should be located to minimise the need for later adjustment, to
accommodate future highway improvements, and to permit servicing such
lines with minimum interference to traffic.
2) Longitudinal installation should be located on a uniform alignment as near as
practicable to the road reserve to provide a safe environment for traffic
operation and preserve space for future highway or street improvements of
other utility installations.
3) To the extent feasible and practicable, utility line crossings of the highway
should cross on a line generally at a right angle (90 degrees) to the highway
alignment. Those utility crossings that are more likely to require future
servicing should be encased or installed in tunnels to permit servicing without
disrupting the traffic flow.
4) The horizontal and vertical location of utility lines within the highway road
reserve should conform to the clear roadside policies and specific conditions
for the particular section involved. Safety of the travelling public should be a
prime consideration in the location and design of utility facilities on highway
reserve.
5) Sometimes attachment of utility facilities to highway structures, such as
bridges, is a practical arrangement and may be authorized. Electric and
Telephone Cables and water main placing in one trench should be done
according to Figure 12-15 unless otherwise stated by the concerned
institutions.
6) All utility installations on, over, or under the highway reserve and attached
structures should be of durable materials designed for long service-life
expectancy, relatively free from routine servicing and maintenance, and meet
or exceed the requirements of the applicable industry codes or specifications.
7) On new construction in road locations no utility should be situated under any
part of the road, except where it must cross the highway.
8) Utility poles and other above ground utility appurtenances that would
constitute hazards to errant vehicles should not be permitted within the
highway clear zone. The only exceptions permitted would be where the
appurtenance is breakaway or could be installed behind a traffic barrier
erected to protect errant vehicles from some other hazard.

12.11.1 Electricidade de Moçambique (EDM)

The placement of light poles, power poles, wires, and underground cables, as per the
EDM guidelines, is given in Appendix E.

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 12.11.2 Direcção Nacional de Aguas (DNA)
The placement of water and sewerage pipes, as per the Water and Sewerage
Authority, is given in the Appendix E.

12.11.3 Telecomunicações de Moçambique (TDM)

The placement of telecommunications cables, as per the Telecommunications
Corporation is given in the Appendix E.

Figure 12-15: Utilities Placement Detail

12.12 Railway Grade Crossings

The horizontal and vertical geometrics of a highway approaching an at-grade railway
crossing should be constructed in a manner that does not require a driver to divert
attention from roadway conditions. If possible, the highway should intersect the tracks
at a right angle with no nearby intersections or driveways. This layout enhances the
driver's view of the crossing and tracks and reduces conflicting vehicular movements.
Where this is not possible, the angle of skew must not be greater than 45º (Figure
12-16). Crossings should not be located on either highway or railway curves. Roadway
curvature inhibits a driver's view of a crossing ahead and a driver's attention may be
directed towards negotiating the curve rather than looking for a train. Railway

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curvature may inhibit a driver's view down the tracks from both a stopped position at
the crossing and on the approach to the crossings.

Figure 12-16: Railway Crossing Details with Rumble Strips

Where highways that are parallel with main tracks intersect highways that cross the
tracks there should be sufficient distance between the tracks and the highway
intersections to enable highway traffic in all directions to move expeditiously and
safely.
It is desirable that the intersection of the highway and railroad be made as level as
possible from the standpoint of sight distance, ride quality, braking and acceleration
distances as in Figure 12-17. Vertical curves should be of sufficient length to ensure
an adequate view of the crossing, and crest and sag curves are the same as for the
roadway design. The sight distance requirements down the tracks are similar to those
for a roadway junction.
It is necessary to install signing to provide a safe crossing. Traffic control devices for
railroad-highway grade crossings consist of signs and pavement markings. Standards
for design and placement of these devices are covered in the Standard Detail
Drawings.

Figure 12-17: Railway Crossings Details on Vertical Curve

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13 Road Signs, Road Markings and Road Furniture
Elements addressed herein include road signs, road markings, traffic signals, and
lighting.
Traffic signs provide essential information to drivers for their safe and efficient
manoeuvring on the road. Road markings delineate the pavement edges and thereby
clarify the paths that vehicles are to follow. Traffic signals are key elements for the
efficient functioning of many urban roads and for some rural junctions. Finally, lighting
is provided to improve the night time safety of a road.
Traffic signs, road markings, and marker posts must conform to National Standards.
Standards for traffic signs and road markings and their placement are provided in the
Standard Detail Drawings.

13.1 Road Signs

The extent to which road signs and markings are required depends on the traffic
volume, the type of road, and the degree of traffic control required for safe and
efficient operation.
The safety and efficiency of a road depends to a considerable degree on its geometric
design. However, physical layout must also be supplemented by effective traffic
signing as a means of informing and warning and controlling drivers. Design of some
road signs and road markings is an intricate part of the design process.
Traffic signs are of three general types:
a) Danger warning signs that are intended to warn road-users of a danger on
the road and to inform them of its nature;
b) Regulatory signs that are intended to inform road-users of special
obligations, restrictions or prohibitions with which they must comply;
c) Informative signs: these signs are intended to guide road-users while they
are travelling or to provide them with other information which may be
useful.

13.2 Road Markings

The function of road markings is to encourage safe and expeditious operation of the
road. Road markings either supplement traffic signs and marker posts or serve
independently to indicate certain regulations or hazardous conditions. There are three
general types of road markings - pavement markings, object markings and road studs.

13.2.1 Pavement markings

Pavement markings consist of centrelines, lane lines, no overtaking lines, edge lines,
etc.. Night time visibility of these markings can be markedly improved by mixing small
glass beads into the paint or thermoplastic before applying it to the road surface.
Other pavement markings such as ‘stop’ and pedestrian crossings and various word
and symbol markings may supplement pavement markings.

13.2.2 Object Markers

Physical obstructions in or near the carriageway should be removed in order to provide
the appropriate clear zone. Where removal is impractical, such objects should be
adequately marked by painting or by use of other high-visibility material. Where the
object is in the direct line of traffic, the obstruction and marking thereon should be
reflectorised.

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13.3 Road Studs
Road studs are manufactured plastic objects incorporating reflectorised patches.
Hybrid markings consisting of both reflective road markings and reflective studs can
be useful for night-time driving in unlit areas. They are generally placed along the
centreline of the road, in the middle of the ‘broken-line’ portion of the marking, for
added demarcation. The studs can also be used to give an audible and tactile warning
of crossing any line that incorporates them, such as a pedestrian crossing.
The configuration for road markings is shown in the Standard Detail Drawings.
All permanent pavement and object markings must be formed in thermoplastic
materials and must be reflectorized.

13.4 Marker Posts

Marker posts have the function of controlling traffic to encourage safe operation. There
are two types of marker posts in use – guideposts and kilometre posts.
Guideposts are intended to make drivers aware of potential hazards such as abrupt
changes in shoulder width, abrupt changes in the alignment, approaches to structures
etc. For changes in shoulder width and approaches to structures, guide posts should
be placed at 50 m intervals. Spacing of guideposts at curves are given in Table 13-1.

