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Analytic Combinatorics
A Multidimensional Approach
Analytic Combinatorics
A Multidimensional Approach

Marni Mishna
CRC Press
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To Madeleine, Eleanor, Felix and Cedric.
Contents

Preface xiii

Symbols xvii

Welcome to Analytic Combinatorics xix

I Enumerative Combinatorics 1

1 A Primer on Combinatorial Calculus 3

1.1 Combinatorial Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Words and Walks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Words and Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Lattice Walks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 What Is a Good Combinatorial Formula? . . . . 7
1.2.4 Bijections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.5 Combinatorial Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Formal Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.1 Ordinary Generating Functions . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.2 Coefficient Extraction Techniques . . . . . . . . 13
1.4 Basic Building Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.1 Epsilon Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.2 Atomic Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.3 Admissible Operators and Generating
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Combinatorial Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6 S-regular Classes and Regular Languages . . . . . . . 18
1.6.1 Finite Automata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.7 Tree Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.7.1 Lagrange Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.8 Algebraic Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.9 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.10 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

vii
viii Contents

2 Combinatorial Parameters 35
2.1 Combinatorial Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.1.1 Bivariate Generating Functions . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2 What Can We Do with a Bivariate Generating
Function? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2.1 Higher Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.2 Moment Inequalities and Concentration . . . . 40
2.3 Deriving Multivariate Generating Functions . . . . . . 41
2.3.1 Multidimensional Parameters . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.2 Inherited Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.3.3 Marking Substructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4 On the Number of Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5 Linear Functions of Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6 Pathlength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.7 Catalytic Parameters and the Kernel Method . . . . . 49
2.8 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.9 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3 Derived and Transcendental Classes 55

3.1 The Diagonal of a Multivariable Series . . . . . . . . . 56
3.1.1 The Ring of Formal Laurent Series . . . . . . . 58
3.1.2 Basic Manipulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.1.3 Algebraic Functions Are Diagonals . . . . . . . 60
3.1.4 Excursion Generating Functions . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2 The Reflection Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2.1 A One-dimensional Reflection . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.2.2 A Two-dimensional Reflection . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.3 General Finite Reflection Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3.1 A Root Systems Primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3.2 Enumerating Reflectable Walks . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3.3 A Non-simple Example: Walks in A2 . . . . . . 72
3.4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

II Methods for Asymptotic Analysis 79

4 Generating Functions as Analytic Objects 81

4.1 Series Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.1.1 Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.1.2 Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Contents ix

4.2 Poles and Laurent Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

4.2.1 Puiseux Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.3 The Exponential Growth of Coefficients . . . . . . . . 87
4.4 Finding Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.5 Complex Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.5.1 Primer on Contour Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.5.2 The Residue of a Function at a Point . . . . . . 93
4.6 Asymptotic Estimates for Meromorphic Functions . . 95
4.7 The Transfer Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.8 A General Process for Coefficient Analysis . . . . . . . 99
4.9 Multiple Dominant Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.10 Saddle Point Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.11 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.12 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

5 Parallel Taxonomies 111

5.1 Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.2 Algebraic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.3 D-finite Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.3.1 Closure Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.3.2 Is It or Isn’t It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.3.3 G-functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.3.4 Combinatorial Classes with D-finite Generating
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.4 Differentiably Algebraic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.5 Classification Dichotomies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.6 The Classification of Small Step Lattice Path Models . 124
5.6.1 A Simple Recursion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.6.2 Models with D-finite Generating Functions . . 127
5.6.3 Models with Non-D-finite Generating
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.7 Groups and the Co-growth Problem . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.7.1 Excursions on Cayley Graphs . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.7.2 Amenability vs. D-finiteness . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.8 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.9 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

6 Singularities of Multivariable Rational Functions 139

6.1 Visualizing Domains of Convergence . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.1.1 The Univariate Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.1.2 The Multivariable Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
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x Contents

6.2 The Exponential Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

6.3 The Height Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.4 Visualizing Critical Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.5 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.5.1 Delannoy Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.5.2 Balanced Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

7 Integration and Multivariable Coefficient Asymptotics 155

7.1 A Typical Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
7.2 Warm-up: Stirling’s Approximation . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.3 Fourier-Laplace Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.4 Easy Inventory Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.5 Generalizing the Strategy to Higher Dimensions . . . 162
7.5.1 Multivariate Cauchy Integral Formula . . . . . 162
7.5.2 A Formula for Fourier-Laplace Integrals . . . . 162
7.5.3 How Not to Transform This Integral . . . . . . 163
7.6 Example: Simple Walks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.6.1 Exponential Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.6.2 Estimating Cauchy Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.7 A More General Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.8 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.9 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

8 Multiple Points 177

8.1 Algebraic Geometry Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
8.2 Critical Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
8.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.3.1 Tandem Walks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.3.2 Weighted Simple Walks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8.4 A Direct Formula for Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.5 The Contribution of a Transverse Multiple Point . . . 186
8.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

