Unit 2

Electrodynamics and
Transmission Line
 Contents

•Faraday’s Law
•Translational and motional emf
•Displacement Current
•Time varying Maxwell’s equations
•Energy Density
•Helmholtz’s wave equation
•Uniform plane waves in lossy and lossless dielectrics
•Transmission line model, parameters and equations
 Introduction
❑ In Part 2 (Chapters 4 – 6) , we mainly concentrated our efforts on electrostatic
fields denoted by E (x, y, z)
❑ Part 3 (Chapters 7 and 8), was devoted to magnetostatic fields represented by
H(x, y, z).
❑ We have therefore restricted our discussions to static, or time-invariant, EM
fields.
❑ In static EM fields, E and H fields are independent of each other.
❑ However, familiarity with static fields provides a good background for
understanding dynamic fields.
❑ Recall that, electrostatic fields are usually produced by static electric charges,
whereas magnetostatic fields are due to motion of electric charges with uniform
velocity (direct current) or static magnetic charges (magnetic poles).
❑ Henceforth, we shall examine situations in which
E and H fields are dynamic, or time varying.
❑ It should be mentioned first that in static, whereas
in dynamic EM fields, the two fields are
interdependent.
❑ A time-varying E-field necessarily involves a
corresponding time-varying H-field.
❑ Time-varying EM fields, represented by E (x, y, z,
t) and H (x, y, z, t), are of more practical value than
static EM fields.
❑ Time-varying fields or waves are usually due to
accelerated charges or time-varying currents.
❑ Any pulsating current will produce radiation
(time-varying fields).
❑ Rectangular type of pulsating current is the cause
of radiated emission in digital logic boards.
❑ The objective of this chapter is to lay a firm foundation for
our subsequent studies.
❑ This is based on two major concepts:
(1) Electromotive force (e.m.f) based on Faraday’s
experiments and
(2) Displacement current, which resulted from Maxwell’s
hypothesis.
❑ As a result of these concepts, Maxwell’s equations discussed
and the boundary conditions for static EM fields will be
modified to account for the time variation of the fields.
❑ Maxwell’s equations, which summarize the laws of
electromagnetism, shall be the basis of our discussions in the
future lectures.
 Faraday’s Law
•Biot–Savart and Ampère laws states that a steady current
produces a magnetic field.
•In 1831 (or after 11 years), Michael Faraday in London
and Joseph Henry in New York discovered that a
time-varying magnetic field would produce an electric
current.
•According to Faraday’s experiments, a static magnetic
field produces no current flow; but in a closed circuit, a
time-varying field produces an induced voltage (called
electromotive force or simply emf) that causes a flow of
current.
 Faraday’s Law

• Where λ=NΨ flux linkage, N=no. of turns in thee circuit, Ψ=Flux through each
turn
• The negative sign shows that the induced voltage acts in such a way as to oppose the flux
producing it. This behavior is described as Lenz’s law.
• The direction of current flow in the circuit is such that the induced magnetic field produced by the
induced current opposes change in the original magnetic field.
 Electromotive Force (e.m.f.)
• Consider electrical circuit shown in figure, where the battery is a
source of emf.
• The electrochemical action of the battery results in an emf-produced
field Ef.
• Due to the accumulation of charge at the battery terminals, an
electrostatic field Ee (=-gradientV ) also exists.
• The total electric field at any point is
• Note that Ef is zero outside the battery, Ef and Ee have opposite
directions in the battery,
• and the direction of Ee inside the battery is opposite to that outside it.
• If we integrate above eq. over the closed circuit, we have

Where because Ee is
conservative
• The emf of the battery is the line integral of the
emf-produced field, that is,

• since Ef and Ee are equal but opposite within the battery

• It may also be regarded as the potential difference (VP - VN) between the
battery’s open-circuit terminals.

It is important to note the following facts.

1. An electrostatic field Ee cannot maintain a steady current in a closed circuit, since

2. An emf-produced field Ef is nonconservative.

3. Except in electrostatics, voltage and potential difference are usually not equivalent.
 Transformer and Motional Electromotive
Force
• Having considered the connection between emf and electric field, we may examine how Faraday’s law
links electric and magnetic fields.
• For a circuit with a single turn (N=1), In time varying situation,
both electric and magnetic
fields are present and are
interrelated.
dl and ds are in accordance
• In terms of E and B, same eq. can be written as with right hand rule as well
as stoke’s theorem

• Where Ψ has been replaced by and S is the surface area of circuit bounded by closed path L.
• The variation of flux with time may be caused in three ways:
• By having a stationary loop in a time-varying B field

• By having a time-varying loop area in a static B field

• By having a time-varying loop area in a time-varying B field

 By having a stationary loop in a
time-varying B field
• A stationary conducting loop is placed in a time-varying magnetic B
field as shown in fig.