Table 13-1: Spacing of Guide Posts at Curves

Curve Radius (m) Guide Post Spacing (m)
500 35
200 20
100 12
50 8
30 5

Kilometre posts are a requirement for all trunk and link roads. The kilometre posts
must be numbered beginning at Maputo or beginning at the trunk road-link road
intercepts. Kilometre posts must be placed every 1 km, past the edge of the shoulder.
Marker posts must be constructed from either concrete or plastic. Plastic marker posts
may have the following advantages:
i) Lower initial costs.
ii) Lower maintenance cost due to their ability to absorb an impact and remain
intact.
iii) Minimal damage to impacting vehicle.
iv) Safer highway environment.
v) Unlikely to be removed by local population for alternative use.

The incorporation of reflective panels into the marker post greatly improves their
visibility at night.

13.5 Traffic Light Signals

Traffic signals control vehicular and pedestrian traffic by indicating the priority of
movement for certain predetermined or traffic-actuated intervals of time. They are key
elements for the efficient functioning of many urban roads and for some rural

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junctions. The phasing of the signals at each road junction should be integrated to
achieve optimum efficiency. In designing the road, careful consideration should be
given to the junction location and geometry with respect to the visibility of traffic
signals and pedestrian requirements.
The layout of traffic lanes at signal-controlled junctions determines the functioning of
the junction. Adequate provision should be made for right and left turning lanes and
signals must be phased accordingly. Consideration should also be given to the
provision of pedestrian signals at major junctions.

13.6 Lighting
Lighting is provided to improve the safety of a road. Statistics indicate that the night-
time accident rate is higher than during daylight hours, which, to a large degree, may
be attributed to impaired visibility. In urban areas, where there are concentrations of
pedestrians and junctions, fixed source lighting tends to reduce accidents. However,
lighting of rural highways is seldom justified except at junctions, intersections, and
railway level crossings, narrow or long bridges, tunnels, sharp curves, and areas
where there is activity adjacent to the road (e.g. markets). Options that reduce
lighting costs, such as the use of solar power, should be considered as first priority.
To minimise the effect of glare and to provide the most economical lighting
installation, luminaries should be mounted at a height of at least 9 m. High mounted
luminaries provide greater uniformity of lighting and mounting heights of 10 to 15 m
are frequently used. High mast lighting (special luminaries on masts of 30 m) is used
to illuminate large areas such as intersections. This type of lighting gives a uniform
distribution of light over the whole area and thus illuminates the layout of the
intersection.
Lighting columns (poles) should be placed behind vertical kerbs whenever practical.
The appropriate distance is 0.5 m behind the kerb for roads with a design speed of 50
km/h or less, and 1.2 m or greater for roads with a design speed of 80 km/h or
greater. Where poles are located within the clear zone, regardless of distances from
the edge of the carriageway, they should be designed to include a frangible impact
attenuation feature. However, these types of poles should not be used on roads in
densely populated areas, particularly with footways. When struck, these poles may
collapse and cause injury to pedestrians or damage adjacent property. Because of
lower speeds and parked vehicles on urban roads, there is much less chance of
injuries to vehicle occupants from striking fixed poles compared to higher speed roads.
On dual carriageways, lighting may be located either in the median or on the left-hand
side of each carriageway. However, with median installation the cost is generally
lower, and illumination is higher on the high-speed outer lanes. On median
installations, dual mast arms should be used, for which 12-15 m mounting heights are
favoured. These should be protected with a suitable safety barrier. On narrow
medians, it is preferable to place the lighting poles so that they are integral with the
median barrier.
When it is intended to install highway lighting in the future, providing the necessary
conduits/ducts as part of the initial road construction can give rise to considerable
savings.

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14 Departures from Standards

14.1 Procedure
Where the designer departs from a standard, written approval must be obtained from
the Director, ANE. The Designer should submit the following information to ANE:
1) The number, name, and description of the road section;
2) The design parameter for which a Departure from Standards is desired;
3) A description of the standard, including normal value, and the value of the
Departure from Standards;
4) The reason for the Departure from Standards, and
5) Any mitigation to be applied in the interests of safety.
6) Justification for departure
The Designer must submit all major and minor Departures from Standards to the
respective regional directorate for evaluation. If the proposed Departures from
Standards are acceptable, the Departures from Standards will be submitted to the
Quality Assurance, Road Inspection and Safety Directorate for final approval.
An appropriate proforma is shown below based on the proposed modifications to the
appropriate part of the manual or specifications that, if approved, will allow the project
to proceed. At this stage this is not a permanent change but merely a temporary one
for the affected project.

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 DEPARTURE FROM STANDARDS – APPROVAL FORM

Project Name:

1. Description of issue/challenge/problem:

2. Related standard (s) (section/page/fig/table in the manual):

3. Proposed departure from standard(s):

4. Impact if any (including quality, cost, design life, safety) and mitigations,
environmental, social etc:
No Impact Mitigation

5. Submitted by:
Name:____________________________________Designation:________________

Company/Organisation Address ____________________________________________________________________

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Email:________________________________________date:___________________

6. Recommendations By Director (QA)

Signature Date

7. Recommendations By Director (Projects/DMAN)

Signature date

8. Decision (Approval/Coditional Approval/Rejection/Comments) By Director

General

Signature date

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15 References
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (2011).
A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets. 6th Edition, AASHTO,
Washington, D.C.

Austroads (2003). Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads. Sydney, Australia.

Austroads (2016). Guide to Road Design Part 3: Geometric Design (2016 Edition)
Sydney, Australia.
Austroads (2016). Supplement to Austroads Guide to Road Design. Part 3:
Geometric Design. Sydney, Australia.

Bared, J G, W Prosser and C T Esse. (1997). State-of-the-art Design of

Roundabouts. Transportation, Research Board Record 1579 pp 1-12, Washington,
D.C..

Birth, S (2008). Human Factors for Safer Road Infrastructure.

https://routesroadsmag.piarc.org › PIARC.

Committee of State Road Authorities (1988). TRH 17: Geometric Design of Rural
Roads. Pretoria, South Africa.

Committee of Land Transport Officials (1999). South African Road Safety Manual.
Pretoria, RSA.

Conference of European Directors of Roads (2013). Forgiving Roadside Design

Guide. CEDR. Brussels, Belgium.

Ethiopian Road Authority (2013). Geometric Design Manual. Addis Ababa,

Ethiopia.

Federal Highway Administration (1997). Flexibility in Highway Design. Report

FHWA-PD-97-062, Washington, D.C.

Federal Highway Administration (2008). Traffic Signal Timing Manual. Report

HOP-08-024. Washington, D.C.

Federal Highway Administration (2009). Manual on Uniform Control Devices (for

Highways and Streets). FHA, Washington, D.C.

