Prof. Dr.

Ali Abdulateef Kareem

2019-2020
We have seen that the binding energy and angular momentum are
consistent with the assumption of central forces and that the
deuteron is essentially in the 3S1 state.
But an S state implies a spherically symmetric wave function which
gives uniform density distribution and has no angular
dependence. Such a state cannot account for the quadrupole
moment of the deuteron.
The observed fine structure of radio-frequency magnetic
resonance spectrum of deuterium revealed that it could be
explained only by ascribing a non-spherical charge distribution to
the deuteron.

Figure 1: Deuteron densities in M = 0 (left) and M = 1 (right) magnetic substates. The

red spots correspond to the maximal nucleonic densities, while the dark volumes
correspond to lower densities (outer surface is for 10% of maximal density).
A value of the quadrupole moment Q = (2.74 ± 0.02) × 10−27 cm2
was found necessary to explain the experimental results. The
existence of quadrupole moment of deuteron shows that the
ground state of deuteron is not a pure 3S1 state. On the other
hand, the fact that the magnitude of the quadrupole moment is
small implies only a small admixture of higher -states.
This implying that The ground state is essentially spherically
symmetrical and only slightly distorted by higher angular
momentum states. It does not of course follow that the non-
central part of the force is also very small.
Both the magnetic dipole moment and the electric quadrupole
moment can be explained by the admixture of a state with the
same JP quantum numbers
Figure. 2: Interaction due to tensor force between proton and neutron
The tensor force is either attractive or repulsive depending on the direction
of the “spin” (spin axis is represented by arrows in the figure) and the
relative positions of the proton and neutron. The attractive tensor force
plays an important role in β decay.
While the central force depends only on the distance between the particles and
the spin alignment, the tensor (non-central) force depends on the angles between
the spin directions and the line joining the particles.
Under the central forces, the magnitude of angular momentum L is
a constant of motion, since the orbital angular momentum is
conserved if the potential is solely dependent on r. On the other
hand, with non-central forces the total angular momentum is a
constant of motion but L is not.
The tensor term is particularly interesting, since it alone can mix
orbital angular momentum states.
Since parity is a good quantum number, states of the same parity
belonging to different values of l (e.g. 3S1 3D1) but the same value of
total angular momentum J may be combined together. Thus the
tensor force can explain the quadrupole moment.
Both the magnetic dipole moment and the electric quadrupole
moment can be explained by the admixture of a state with the
same JP quantum numbers
The nuclear forces are derivable from a potential
1. They are velocity independent
2. The potential must include apart from the relative position
vector r the spin coordinates σn and σp .
3. It must be invariant under rotations and reflections of the
coordinate system. In other words, it must be a scalar.
Thus, the number of conceivable potentials is limited due to the
following conditions:

The number of scalars satisfying all these conditions are limited to

the terms:

(1)
The last one can be simplified by the vector identity:

we know that

It can be readily shown that terms with higher powers like (σ ·r)2 can be
reduced to those already assumed. Thus
The first two terms of the potential Eq. (1) are invariant not only under combined
rotation of space and spin coordinates but also under separate rotations of
these coordinates. Such potentials are called central potentials. However, the
third potential is different in that it couples the space and spin coordinates of the
particles belonging to the two-body system, and hence to the orbital and spin
angular momenta, with the result, the orbital angular momentum is no longer a
constant of motion, although the total angular momentum is a constant of motion.
Such a potential is called tensor or non-central potential.
 Hence we define the tensor operator

We may rewrite as:

where er is a unit vector along the vector r.

Snp gives a dependence on the direction of the spin vectors σn and

σp relative to the separation r between the two nucleons.