• This emf induced by the time-varying current (producing the time-varying B field) in
a stationary loop is often referred to as transformer emf in
power analysis, since it is due to transformer action.
• By applying stoke’s theorem to middle term,

• For the two integrals to be equal, their integrands must be equal; that is, One of the Maxwell’s
equations for time-varying
fields.
 Moving Loop in Static B Field (Motional
emf )
• When a conducting loop is moving in a static B field, an emf is induced in the loop.
• The force on a charge moving with uniform velocity u in a magnetic field B is

• We define the motional electric field Em as

• If we consider a conducting loop, moving with uniform velocity u as consisting of a large number of free electrons,
the emf induced in the loop is

• This type of emf is called motional emf or flux-cutting emf

because it is due to motional action.
• E.g. motors, generators, and alternators.
 Example of motional emf
• Figure illustrates a two-pole dc machine with one
armature coil and a two bar commutator.
• Although the analysis of the dc machine is beyond
the scope of this text,
• we can see that voltage is generated as the coil
rotates within the magnetic field.
• In another example, where a rod is moving
between a pair of rails. Here, B and u are
perpendicular, so eq. becomes

Or
•Applying stoke’s theorem to

1. The integral in eq. (9.10) is zero along the portion of the loop where u = 0. Thus dl is
taken along the portion of the loop that is cutting the field (along the rod in Figure 9.5),
where u has nonzero value.
2. The direction of the induced current is the same as that of Em or u X B. The limits of
the integral in eq. (9.10) are selected in the direction opposite to the induced current,
thereby satisfying Lenz’s law. In Figure 9.5, for example, the integration over L is along
-ay, whereas induced current flows in the rod along ay.
 Moving Loop in Time-Varying Field
• In the general case, a moving conducting loop is in a time-varying magnetic field.
• Both transformer emf and motional emf are present.
• So, total emf is

• Or
Example
 Displacement Current
• We shall now reconsider Maxwell’s curl equation for magnetic fields (Ampere’s circuit
law) for time varying conditions.
• For static EM fields, we recall that
• But the divergence of the curl of any vector field is identically zero (See slide 21)
• Hence,
Incompatible for time
• The continuity of current requires that varying condition

• Modifying, maxwell’s equation by adding Jd term

• Where Jd is to be determined and defined.

Contd…
•Taking divergence to both side, using fact that the divergence of
the curl of any vector is zero.

Maxwell’s fourth
equation for time
varying field, where
Jd is displacement
current density
J is conduction
current density J=σE
•Important addition by Maxwell
•Without Jd, the propagation of electromagnetic waves
would be impossible,
•At low frequencies, Jd is usually neglected compared
with J.
•However, at radio frequencies, the two terms are
comparable.
•At the time of Maxwell, high- frequency sources were
not available and eq. (9.23) could not be verified
experimentally.
•It was years later that Hertz succeeded in generating and
detecting radio waves, thereby verifying eq. (9.23).
 Displacement Current Id
• Based on the displacement current density, we define the displacement current as

• Displacement current is a result of time-varying electric field

• Typical example: Current through parallel plate capacitor when AC voltage is applied.

where I is the current If we use the balloon-shaped surface S2

through the conductor and that passes between the capacitor plates
S1 is the flat surface because no conduction current J=0 flows
bounded by L. through S2.

This is contradictory in view of the fact that the same closed path L is used.

Jd =0 J =0
The total current density is J+Jd after considering modification in Maxwell’s equation
Continuity Equation and relaxation time

For steady current,

it’s zero
Continuity of current
equation
 Relaxation Time or Rearrangement time
• The equation shows that the introduction of charge at some interior point of the material
results in a decay of volume charge density ρv.

• ρv0 is the initial charge density(i.e. ρv at t=0).