Harwood D W, J M Mason and R E Brydia (1996). Intersection Sight Distance.

Transportation Research Board NCHRP Report 383. Washington, D.C.

Harwood D W, F M Council, E Hauer, W E Hughes and A Vogt (2000). Prediction

of the Expected Safety Performance of Rural Two-lane Roads. Federal Highway
Administration Report FHWA-RD-99-207. Washington, D.C.

Harwood D W, D K Gilmore, K R Richard, J M Dunn, C Sun (2008). Passing Sight

Distance Criteria. NCHRP 605, TRB, Washington, D.C.

Hauer E (2000). Safety in Geometric Design Standards. Proceedings 2nd

International Symposium on Highway Geometric Design pp.11-35, Mainz.

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Institution of Highways and Transportation (1990). Highway Safety Guidelines -
Accident Reduction and Prevention. International edition. Institution of Highways and
Transportation, UK.

Institution of Highways and Transportation (1990). Guidelines for the Safety

Audit of Highways (1990). Institution of Highways and Transportation, UK.

Lamm, R. B Psarianos, and T Mailaender (1999). Highway Design and Traffic

Safety Handbook. McGraw-Hill.

Neumann, T R (1985). Intersection Channelization Design Guide. Transportation

Research Board, NCHRP Report 279, Washington, DC.

SATCC (1998). Code of Practice for the Geometric Design of Trunk Roads.
CSIR/Transportek Report CR-97/049, Pretoria, RSA.

South African National Road Agency (2003). Geometric Design Guidelines. RSA.

The Highway Agency (1997). Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. London, UK.
A series of technical notes from the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges available on
the internet.
Geometric Design of Roundabouts. TD 16.
Layout of Grade Separated Junctions. TD 22.
Junctions and Accesses: Determination of Size of Roundabouts and Major/Minor
Junctions. TA 23.
Choice between Options for Trunk Road Schemes. TA 30.
The Design of Major Interchanges. TD 39.
The Layout of Compact Grade Separated Junctions. TD 40.
Geometric Design of Major/Minor Priority Junctions. TD 42.
Layout of Grade Separated Junctions. TA 48.
Geometric Layout of Signal Controlled Junctions and Signalised Roundabouts. TD
50.
Design of Mini-roundabouts. TD 54
The Layout of Large Signalised Junction. TA 86.
Geometric Design of Pedestrian, Cyclist and Equestrian Routes. TA 90.
Provision for Non-Motorised Users. TA 91.

TRL (1994). Towards Safer Roads: A Guide for Planners and Engineers. TRL Limited,
Crowthorne, UK.

TRL (1988). A Guide to Geometric Design. Overseas Road Note No 6. TRL Limited,
Crowthorne, UK.

Transportation Research Board (2000). Highway Capacity Manual Special Report

209, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.

Transportation Research Board (2012). Human Factor Guidelines for Road

Systems. NCHRP Report 600, Second Edition. National Research Council, Washington,
D.C.

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TRL (1988). A Guide to Geometric Design. Overseas Road Note 6. TRL, Crowthorne,
UK.

TRL (1994). Towards Safer Roads: A Guide for Planners and Engineers. TRL Limited,
Crowthorne, UK.

United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (1990). Road Safety Manual on
Low Cost Engineering Countermeasures. United Nations Economic Commission for
Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

World Road Association (PIARC) (2016). Human Factors Guidelines for a Safer
Man-Road Interface. Technical Committee C3.2 Design and Operation of Safer Road
Infrastructure. World Road Association (PIARC) Paris.
Yang, G, H. Xu, Z. Wang and Z Tia, (2016). Truck acceleration behavior study and
acceleration lane length recommendations for metered on-ramps. International
Journal of Transportation Science and Technology. Tongji University Press. Publishing
Services by Elsevier B.V. Shanghai, China.

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Appendix A Estimating Design Traffic (Example)
Consider a road that currently carries the following traffic and corresponding growth
rates. The road is in a rural area but links two townships. It is to be designed to class
H2.

Table A-1 Traffic Information for Estimating Design Traffic for the Example
Vehicle growth
Current AADT Vehicle growth
rate from year
Vehicle Classification (Number of rate up to end of
6 to year 20
vehicles/day) year 5 (%)
(%)
Pedestrians 200 8 8
Bicycles 80 3 2
Motorcycles 40 8 6
Car 220 5 5
Pick-up/4-wheel drive 90 5 5
Small bus 85 5 5
Bus/coach 20 5 5
Small truck (2 axle) 97 7 5
Truck (3 or 4 axle) 118 7 5

The design life for the road is 20 years. The geometric design is required.

Step 1
First convert pedestrians, bicycles and motorcycles into equivalent cars using the car
equivalency factors from the Table A-2 (Section 2.4.1). This gives the results shown.

Table A-2 Converting non-4 Wheel Traffic and Pedestrians

Vehicle Current Number Current
CEF
Classification (AADT) equivalent cars
Pedestrians 200 0.15 30
Bicycles 80 0.20 16
Motorcycles 40 0.25 10

The numbers of pedestrians, bicycles and motorcycles (converted to CEF) are used
only to determine if the cross-section design needs modifying for high values of NMTs.

Step 2
The AADT at 20 years is then computed first by computing the vehicle numbers for the
first growth period to year 5, then by computing the vehicle numbers for the second
growth period from year 6 to year 20 inclusive.
The formula for computing the number of vehicles at end of any given year is:
AADTx = AADT0*(1+i/100)x
where:

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 AADTx is the AADT for a given vehicle class in year x,
i is the growth rate for a given vehicle class,
x is the number of years from the time at which the traffic count was
conducted to the year being considered.

The results are shown in the Table A-3.

Table A-3 Results of Calculation Total AADT

Growth
AADT Growth AADT of rate for AADT of
Vehicle Current rate for vehicles at second vehicles
Classification equivalent first period the end of period (Y6 at end of
cars (%) Year 5 to Y20) Year 20
(%)
Pedestrians (CEF) 30 8 44 8 140
Bicycles (CEF) 16 3 19 2 25
Motorcycles (CEF) 10 8 15 6 35
NMT only 200
Car 220 5 281 5 584
Pick-up/4-wheel drive 90 5 115 5 239
Small bus 85 5 108 5 226
Bus/coach 20 5 26 5 53
Small truck (2 axle) 97 7 136 5 283
Truck (3 or 4 axle) 118 7 166 5 344
Total design AADT
630 1728
(excluding NMT)

Step 3
Determine the design class (Section 2.4.5).
The total design AADT is 1728 at the end of year 20. The cross-section design class is
therefore T3.
Since the number of non-motorised traffic and motorcycles converted to equivalent
cars is not greater than 300, there is no need to adjust carriageway or shoulder
widths.
Therefore, the design class is H2 T3 R in Table 1-2 and Table 7-8.