The non-central potential then has the form The

complete potential is given by

𝑉𝑅 (r) , 𝑉σ (r), and 𝑉𝑇 (r) ordinary functions of r

The subscript T has been used to denote the tensor interaction,
which is actually a scalar product of two second-rank tensors. The
first two terms comprise the central potential VC ; the second term
is the spin-dependent part so that it allows for the fact that the
central potential for triplet and singlet states is different as in low
energy neutron-proton scattering. We can then write
The total two-nucleon state function has to be anti-symmetric. The
total function contains a spatial part, a spin part and an isospin
part. If isospin is conserved, this leads to in case we have an s-wave
with spin S = 0 to an isospin two-body state with T = 1 since the
spatial part is symmetric and the spin part is anti-symmetric.
Since the projections for T are Tz = -1, 0, 1, we can have a pp, an nn
and a pn state.
For l = 0 and S = 1, a so-called triplet state, 3S1, we must have T = 0,
meaning that we have only one state, a pn state. For other partial
waves, the following table lists states up to f waves. We can
systemize this in a table as follows, recalling that
The tensor force should be responsible for the change of the magic
number around N=20. Figure 4 shows effective single-particle energies
(ESPE’s) and their changes, where the change of the shell structure had
been discussed as a systematic effect of the effective nucleon-nucleon
interaction, particularly, its spin-isospin part. We have shown that the
major origin of the shell evolution (change of relative energies of
single-particle states as a function of N or Z) is the tensor force and we
can explain the shell evolution without destroying

Figure 3: Schematic illustration of the sign of the monopole interaction

arising from the tensor force for nucleons in different orbits.
Figure 4. Schematic picture of magicity change due to the spin-isospin interaction.
Neutron ESPE’s for (a) 30Si and (b) 24O, relative to 1s1/2. The dotted line connecting (a) and
(b) is drawn to indicate the change of the 0d3/2 level. (c) The major interaction producing
the basic change between (a) and (b). (d) The process relevant to the interaction in (c)
is dominantly due to the tensor force.
The insight of Otsuka and his collaborators was that this force
would still have an overall (monopole) effect that depends only
on whether the orbits of the nucleons in the valence states are
j=l+s or j=l−s (or “ j>” and “ j<” as illustrated in Figure. 3). The
point is that the monopole component of the tensor interaction
is different depending on whether the nucleon spin is parallel or
antiparallel to the direction of its orbital angular momentum,
and the monopole component is the average over all possible
orientations of nucleons in a given single-particle state. The j>
and j< orbits for a given l are paired off and thus there is no
tensor contribution for most filled orbits, but near the Fermi
surface the pair of orbits are split by the spin-orbit force and
the j> orbit fills before the corresponding j< one.
Thus as the number of nucleons in an orbit changes in a
particular region, the mean field will be altered in such a way
that the pattern of single-particle states will change, with gaps
disappearing and new ones appearing. This altered pattern is in
remarkably good agreement with what is observed
experimentally in exotic nuclei, and also reproduces the shifts in
the single-particle energies in heavier stable nuclei where data
had recently become available over larger regions of neutron
excess.
 It is difficult to explain the large nucleon polarizations observed
perpendicular to the plane of scattering with just the central
and tensor forces discussed above. To explain the data one must
also include a spin-orbit potential of the form

This last expression vanishes if either S = 0 (l = J ) or l = 0 (S = J ) .

The spin-orbit force vanishes in s-states and is empirically observed
to have a short range; thus it is only effective at higher energies.
We shall assume that nuclear force is charge independent; that is,
the only difference in the interaction between a pair of protons and
a pair of neutrons is the Coulomb interaction between protons.
This is, again, an assumption based on experimental evidence.
There is no fundamental reason to rule out a charge symmetry-
breaking term in the nuclear force itself.
The difference in mass between charged and neutral pions alone
implies the possibility of a small but significant difference between
proton-neutron interaction and the interaction between a pair of
protons or a pair of neutrons. On the other hand, from a practical
point of view, there is perhaps no need to be concerned with any
possible violation of charge symmetry in nuclear force.
At the moment, all the evidence puts the term to be smaller than
the accuracies we can achieve in handling the much stronger charge
independence-breaking effect due to electromagnetic interaction.
 Since charge is related to the third component of the isospin
operator T, the charge independence of nuclear force implies the
commutation relation,
 Hˆ , T  = 0
 
where H is the nuclear Hamiltonian. This, in turn, means that the
eigenvectors  of a nuclear Hamiltonian can also be the
eigenvectors of T at the same time,
T  = 1
2 (Z −N )
Isospin invariance. In addition to T, the nuclear Hamiltonian
commutes also with the square of the isospin operator,
 Hˆ , T 2  = 0
 