• Relaxation time is short for good conductors and long for good dielectrics. For example,
for copper σ= 5.8 x 107 S/m, εr = 1
Maxwell’s Equations in Final Forms
TIME Varying Potential
• For static EM fields, we obtained the electric scalar potential as

• And the magnetic vector potential

• Recall that A was defined from the fact that , which still holds for time-varying fields.
• Hence the relation holds for time-varying situations.
• Combining with Faraday’s Law
• Since the curl of the gradient of a scalar field is identically zero (given in PE
3.10).
• According this,

• For time varying conditions, is valid

• By taking divergence of above equation

or
• Taking curls of previous equation

• As per Lorenz’s condition for potentials

• By imposing Lorenz condition for potential on eq. (9.46) and (9.49) respectively, we get

• These are wave equation.

 Time Harmonic Fields

• Sinusoids are easily expressed in phasors, which are more convenient to work
with.
• A phasor is a complex number that contains the amplitude and the phase of a
sinusoidal oscillation. As a complex number, a phasor z can be represented as

Or

• Where r is the magnitude of z, given by and ϕ is the phase of z, are given by

• Note: Do not confuse with these letters, they are not coordinates. Though
it looks same.
Maxwell’s Equation in Phasor Form
Contd…
Problem
EM Wave Propagation
• In general, waves are means of transporting energy or information.
• Typical examples of EM waves include radio waves, TV signals, radar beams, and light rays.
• All forms of EM energy share three fundamental characteristics:
• They all travel at high velocity;
• In traveling, they assume the properties of waves;
• They radiate outward from a source, without benefit of any discernible physical vehicles.
• This concept describes EM wave motion in following media.

Medium
Lossless dielectrics
Good Conductors
Free Space σ ≈ 0, ε = εrε0, μ=μrμ0, Lossy dielectrics
σ ≈ ∞, ε = ε0, μ=μrμ0,
σ = 0, ε = ε0, μ=μ0 Or σ<< ωε σ ≠ 0, ε = εrε0, μ=μrμ0,
Or σ>>ωε
Waves in general
• A wave is a function of both space and time.
• In one dimension, a scalar wave equation takes the form of

Where u is the wave velocity.

• Above is the special case of wave equation when medium is source free.
• The solution to above wave equation is given by

• Where β=ω/u and Es is the phasor form of E.

• The possible solutions

E+ means positive z-travel

Where A and B are real constants
E- means negative travel
• Let’s consider only imaginary part of previous equation

• Please note the following characteristics

1. It is time harmonic because we assumed time dependence of the form ejωt to arrive at above eq.

2. The amplitude of the wave A has the same units as E.

3. The phase (in radians) of the wave depends on time t and space variable z, it is the term (ωt-βz).

4. The angular frequency ω is given in radians per second; β, the phase constant or wave number, is given in

radians per meter.

Based on these, basic parameters related to
waves are defined
• Summary
• A wave is a function of both time and space.
• Though time t = 0 is arbitrarily selected as a
reference for the wave, a wave is without
beginning or end.
• A negative sign in (ωt ± βz) is associated with a
wave propagating in the +z-direction
(forward-traveling or positive-going wave),
• whereas a positive sign indicates that a wave is
traveling in the -z-direction
(backward-traveling or negative-going wave).
• E and H are called uniform waves if they lie in a
plane and are constant over such planes.
Problem
Wave Propagation in Lossy Dielectric

• A partially conducting medium (imperfect dielectric or imperfect conductor)

with σ≠0, as distinct from a lossless dielectric (perfect or good dielectric) in
which σ=0.
• Consider linear, isotropic, homogeneous, lossy dielectric medium that is charge
free (ρv =0).
• Let’s consider time harmonic maxwell’s equations
• Taking curl of both sides of eq. (10.13) gives

• Applying the vector identity

• Previous equation is scalar wave equation, a linear homogeneous differential equation
,with solution

• E0 and E’0 are constants.

• After inserting time factor

Where η is a complex quantity known as

intrinsic impedance, in ohms, of the medium
Intrinsic Impedance η

• Substituting Eo and η gives

Nepers per meter

Loss angle of lossy medium

• if tan θ is very small (σ << ωε) 🡪 Medium is good (lossless or perfect) dielectric.
• if tan θ is very small (σ >> ωε) 🡪 Medium is good conductor.

Medium is also depends on frequency.