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Appendix B Measuring Sight Distance on Plans
By determining, graphically, the sight distances on the plans and recording them at
frequent intervals, the designer can appraise the overall layout and provide a more
balanced design by minor adjustments in the horizontal and vertical profiles. Once the
horizontal and vertical alignments are tentatively established, the practical means of
examining sight distances along the proposed highway is by direct scaling on the
plans. Methods for scaling sight distances are demonstrated in Figure B-1. The figure
also shows a typical sight distance record that could be shown on the final plans.
Because the view of the highway ahead may change rapidly in a short distance, it is
desirable to measure and record sight distance for both directions of travel at each
station. Both horizontal and vertical sight distances should be measured, and the
shorter lengths recorded. In the case of two-lane highways, passing sight distance in
addition to stopping sight distance should be measured and recorded.
Horizontal sight distance on the inside of a curve is limited by obstructions such as
buildings, hedges, wooded areas, noise barriers, high ground, or other topographic
features. These generally are plotted on the plans. Horizontal sight is measured with a
straightedge, as indicated at the upper left in Figure B-1. The cut slope obstruction is
shown on the worksheets by a line representing the proposed excavation slope at a
point 600 mm (approximate average of 1050 mm and 200 mm) above the road
surface for stopping sight distance and at a point about 1300 mm above the road
surface for passing sight distance. The position of this line with respect to the
centerline may be scaled from the plotted highway cross sections. Preferably, the
stopping sight distance should be measured between points on the one traffic lane and
passing sight distance from the middle of one lane to the middle of the other lane.
Such refinement on two-lane highways is not necessary and measurement to the
centerline or edge of the traveled way is suitable. Where there are changes of grade
coincident with horizontal curves that have sight-limiting cut slopes on the inside, the
line-of-sight intercepts the slope at a level either lower or higher than the assumed
average height. In measuring sight distance, the error in the assumed 600-or 1300-
mm height can usually be ignored.
Vertical sight distance may be scaled from a plotted profile by the method illustrated
at the right centre of Figure B-1. A transparent strip with parallel edge 1300 mm apart
and with scratched lines 600 mm and 1050 mm from the upper edge, in accordance
with the vertical scale, is a useful tool. The 1050-mm line is placed on the station from
which the vertical sight distance is desired, and the strip is pivoted about this point
until the upper edge is tangent to the profile. The distance between the initial station
and the station on the profile intersected by the 600 mm line is the stopping sight
distance. The distance between the initial station and the station on the profile
intersected by the lower edge of the strip is the passing sight distance.
A simple sight distance record is shown in the lower part of Figure B-1. Sight distances
in both directions are indicated by arrows and figures at each station on the plan and
profile sheet of the proposed highway. Sight distance less than 500 m may be scaled
to the nearest 10 m and those greater than 500 m to the nearest 50 m. Sight
distances can easily be determined also where alignments are drawn using computer-
aided design and drafting systems (CADD), although such programs presently do not
automatically make this determination.
Sight distance records for two-lane highways may be used to advantage to tentatively
determine the marking of no-passing zones. No-passing zones thus established serve
as a guide for markings when the highway is completed. The zone so determined
should be checked and adjusted by field measurements before actual markings are
placed.

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Figure B-1 Scaling and Recording Sight Distances on Plans

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Appendix C Sight Distances at Intersections

Sight Triangles
The distances shown in this Appendix are derived from research into gap acceptance
as reported in SANRAL (2003) adopted from NCHRP Report 383 Intersection Sight
Distance.

• Each quadrant of an intersection should contain a clear sight triangle free of

obstructions that may block a driver's view of potentially conflicting vehicles on
the opposing approaches. Two different forms of sight triangle are required,
approach (or yield) sight triangles and departure (or stop) sight triangles as
shown in Figure C-1.
• The approach triangle will have sides with sufficient lengths on both
intersecting roadways such that drivers can see any potentially conflicting
vehicle in sufficient time to slow, or to stop if need be, before entering the
intersection.
• For the departure sight triangle, the line of sight described by the hypotenuse
of the sight triangle should be such that a vehicle just coming into view on the
major road will, at the design speed of this road, have a travel time to the
intersection corresponding to the gap acceptable to the driver of the vehicle on
the minor road.
• Both forms of sight triangle are required in each quadrant of the intersection.
The line of sight assumes a driver eye height of 1.05 m and an object height of
1.3 m. The road reserve is normally splayed to ensure that the entire extent of
the sight triangle is under the control of the road authority. Furthermore, the
profiles of the intersecting roads should be designed to provide the required
sight distance. Where one or other of the approaches is in cut, the affected
sight triangles may have to be ‘day-lighted’, i.e. the natural material occurring
within the sight triangles may have to be excavated to ensure inter-visibility
between the relevant approaches.
• Sight distance values are based on the ability of the driver of a passenger car
to see an approaching passenger car. It is also necessary to check whether the
sight distance is adequate for trucks. Because their rate of acceleration is lower
than that of passenger cars and, as the distance that the truck has to travel to
clear the intersection is longer, the gap acceptable to a truck driver is
considerably greater than that required by the driver of a passenger car. For
design purposes, the eye height of truck drivers is taken as 1.8 m for checking
the availability of sight distance for trucks.

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 Figure 1(a): Approach Sight Triangles

Figure C-1 Departure Sight Triangles

• The recommended dimensions of the clear sight triangles vary with the type of
traffic control used at an intersection because different types of control impose
different legal constraints on drivers resulting in different driver behaviour.

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 Sight distance policies for intersections with the following types of traffic
control are shown below:
A. Intersections with no control;
B. Intersections with ‘Stop’ control on the minor road;
Case B1: Right turn from the minor road;
Case B2 Left turn from the minor road;
Case B3 Crossing manoeuvre from the minor road;
C. Intersections with ‘Yield’ control on the minor road;
Case C1 Crossing manoeuvre from the minor road;
Case C2 Left or right turn from the minor road;
D. Intersections with traffic signal control;
E. Intersections with all-way Stop control.

Case A Intersections with no control

• Uncontrolled intersections are not used in conjunction with the main road
network but are common in rural networks and access roads to rural
settlements. In these cases, drivers must be able to see potentially conflicting
vehicles on intersecting approaches in sufficient time to stop safely before
reaching the intersection. Thus sight triangles with legs at least equal to the
stopping sight distance at the design speed of the road should be provided on
all the approaches to uncontrolled intersections (Chapter 4). However, the
sudden appearance at the available sight distance of a vehicle about to cross a
junction should not require an emergency stop by the vehicle on the other road
(except in extreme circumstances).
• However, observations in the NCHRP study indicate that vehicles approaching
uncontrolled intersections typically slow down. This occurs even when no
potentially conflicting vehicles are present. Hence if sight triangles of the ideal
size cannot be provided, approaching vehicles travelling at less than their
normal running speed can still brake to a stop if required in an emergency
situation. Table 1 shows revised sight distances based on the NCHRP study.
• If these sight distances cannot be provided, advisory speed signing to reduce
speeds or installing Stop signs on one or more approaches should be
investigated.
• Uncontrolled intersections do not normally require departure sight triangles
because they typically have very low traffic volumes. If a driver finds it
necessary to stop at an uncontrolled intersection because of the presence of a
conflicting vehicle, it is unlikely that another potentially conflicting vehicle will
be encountered as the first vehicle departs the intersection.