In other words, the eigenfunctions of the nuclear Hamiltonian are
also eigenfunctions of the operator T2
T 2
 = T (T + 1) 
The fact that nuclear density is constant suggests that
nuclear forces have saturation property which can be
explained by assuming that these forces are ‘exchange
forces’, similar to the force that binds ordinary chemical
molecules.
Regardless of the origin of these forces let us enumerate
various types of exchange forces that exist between a pair
of nucleons and then investigate the effect of these
forces on the properties of the deuteron and on the
saturation of the binding.
Four types of interactions may be distinguished.
Scattering experiments indicates that nuclear force are short-ranged (although
strong) and partly of an “exchange” character. That is, these forces depend not only
on r, the separation coordinate, but also on the relative direction and nucleon spin.

The potentials V(r) in the previous nuclear potentials are forms of a purely
radial potential called the Wigner potential and have no exchange properties.
Three more potentials are the Majorana, Bartlett, and Heisenberg. These are
concerned with
(1) The exchange of the space coordinates
(2) The exchange of the spin coordinates, and
(3) The exchange of both space-spin coordinates.
The Majorana potential is given by: V m ( r ) = −V M ( r ) Px

where the space-exchange operator Px has the property:

Px Ψ ( r1 , r2 ) = Ψ ( r2 , r1 )
and r1 and r2 are the position coordinates of nucleons number one and two,
and Ψ ( r2 , r1 ) is the spatial part of the wave function.
The Bartlett potential V b ( r ) = −V B ( r ) P

where the spin-exchange operator Pσ has the property:

1
P = (1 +  1. 2 )
2

So that: P  ( 1 ,  2 ) =  ( 2 ,  1 )

where χ is the spin part wave function.

The Heisenberg potential V h ( r ) = −V H ( r ) PH

contains an operator that exchange both spin and position. This is equivalent to
charge exchange or “isospin ‘’ exchange τ
1
PH = Px P = −P = − (1 +  1. 2 )
2
and PH Ψ ( r1 , r2 ,  1 ,  2 ) = Ψ ( r2 , r1 ,  2 ,  1 )
 Spin-and Isospin-Exchange Interactions
Fermions are indistinguishable → wave function (q1,q2)=-(q2,q1) antisymmetric :
exchange operators PM(S)PB( )PH(T)=-1,
Different force components mediated by different mesons → experiment input (scattering)

Wigner forces
No change : → PˆW  ( r ) = Iˆ  ( r ) → VW ( r ) regular attractive central

Majorana forces
ˆ ), no change in spins :
Exchange of positions (like parity operation 

ˆ   (r )  = + (even )  0  = + (even )
→ PM  (r ) =  (− r ) =  → VM (r ) 
 − ( r )  = − ( odd )  0  = − (odd )
Bartlett forces  S =1  0 S = 1
Spin exchange : → PˆB 12 =  21 =  12 → VB 
− 12 S =0  0 S = 0

Heisenberg forces
Position and spin exchange ˆ ˆ   (r ) ( S = 1, even ) , ( S = 0, odd )
: PM PB  ( r ) = 
equivalent isospin exchange − ( r ) ( S = 0, even ) , ( S = 1, odd )
  ( r ) T = 0(antisymm.)  0 T = 0(antisymm.)
PH  ( r ) = 
ˆ → VH ( r ) 
 − ( r ) T = 1( symmetric )  0 T = 1( symmetric)
In summary, then, the two-nucleon interaction potential can be written as:

V (r ) = − V W (r ) +V M (r )Px +V B (r )P −V H (r )P 

Why meson exchange
Considering the fact that particles are waves, waves transmit fields
(e.g. E&M), and quantum theory require small-scale phenomena to
be quantized, quantum field theory postulates that nucleons (or at
least the quarks within them) interact by exchanging quanta of the
nuclear field

The mass of the quanta can be surmised by considering the fact

that quanta will be “virtual particles”, which are only allowed to
exist for a finite time E t 
The energy Times it takes
needed to To travel
create mass
nucleon1 nucleon2