9 Partitions 191
9.1 Integer Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
9.2 Vector Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
9.2.1 Integer Points in Polytopes . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Contents xi

9.3 Asymptotic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

9.3.1 The Singular Variety and Hyperplane
Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
9.3.2 Reducing to the Case of Transversal Intersection 199
9.3.3 Algebraic Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
9.3.4 Decomposition Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
9.3.5 Decomposition into Circuit-free Denominators 202
9.3.6 The Complete Reduction Algorithm . . . . . . 203
9.3.7 How to Compute a Reduction Rule . . . . . . . 204
9.4 Asymptotics Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
9.5 An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
9.5.1 An Exact Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
9.5.2 An Asymptotic Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9.5.3 The Bases with No Broken Circuits . . . . . . . 207
9.5.4 The Reduction Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9.5.5 Asymptotic Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
9.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
9.7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Bibliography 213

Glossary 225

Index 227
Preface

One of the most intriguing mathematical deductions that first cap-

tures our attention is Cantor’s diagonal argument. It can be used to
prove that real numbers cannot be put into one-to-one correspon-
dence with the set of natural numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . . The result is some-
thing that surprisingly can even be shown. The process creates a
pathological object by extracting along a diagonal.
Here we consider sets of discrete objects – combinatorial classes –
and try to understand their structure and behaviour. We start with
constructions built very naturally, whose enumeration is essentially
systematic. They are the foundation of objects and techniques that
are more complex. We then build classes of increased complexity by
extracting along a diagonal. We are able to give structure to a concept
of “transcendental” families of objects.
To illustrate the notions, techniques and eventual taxonomy, we
draw many of our examples from formal languages and lattice walks.
These two grand themes intersect combinatorics in different but com-
plementary ways.
Power series are the main workhorse here, encoding combinatorial
data using mathematical functions. At first they are mere data struc-
tures, famously used as “clotheslines for numbers”. However, in the
second part we consider them as analytic objects, and there is a deeply
revealing, and intriguing interplay between combinatorics, geometry,
and transcendence that we explore.
Indeed, the world of formal power series offers many echoes of
number theory – historically humanity has asked many of the same
questions about transcendency, finite representation and computabil-
ity. These questions are very natural here, particularly when they are
closely tied to combinatorial families. As far back as Hadamard in the
early 1890s, mathematicians have been fascinated by the relationship
between the coefficients of a power series and the properties of the
function it represents.
The behaviour of a series at the edge of the domain of its conver-
gence – the singularities and the natural boundaries – are particularly
xiii
xiv Preface

interesting. Our series coefficients are counting sequences, and so

the coefficients are all non-negative integers. This gives an important
structure that we can leverage to say very nontrivial things about the
combinatorial classes we study. We will try to understand this inter-
face and say clever things about combinatorial classes.
The text is intended to introduce the main concepts and intu-
ition of analytic combinatorics so that you might broaden your per-
sonal toolkit to study discrete objects. As you might guess from the
size, this text is not comprehensive – far from it! It is intended to
act as a gateway to more detailed works that can be intimidating in
their completeness and mathematical sophistication. We mention two
such reference books by name: Analytic Combinatorics, by Flajolet and
Sedgewick, and Analytic Combinatorics in Several Variables by Peman-
tle and Wilson. The reader intrigued by the ideas and interactions
between complex analysis, geometry and combinatorics will be quite
delighted to learn that the stories presented here continue in so many
deep directions. These topics will lead you through number theory,
algebraic geometry, formal language theory and probability.
This book was made possible because of the support of many peo-
ple, that I acknowledge with a tremendous debt of gratitude.
Thank you Miklos Bonas, who encouraged this text and made pos-
sible a connection with the team at CRC press that worked with me.
In this breath I must mention the BIRS research station, where condi-
tions were ideal to develop not only this project but the general shar-
ing of ideas.
The naissance of the text was graduate notes, built with Andrew
Rechnitzer, and I owe much to him for insisting on a casual tone.
Said notes were tested on numerous groups including multiple gen-
erations of Simon Fraser University graduate and undergraduate stu-
dents. Thank you also to Anthony Guttmann for feedback.
The sections on analytic aspects of diagonals was developed for a
series of advanced minicourses. I am grateful to the following groups
that allowed me to hone the narrative: the SPACE TOURS group at
the Institut Denis Poisson (France), notably Kilian Raschel and Cedric
Lecouvey; the graduate students and faculty at the University of Linz
(Austria), especially Veronika Pillwein, Manuel Kauers, Christophe
Koutschan, Ellen Wong; the petite école de combinatoire of LaBRI, Uni-
versity of Bordeaux (France), especially the questioning of Philippe
Duchon, Mireille Bousquet-Mélou, Jean-François Marckert, and Yvan
leBorgne. LaBRI most generously hosted me and provided important
resources during a substantial portion of the writing.
Preface xv