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 Table C-1 Case A: Recommended Sight Distances for Intersections
with no Traffic Control

Design Sight Distance (m)

Speed Approach gradient
(km/h) 0 to -3% -4 % -5% -6%
30 25 25 25 30
40 30 35 35 35
50 40 45 45 45
60 50 55 55 55
70 65 70 70 70
80 80 90 90 95
90 95 105 105 115
100 120 130 130 145
110 140 155 170 170
120 165 180 200 200
Note. However, the stopping sight distances in Table 4-4and
Table 4-5should be used whenever possible for additional
safety

Case B Intersections with stop control

• Departure sight triangles for intersections with Stop control on the minor road
should be considered for three situations:
o Case B1 Right turns from the minor road;
Case B2 Left turns from the minor road;
Case B3 Crossing the major road from the minor road.
• Approach sight triangles, as shown in Figure C-1 need not be provided at Stop-
controlled intersections because all minor-road vehicles should stop before
entering or crossing the major road.
• Vehicles turning right from the minor road have to cross the stream of traffic
approaching from the right and then merge with the stream approaching from
the left. Left-turning vehicles need only merge with the stream approaching
from the right. As the merging manoeuvre requires that turning vehicles should
be able to accelerate approximately to the speed of the stream with which they
are merging, it requires a gap longer than that for a crossing manoeuvre itself.

Case B1: Right turn from the minor road.

• Departure sight triangle for traffic approaching from the left as shown in Figure
C-1 should be provided for right turns from the minor road onto the major road
for all Stop-controlled approaches. Field observations of the gaps accepted by
the drivers of vehicles turning to the right onto the major road have shown that
the values in Table 2 provide sufficient time for the minor-road vehicle to
accelerate from a stop and merge with the opposing stream without undue
interference. These observations also revealed that major-road drivers reduce
their speed to some extent to accommodate vehicles entering from the minor
road. Where the gap acceptance values in Table B.2 are used to determine the
length of the leg of the departure sight triangle along the major road, most
major-road drivers need not reduce speed to less than 70 % of their initial
speed.

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 • For minor-road approaches from which substantial volumes of heavy vehicles
enter the major road, the values for single-unit trucks or semitrailers should be
applied. Table C-2 includes adjustments to the acceptable gaps for the number
of lanes on the major road and for the approach gradient of the minor road.
The adjustment for the gradient of the minor-road approach need be made
only if the rear wheels of the design vehicle would be on an upgrade steeper
than 3 % when the vehicle is at the stop line of the minor-road approach.
• The length of the sight triangle along the major road (distance ‘b’ in Figure 1)
is the product of the design speed of the major road in m/sec and the critical
gap in seconds as listed in Table C-2. If these sight distances along the major
road (including the appropriate adjustments) cannot be provided, consideration
should be given to the installation of advisory speed signs on the major-road
approaches.
• Dimension ‘a’ in Figure 1 depends on the context within which the intersection
is being designed. In urban areas drivers tend to stop their vehicles
immediately behind the Stop line, which may be located virtually in line with
the edge of the major road. A car driver would, therefore, be located about 2.4
m away from the Stop line. In rural areas, vehicles usually stop at the edge of
the shoulder of the major road. In the case of a 3-m wide shoulder, for
example, the driver would be approximately 5.4 m away from the edge of the
travelled way.

Table C-2 Travel Times Used to Determine the Leg of the Departure Triangle
along the Major Road for Right and Left Turns from Stop-controlled
Approaches
Travel Time (seconds) at Design
Vehicle
Speed of the Major Road
Passenger car 7.5
Single unit truck 9.5
Semi-trailer 11.5
Multi-lane highways.
For right turns onto 2-way highways with more than 2 lanes, add 0.5 seconds for
cars and 0.7 seconds for trucks for each additional lane (in excess of one) to be
crossed by the turning vehicle. No adjustment is necessary for left turns.
Adjustment for gradients.
If the approach gradient on the minor road exceeds 3% add 0.1 second per
gradient for right turns and 0.2 seconds per gradient for left turns

• Where the major road is a dual carriageway, two departure sight triangles have
to be considered: a sight triangle to the right, as for the crossing movement
and one using the acceptable gap as listed in Table C-2for vehicles approaching
from the left. This presupposes that the width of the median is sufficient to
provide a refuge for the vehicle turning from the minor road. If the median
width is inadequate, the adjustment in Table C-2for multilane major roads
should be applied with the median being counted as an additional lane. The
departure sight triangle should be checked for various possible design vehicles
because the width of the median may be adequate for one vehicle type and not
for another so that two different situations have to be evaluated.

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Case B2: Left turn from the minor road.
• A departure sight triangle for traffic approaching from the right, as shown in
Figure C-1should be provided for left turns from the minor road. The lengths of
the legs of the departure sight triangle for left turns should generally be the
same as those for the length of the leg of the departure sight triangle
(dimension ‘b’) along the major road and should be based on the travel times
in Table C-2, including appropriate adjustment factors.

• Dimension ‘a’ depends on the context of the design and can vary from 2.4 m to
5.4 m. Where sight distances along the major road based on the travel times
from Table .2 cannot be provided, it should be kept in mind that field
observations indicate that, in making left turns, drivers generally accept gaps
that are slightly shorter than those accepted in making right turns. The travel
times in Table C-2 can be decreased by 1.0 to 1.5 seconds for left turn
manoeuvres, where necessary, without undue interference with major-road
traffic. When the recommended sight distance for a left-turn manoeuvre cannot
be provided, even with this reduction, consideration should be given to the
installation of advisory speed signs and warning devices on the major road
approaches.

Case B3: Crossing manoeuvre from the minor road

• In most cases it can be assumed that the departure sight triangles for right and
left turns onto the major road, as described for Cases B1 and B2, will also
provide more than adequate sight distance for minor-road vehicles crossing the
major road. However, it is advisable to check the availability of sight distance
for crossing manoeuvres:
▪ Where right and/or left turns are not permitted from a particular approach
and crossing is the only legal manoeuvre;
▪ Where the crossing vehicle has to cross four or more lanes; or
▪ Where substantial volumes of heavy vehicles cross the highway and where
there are steep gradients on the departure roadway on the far side of the
intersection that might slow the vehicle while its rear is still in the
intersection.