• Medium that is regarded as a good conductor at low frequencies may be a good
dielectric at high frequencies.
•TEM Wave
•Uniform Plane
Wave
Plane Waves in Lossless Dielectrics
Plane Waves in Free Space
Plane Waves in Free Space
Plane Waves in Good Conductor
• A perfect or good conductor , is one in which σ>>ωε, so that σ/ ωε >> 1; that is,

• Now, α and β become

Skin Depth
• The distance δ, shown in fig., through which the wave
amplitude decreases to a factor e-1 (about 37% of the
original value) is called skin depth or penetration
depth of the medium.
Skin Effect
• For a good conductor, η is given by

Skin depth decreases with

increasing frequency.
Thus, E and H can hardly
propagate through good
conductors.

The phenomenon
whereby field intensity
in conductor rapidly
decreases is known as
the skin effect
Skin Resistance Rs
• The skin depth is useful in calculating ac resistance due to skin
effect.
• The dc resistance is given by
• The skin resistance or surface resistance in ohm is defined as
real part of η for a good conductor
Skin Depth at high
frequencies, δ << a

• The ac resistance is given by

AC to DC resistance ratio

• Since δ << a at high frequencies, this shows that Rac is far greater than Rdc
• In general, the ratio of the ac to the dc resistance starts at 1.0 for dc and very low
frequencies and increases as the frequency increases.
Parameters for different medium
Problem 10.3
Transmission Line • Another means of
transmitting power or
information is by guided
structures.
• Guided structures serve to
guide (or direct) the
propagation of energy from
the source to the load. E.g.
transmission lines and
waveguides.
• Transmission lines are
commonly used in power
distribution (at low
frequencies) and in
communications (at high
frequencies).
• Transmission lines such as
twisted-pair and coaxial
cables (thinnet and
thicknet) are used in
computer networks such as
the Ethernet and the Internet.
Transmission Line Parameters
• Resistance per unit length R
• Inductance per unit length L
• Conductance per unit length G
• Capacitance per unit length C
• L and r are series parameters where as G and C are shunt parameters
Note following points
1. The line parameters R, L, G, and C are not discrete or lumped. Rather, they are
distributed as shown in Figure 11.3. By this we mean that the parameters are
uniformly distributed along the entire length of the line.
2. For each line, the conductors are characterized by σc, μc, εc = εo, and the
homogeneous dielectric separating the conductors is characterized by σ, μ, ε.
3. G ≠ 1/R; R is the ac resistance per unit length of the conductors comprising the line,
and G is the conductance per unit length due to the dielectric medium separating the
conductors.
4. The value of L shown in next table is the external inductance per unit length, that is,
L=Lext. The effect of internal impedance Lin(=R/ω) are negligible at high frequencies
at which most of communication system operates.
5. For each line,
EM wave propagation in transmission line
• Closing the switch simply establishes a disturbance, which appears as a TEM
wave propagating along the line.
• This is non uniform plane wave, and by means of it, power is transmitted
through the line.
Transmission Line Equations
• A two conductor transmission line supports a TEM wave.
• An important property of TEM wave is
Transmission Line Equations
• By applying Kirchoff’s voltage law to the outer loop of the circuit
Transmission Line Equations
• Using the same process, the second order derivatives of Is can be derived as
Characetrisitc Impedance Zo

• We obtain following result after mathematical simplification,

Where Ro and Xo are the real and imaginary part of Zo.

The propagation constant γ and the characteristic impedance Zo are important properties of
line because both depend on the line parameters R,L,G,C, and frequency of operation.
Admittance: the reciprocal of Zo is characteristic admittance Yo. Yo=1/Zo.
The considered Tx line model is of Lossy type.
Lossless Transmission Line (R=0=G)
Distortion less Line (R/L = G/C)

• A distortion less line results if the line parameters are such that
Distortion less Line (R/L = G/C)
Input Impedance, Standing Wave Ratio, And Power
• Consider transmission line shown in figure.
• Let the transmission line extend from z=0 at
the generator to z=l at the load.
• Let’s revise voltage and current wave.

• To find , the terminal conditions

must be given.
• E.g.
• Substituting these to 11.24 and 11.25,
• If the input impedance at the input terminals is Zin, the input voltage Vo and the
input current Io are easily obtained from below figure.

• On the other hand, if we are given the conditions at the load, say

• Substituting these into eq. (11.24) and (11.25) gives

Voltage Reflection coefficient
• The refection coefficient is the ratio of the voltage reflection wave to the incident
wave at the load; that is
Current Reflection Coefficient
V and I Standing wave patterns on a lossless
line terminated by resistive load