+ exchange particle Exchange particle

nucleon1 can have charge
and can have
mass
+ exchange particle
nucleon2 nucleon2

Mass related to the range of the interaction

Energy uncertainty E = m c 2

E t  , t   t =
E mc2
In the 1930s the short-range character of the nucleon-nucleon
interaction became known and also the numerical value of
the range. From theoretical arguments of the type exhibited
above, the Japanese theoretical physicist H. Yukawa was able
in the late 1930s to predict a particle, which he named a
'meson'. In his estimate it had a mass of about 100 MeV.

c
So, the range (R)  c t = if using R = 2 10−15 m
mc2
c (MeV. fm)
mc =
2
= 100 MeV
R (fm)
 Since this is between the electron and nucleon masses, it was
coined meson, for the Greek “meso” for “middle”
These turn-out to be quark pairs, the lightest (and most
important) of which is the pi-meson (pion), which is a quark-
antiquark pair in the ground state

There are three types of pions, with charge +1, -1, or 0: π± (~140 MeV)
and 0(~135MeV)

0 u u d d 0
Each pion consists of a quark and an antiquark and is therefore a
meson. Pions are the lightest mesons and, more generally, the
lightest hadrons. They are unstable, with the charged pions π+ and
π− decaying with a mean lifetime of 26.033 nanoseconds
(2.6033×10−8 seconds), and the neutral pion π0 decaying with a
much shorter lifetime of 8.4×10−17 seconds. Charged pions most
often decay into muons and muon neutrinos, while neutral pions
generally decay into gamma rays.
Pions are not produced in radioactive decay, but are commonly
produced in high energy accelerators in collisions between
hadrons. All types of pions are also produced in natural processes
when high energy cosmic ray protons and other hadronic cosmic
ray components interact with matter in the Earth's atmosphere.
Mesons
Pions belong to a class of particles called mesons. Mesons are all quark / anti-quark pairs.

Meson Electric charge Stability Quark constituents Mass (MeV/c2)

neutral-pion 0 unstable d anti-d 135.0
positive-pion +1 unstable u anti-d 139.6
negative-pion -1 unstable d anti-u 139.6
Also, we can have virtual pions, which can mediate forces
between nucleons.
The exchange of virtual pions, along with the vector, rho
and omega mesons, provides an explanation for the
residual strong force between nucleons.
For n – p interaction, we have the following process
n → n + 0
Neutron can emit
neutral pion, the
p + 0 → p process time is
R 2 10−15
p → p + 0 t = =
c 3 108
 10−23 sec

n + 0 → n
Position

In Feynman diagram
Another process
n → p + −
p + − → n

n p
p → n + + +
n + + → p
p n

In Feynman diagram
For p – p and n – n interaction, we have the following
process
p p
p → p + 0

0
p + 0 → p
p p

The strengths are same

n n
n → n + 0
0
n + 0 → n
n n
The preceding considerations lead us to the conclusion
that a nucleon generates a pion field, where the
associated interaction is described by a pion potential.
A nearby nucleon will have its own pion field, which
the first nucleon will interact with, and which will
interact with the pion field of the first nucleon
The model above shows
a proton and neutron
with overlapping pion
fields, allowing the
proton to donate a pion
to the neutron,
contributing to the
nuclear force holding the
two nucleons together.
 The exchange of mesons with mass m leads to a
potential of the form

where g is a charge-like constant which is fit to data, r is the

internucleon distance. This is known as the Yukawa
potential.
 Killjoys with an enthusiasm for rigor will notice a spin and charge
dependent parts are required to explain pion-nucleon interactions.
Also, charged pions exist and charge is conserved, so if, e.g. a
proton generates a +, it must change into a neutron
2
g   m
2  e −r /R
   m  c  1  2  1   2 + S 12V T 
2
V OPEP
12  m p  r /R

3 R R2
S 12 = 2 ( 1  r )( 2  r ) −  1   2 VT = 1+ 3 + 3 2
r r r

g is a dimensionless coupling constant that gives the strength

of the interaction
Other mesons, including ρ and ω contribute to the short-range nuclear
interaction, particularly the tensor, spin-orbit, and repulsive core terms.