• Table C-3presents travel times and appropriate adjustment factors that can be
used to determine the length of the leg of the sight triangle along the major
road to accommodate crossing manoeuvres. At divided highway intersections,
depending on the width of the median and the length of the design vehicle,
sight distance may be needed for crossing both roadways of the divided
highway or for crossing the near lanes only and stopping in the median before
proceeding.

Table C-3 Travel Times Used to Determine the Leg of the Departure Triangle
along the Major Road for Crossing Manoeuvres from Stop-controlled
Approaches
Travel Time (seconds) at Design
Vehicle
Speed of the Major Road
Passenger car 6.5
Single unit truck 8.5
Semi-trailer 10.5
Multi-lane highways.

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 For left turns onto 2-way highways with more than 2 lanes, add 0.5
seconds for cars and 0.7 seconds for trucks for each additional lane (in
excess of one) to be crossed. In the case of dual carriageways with
inadequate median width for refuge, count the median as another lane to
be crossed.
Adjustment for gradients.
If the approach gradient on the minor road exceeds 3% add 0.2 second
per % gradient in excess of 3%.
Notes: 1. For minor-road approach gradients that exceed +3 %, increase by
the same factor as in Table C-1.
2 Travel time applies to a vehicle that slows before crossing the
intersection but does not stop.

Case C: Intersections with yield control on the minor road

• Vehicles entering a major road at a Yield-controlled intersection may, because
of the presence of opposing vehicles on the major road, be required to stop.
Departure sight triangles as described for Stop control must therefore be
provided for the Yield condition. However, if no conflicting vehicles are present,
drivers approaching Yield signs are permitted to enter or cross the major road
without stopping. The sight distances needed by drivers on Yield-controlled
approaches exceed those for Stop-controlled approaches because of the longer
travel time of the vehicle on the minor road.
• For four-legged intersections with Yield control on the minor road, two separate
sets of approach sight triangles as shown in Figure 1 should be provided; one
set of approach sight triangles to accommodate right and left turns onto the
major road and the other for crossing movements. Both sets of sight triangles
should be checked for potential sight obstructions.

Case C1: Crossing manoeuvres

• The lengths of the leg of the approach sight triangle along the minor road to
accommodate the crossing manoeuvre from a Yield-controlled approach
(distance ‘a’ in Figure C-1) are given in Table C-4. The distances are based on
similar assumptions as those for Case A control. The distances and times in
Table C-4 should be adjusted for the gradient of the minor road approach,
using the same factors as used in Table 1.

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 Table C-4 Leg of Approach Sight Triangle Along the Minor Road to
Accommodate Crossing Manoeuvres from Yield-controlled Approaches
Travel time (ta) from
Design speed (minor Distance along
decision point to
road). (km/h) minor road (m)
major road(1)(2)
30 30 3.4
40 40 3.7
50 50 4.1
60 65 4.7
70 85 5.3
80 110 6.1
90 140 6.8
100 165 7.3
110 190 7.8
120 230 8.6
Notes 1 For minor-road approach gradients that exceed +3 %, increase by
the same factor as in Table 1.
2 Travel time applies to a vehicle that slows before crossing the
intersection but does not stop

• The length of the leg of the approach sight triangle along the major road to
accommodate the crossing manoeuvre (distance ‘b’ in Figure 1) should be
calculated using the following equations:

tc = ta + (w + La)/(0.167.vminor)

b = 0.278.tc.vmajor

where:
tc = travel time to reach and clear the major road in a crossing
manoeuvre (seconds)
b = length of leg of sight triangle along the major road (m)
ta = travel time to reach the major road from the decision point for a
vehicle that does not stop (sec) (use appropriate value for the
minor road design speed from Table 1, adjusted for approach
grade, where appropriate)
w = width of intersection to be crossed (m)
La = length of design vehicle (m)
vminor = design speed of minor road (km/h)
vmajor = design speed of major road (km/h)

• These equations provide sufficient travel time for the major road vehicle during
which the minor-road vehicle can:
▪ Travel from the decision point to the intersection, while decelerating at
the rate of 1.5 m/s² to 60 % of the minor-road design speed; and then

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 ▪ Cross and clear the intersection at the same speed.

• Field observations did not provide a clear indication of the size of the gap
acceptable to the driver of a vehicle located at the decision point on the minor
road. If the required gap is longer than that indicated by the above equations,
the driver would probably, bring the vehicle to a stop and then select a gap on
the basis of Case B. If the acceptable gap is shorter than that indicated by the
above equations, the sight distance provided would, at least, provide a margin
of safety.

• If the major road is a divided highway with a median wide enough to store the
design vehicle for the crossing manoeuvre, then only crossing of the near lanes
need be considered and a departure sight triangle for accelerating from a
stopped position in the median should be provided, based on Case C1.

Case C2: Left and right-turn manoeuvres

• To accommodate left and right turns without stopping (distance ‘a’ in Figure
C-1), the length of the leg of the approach sight triangle along the minor road
should be 25 m. This distance is based on the assumption that drivers making
right or left turns without stopping will slow to a turning speed of 15 km/h. The
length of the leg of the approach sight triangle along the major road (distance
‘b’) is similar to that of the major-road leg of the departure sight triangle for
Stop-controlled intersections in Cases C1 and B2. For a Yield-controlled
intersection, the travel times in Table C-2 should be increased by 0.5 seconds.
[The minor-road vehicle requires 3.5 seconds to travel from the decision point
to the intersection. These 3.5 seconds represent additional travel time that is
needed at a Yield-controlled intersection (Case C). However, the acceleration
time after entering the major road is 3.0 seconds less for a Yield sign than for a
Stop sign because the turning vehicle accelerates from 15 km/h rather than
from a stop condition. The net 0.5 seconds increase in travel time for a vehicle
turning from a Yield-controlled approach is the difference between the 3.5
second increase in travel time on approach and the 3.0 second reduction in
travel time on departure explained above].
• Since approach sight triangles for turning manoeuvres at Yield-controlled sites
are larger than the departure sight triangles used at Stop-controlled
intersections, no specific check of departure sight triangles at Yield-controlled
intersections should be necessary.

Case D: Intersections with traffic signal control

• In general, approach or departure sight triangles are not needed for signalised
intersections. Indeed, signalisation may be an appropriate accident
countermeasure for higher volume intersections with restricted sight distance
and a history of sight-distance related accidents. However, traffic signals may
fail from time to time. Furthermore, traffic signals at an intersection are
sometimes placed on two-way flashing operation under off-peak or night time
conditions. To allow for either of these eventualities, the appropriate departure
sight triangles for Case B, both to the left and to the right, should be provided
for the minor-road approaches.

Case E: Intersections with all-way Stop control

• At intersections with all-way Stop control, the first stopped vehicle on each
approach would be visible to the drivers of the first stopped vehicles on each of
the other approaches. It is thus not necessary to provide sight distance
triangles at intersections with All-way Stop control. All-way Stop control may

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 be an option to consider where the sight distance for other types of control
cannot be achieved. This is particularly the case if signals are not warranted.

Case F: Right turns from a major road

• Right turns from the major road with no traffic control can be extremely
dangerous and junctions should not be designed that make this possible. At all
locations where right turns across opposing traffic are allowed, right -turning
drivers need sufficient sight distance to enable them to decide when it is safe
to turn across the lane(s) used by opposing traffic. Since a vehicle that turns
right without stopping needs a gap shorter than that required by a stopped
vehicle, the need for sight distance design should be based on a right turn by a
stopped vehicle. The sight distance along the major road to accommodate right
turns is the distance that would be traversed at the design speed of the major
road in the travel time for the appropriate design vehicle given in Table C-5.
This table also contains appropriate adjustment factors for the number of
major-road lanes to be crossed by the turning vehicle.

Table C-5 Travel Times Used to Determine the Sight Distance along the Major
Road to Accommodate Right Turns from the Major Road (Case F)
Travel Time (seconds) at Design
Vehicle
Speed of the Major Road
Passenger car 5.5
Single unit truck 6.5
Semi-trailer 7.5
Multi-lane highways.
For right turns that have to cross more than one opposing lane add 0.5 seconds
for cars and 0.7 seconds for trucks for each additional lane (in excess of one) to
be crossed. In the case of dual carriageways where the median is not sufficiently
wide to provide refuge for the turning vehicle, the median should be regarded as
another lane to be crossed.

• If stopping sight distance has been provided continuously along the major road
and if sight distance for Case B (Stop control) or Case C (Yield control) has
been provided for each minor-road approach, sight distance should generally
be adequate for left turns from the major road. However, at intersections or
driveways located on or near horizontal or vertical curves on the major road,
the availability of adequate sight distance for left turns from the major road
should be checked. In the case of dual carriageways, the presence of sight
obstructions in the median should also be checked.
• At four-legged intersections, opposing vehicles turning right can block a
driver's view of oncoming traffic. If right-turn lanes are provided, off-setting
them to the right, to be directly opposite one other will provide right-turning
drivers with a better view of oncoming traffic.

Effect of skew on sight distance

When two highways intersect at an angle outside the range of 75 o to 120o and where
realignment to increase the angle of intersection is not justified, some of the factors
for determining intersection sight distances will need adjustment. Each of the clear
sight triangles described above is applicable to oblique-angle intersections. The legs of
the sight triangle will lie along the intersection approaches and each sight triangle will
be larger or smaller than the corresponding sight triangle would be at a right-angle
intersection. The area within each sight triangle should be clear of sight obstructions,

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as described above. At skew intersections, the length of the travel paths for crossing
manoeuvres will be increased. The actual path length for a crossing manoeuvre can be
calculated by dividing the total width of the lanes (plus the median width, where
appropriate) to be crossed by the sine of the intersection angle and adding the length
of the design vehicle. The actual path length divided by the lane width applied to the
major road cross-section gives the equivalent number of lanes to be crossed. This is
an indication of the number of additional lanes to be applied to the adjustment factor
shown in Table C-3 for Case B3.
The sight distances shown for Case B can, regardless of the form of control, also
accommodate turning movements from the minor road to the major road at skew
intersections. In the obtuse angle, drivers can easily see the full sight triangle and, in
addition, often accelerate from the minor road at a higher rate than when they have to
negotiate a ninety-degree change of direction. In the acute-angle quadrant, drivers
are often required to turn their heads considerably to see across the entire clear sight
triangle. For this reason, it is suggested that Case A should not be applied to oblique-
angle intersections. Stop or Yield control should be applied and the sight distances
appropriate to either Case B or Case C provided. Even in a skew intersection it is
usually possible for drivers to position their vehicles at approximately 90o to the major
road at the Stop line, offering added support for the application of Case B for skew
intersections. When driving through a deflection angle greater than 120 o, the right
turn to the minor road may be undertaken at crawl speeds. Allowance could be made
for this by adding the time, equivalent to that required for crossing an additional lane,
to the acceptable gap.

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Appendix D Road Friction

Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction is the ratio of the frictional force on the vehicle and the
component of the weight of the vehicle perpendicular to the frictional force.
The longitudinal coefficients of friction, as determined by various authors, are shown
in Figure D-1. The purpose of showing this Figure is primarily to illustrate the very
wide range of values that are obtained. Longitudinal friction coefficients depend on
vehicle speed; type, condition and texture of roadway surface; weather conditions;
and type and condition of tyres. Its value decreases as speed increases. The
coefficient of friction values chosen for use in this manual are shown in Figure D-1 and
Table 4-3 using the lowest results of friction tests. The values allow a reasonable
safety factor to cater for the wide range of conditions.
Coefficient of friction

Figure D-1 Longitudinal Friction for Various Tyre and Pavement Conditions

It is therefore difficult to define representative values where the conditions are so

variable; worn tyres are common, gravel roads can have particularly low friction
characteristics, and the climate varies from wet to arid.

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Side friction coefficients are also dependent on vehicle speed, type, condition and
texture of roadway surface, weather conditions, and type and condition of tyres.
Figure D-2 illustrates some values obtained by various researchers.

Coefficient of friction

Figure D-2 Side Friction Factors

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Appendix E Utilities
E1 Electricidade de Moçambique (EDM)

The EDM Manual shows the minimum vertical clearance of wires above roads.

The manual generally gives no guidance on the placement of the utility within the road
reserve. A drawing shows that street lighting is to be placed 1 m behind a curb on a
main road. The manual does not state placement for un-curbed roads, and such
placement should not be allowed. Similarly, power poles are placed 60 cm behind
curbs; in rural areas, the poles must be placed at least 15 m from the center of the
road.

For underground cables crossing the road, unprotected cables are placed 80 cm below
a gravel road; or cables encased with concrete pipe are placed 100 cm below an
asphalt road or paved sidewalk. The EDM shows vertical clearances as per Table E-1.

Table E-1 Minimum Vertical Clearance of Wires above Road Surface (in
centimetres)
Open-Supply Wires, Voltage to
Guys, Ground
Type of Location Messengers,
etc. 750 to 15,000 to
0 to 750
15,000 50,000
When crossing above:
Railroads 820 820 850 910
Streets, alleys, and
roadways 550 550 610 670
Private driveways 310 310 610 670
Walkways for pedestrians
only 240 460 460 520
When wires are along:
Streets or alleys 550 550 610 670
Roads in rural districts 430 460 550 610

Note: The designer should always refer to the most up to date manuals for the values
in stated in Table E-1.

E2 Direcção Nacional de Aguas (DNA)

The DNA reports that they generally follow the proposals indicated in the Master Plan
for pipe laying. This consists of laying pipes under the sidewalks. However, in
situations where the sidewalk is narrow or does not exist, pipes are laid in the median,
if there is one, or in the edge of the asphalt road.

For pipes up to 150 mm diameter, pipes are laid at a depth as indicated in Table E-2.
For larger pipes, the depth is generally greater than 1.5 m.

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 Table E-2 Trench Dimensions for Water and Sewerage Pipe Culverts
Diameter Depth Width Bedding thickness
(mm) (cm) cm) (cm)
150 85 70 10
125 72.5 70 10
100 70 50 10
75 57.5 40 -
50 55 40 -

E3 Telecomunicações de Moçambique (TDM)

The Telecommunications Corporation reports that for directly buried cable installation,
the TC uses a depth of 1.0-1.2 m for primary cable and 0.6-0.8 m for secondary cable.
TC does not have a standard location plan within the road reserve at the time of the
preparation of this manual.

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Appendix F Compact Grade-Separated Interchanges
Alternative layouts for 4-arm junctions are shown in Figure F-1to Figure F-3and an
example of a layout for a 3-arm junction is shown in Figure F-4. Schematic
representations of other layouts are shown in Figures Figure F-4 to Figure F-8. Figure
F-9 shows two method of incorporating a compact grade separation into a section of
carriageway which has a series of priority junctions in close proximity.

Figure F-1 Grade Separation for a 4-Arm Junction Showing Merge and Diverge
Tapers
.
Grade separation for a 4-arm junction showing merge and diverge tapers
and free flow on the minor carriageway. (For intersections where minor
road traffic movement is primarily straight across).

Figure F-2 Grade Separation for 4-Arm Junction Without Merge and Diverge
Tapers

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 Grade separation for 4-arm junction without merge and diverge tapers and
free flow on the minor carriageway. (For junctions where minor road traffic
movement is primarily straight across).

Figure F-3 Grade Separation for 4-Arm Junction with Compact Connector
Road
Grade separation for 4-arm junction with compact connector road forming a
loop (for junctions where minor road traffic movement is primarily turning
onto and off the major carriageway).

Figure F-4 Grade separation for 3-arm junction with compact connector roads
showing merge and diverge tapers

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Figure F-5 A selection of schematic layouts indicating 4-arm compact grade
separations on dual all-purpose carriageways.

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Figure F-6 A selection of schematic layouts indicating 4-arm compact grade
separations on single all-purpose carriageways.

Figure F-7 A selection of schematic layouts indicating 3-arm compact grade

separations on dual all-purpose carriageways.

Figure F-8 A selection of schematic layouts indicating 3-arm compact grade

separations on single all-purpose carriageways.

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Figure F-9 Schematic example of compact grade separation and restricted
junctions.

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Appendix G Passing Sight Distance

The minimum sight distance required by a vehicle to overtake or pass another vehicle
safely on a two-lane single carriageway road is the distance, which will enable the
overtaking driver to pass a slower vehicle without causing an oncoming vehicle to slow
below the design speed. The manoeuvre is one of the most complex but important
driving tasks. It is also relatively difficult to quantify for design purposes because of
the various stages involved, the large number of relative speeds of vehicles that are
possible, and the lengthy section of road needed to complete the manoeuvre. As a
result, there are numerous models which have been developed and a variety of design
solutions that have been used throughout the world. NCHRP Report 605 by Harwood
et al. (2008) is a comprehensive review the conclusions of which are summarised
below.
The PSD is determined by a formula with four components (Figure G1), as follows:
d1 = distance traversed during perception and reaction time and during the
initial acceleration to the point of encroachment on the left lane.
d2 = distance traveled while the passing vehicle occupies the right lane.
d3 = distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the
opposing vehicle
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the
passing vehicle occupies the right lane, or 2/3 of d2 above. The formulae
for these components are as indicated below:

d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + a.t1/2)
Where
t1 = time of initial manoeuvre, s
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h

d2 = 0.278 v.t2.
Where
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies right lane, s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the manoeuvre -
dependent on ambient speeds as per Table G1.
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to
d2 minus the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the right
lane, estimated as:
d4 = 2d2/3

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 Figure G-1 Passing Sight Distance

Table G-1 Clearance Distance (d3) for Different Ambient Speeds

Speed Group (km/h) 50-65 66-80 81-95 96-110
d3 (m) 30 55 75 90

The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is calculated from:

PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

Two-lane highways can be designed safely with any set of PSD criteria equal to or
greater than the PSD criteria currently used in marking passing and no-passing zones
presented in the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD). The longer PSD
criteria currently presented in the AASHTO Green Book provide improved traffic
operational efficiency but are so long that they are considered to be impractical.
A driver finding that he has insufficient distance after initiating the passing manoeuvre
can choose to abort the manoeuvre (see Figure 4-3). The Minimum Passing Sight
Distance is then the sight distance required on a two-lane road to enable the passing
manoeuvre to be aborted. The recommended minimum PSDs are as indicated in Table
4-8 and Table G-2. The range of values used worldwide occurs because of different
underlying assumptions in their derivation.
A method of measuring and recording sight distances are given in Appendix B.

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 Table G-2 Passing Sight Distances

Minimum PSD AASHTO

Design Speed
allowing abortion Green Book
(km/h)
(m)1 (m)

30 115 195
40 135 275
50 155 345
60 180 420
70 210 485
80 240 550
90 275 615
100 310 670
110 350 730
120 395 780
130 440 830

Note 1 Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) and NCHRP Report
605 by Harwood et al. (2008).

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Appendix H Elements of a Circular Curve
The elements of circular curves are shown in Figure H-1.

Figure H-1 Curve Elements

1) Δ is the Deflection Angle (in degrees).

2) R is the Radius of the curve.

3) Point PC is the Point-of-Curvature Station PC = PI – T

4) PT is the Point-of-Tangency Station PT = PC+ L

5) T is the Tangent Distance PC to PI and PI to PT; T = R.tan(Δ/2)

6) E is the External Distance: E = R.[sec(Δ/2) – 1]

7) L is the Curve Length. L = 2.π.R.Δ/360

8) M is the Middle Ordinate M = R.[1 – cos(Δ/2)]

9) C is the Chord Length from PC to PT C = 2.R.sin(Δ/2)

Example:
A curve has a deflection angle of  = 23o 18’ 02”, and a radius of 1432.6 m. The Point
of Intersection (PI) is 5+053.87. Calculate the tangent distance (T), external distance
(E), curve length (L), Point of Curvature (PC), and Point of Tangent (PT).

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 ∆ 230 18′ 02"
𝑇 = 𝑅𝑡𝑎𝑛 = (1432.6) (𝑡𝑎𝑛 ) = 1432.6(0.2026) = 295𝑚
2 2

1432.6 × 2 × 3.142
𝐿 = ∆ × = 23.3 ( ) = 582𝑚
360

∆ 1
𝐸 = 𝑅 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 − 1) = 1432.6 (( ) − 1) = 1432.6(0.021) = 30𝑚
2 ∆
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2

PC = PI – T = 5 + 053.87 – 295.35 = 4 + 758

PT = PC + L = 4 + 758.49 + 582.51 = 5+341

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