Thank you to my dear students and other co-authors that have

worked on related projects and read portions of this book. Stephen
Melczer above all, but also Jason Bell, Julien Courtiel, Andrew
Rechnitzer, Mercedes Rosas, Samuel Simon, Sheila Sundaram, Ste-
fan Trandafir and Alexandria Vassallo, in addition to those already
mentioned. Discussions with Alin Bostan, Frédéric Chyzak, Igor Pak,
Bruno Salvy, Lucia diVizio and Michael Singer were essential to clar-
ifying a number of concepts, particularly around transcendency and
generating function classification.
My research and travels have been supported by CNRS, PIMS Eu-
rope and an NSERC Discovery Grant.
I dedicate this work to my patient children Madeleine, Eleanor
and Felix. Young Felix suggested Mathematics for Adults as a title, and
indeed I hope this text is accessible to a wide number of adults, not
just specialists in the area.
Cedric Chauve was essential to the success of this work from both
a personal and professional standpoint. He is patient yet demanding
and always supportive. Thank you from deep down.
Finally, I am eternally grateful for inspiration, mentorship and
early career support of the mighty Algorithmix, Philippe Flajolet.

Sans technique, le talent n’est rien qu’une sale manie.

Georges Brassens

Marni Mishna
Bordeaux, France
Symbols

Symbol Description
N The set of natural numbers, {0, 1, . . . , }
R The set of real numbers
C The set of complex numbers
K A field of characteristic zero
K[x] Polynomials in x with coefficients in K
K[[x]] Formal power series in x with coefficients in K
K(x) Rational functions in x over K
K[x, x−1 ] Laurent polynomials in x with coefficients in K
K((x)) Laurent series in x with coefficients in K
[xn ]F(x) Coefficient of xn in a Taylor/Laurent series expansion of F(x)
around 0.
ej Elementary basis vector
x (x1 , x2 , . . . , xd )
α α
xα x1 1 · · · xd d
x−1 (x1−1 , . . . , xd−1 )
ex (ex1 , . . . , exd )  
T (z) Torus of the point z= z0 | zj0 = zj
 
D(z) Polydisk z0 | zj0 ≤ zj
P n
F(x) n f (n) x
Supp(F) The series support: {n | f (n) , 0}
CT F(x) The constant term P f (0) n
∆F(x) Diagonal series n f (n, n, P. . . , n) xd
r
∆ F(x) Diagonal series along r: n f (r1 n, r2 n, . . . , rn n) xdn
n
n!
Multinomial n !...n
n1 ,...,nk 1 k!
resz=z0 F(z) The residue of F(z) at z0
P
h(z) The height function − log |zi |
relog(z) Relog map (− log |z1 |, . . . , − log |zd |)
h i
H Hessian matrix ∂j ∂k φ(t)
z− (z1 , . . . , zd−1 )
P A convex polytope
nP The n-th dilate of P
LP (n) Lattice point enumerator: #nP ∩ Nd

xvii
Welcome to Analytic Combinatorics

The art and science of counting discrete objects is an important aspect

of modern applied modelling. Enumeration formulas help us under-
stand the large-scale behaviour of objects; they can confirm or refute
whether exceptional structure is expected or not; they allow us to tai-
lor algorithms and data structures for maximal efficiency.
Counting sequences are encoded into the Taylor series known as
generating functions. The simple series has proved to be far more than
a convenient storage devices for sequences. Structure and complexity
results are gleaned from properties of the series viewed as an analytic
function. A central development in the last century was the twinning
of complex analysis and combinatorics to develop incredibly precise
estimates of counting functions. Indeed the invocation of analysis has
led to a deluge of methods for counting and random generation in
addition to a greater understanding of the hierarchy of combinatorial
structure. For example, treating series coefficients as contour integrals
avails us of a significant, robust toolbox, now nearly 200 years old.
Residue computations facilitate computation considerably.
In this book we consider combinatorial structures and questions
about enumeration. We also ask natural taxonomic questions – to
what extent is there a natural hierarchy of combinatorial classes, and
to what extent can we access this through generating functions? Ide-
ally, we understand underlying context, not just individual combina-
torial classes or specific counting sequences. What does it mean for a
class to be rational, or algebraic?
The analytic combinatorics framework for asymptotic enumera-
tion proceeds somewhat systematically in three major steps:

A combinatorial description of a class C

Systems of functional equations satisfied by the
generating function C(x)
Asymptotic counting formulas for the number of
objects of size, Cn

xix
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xx Welcome to Analytic Combinatorics

We encode the basic property of size in the base variable, and track
other combinatorial properties with other variables. Analysis of mul-
tivariable complex functions at their singular points gives very precise
enumerative information and also distribution information about the
parameter values.

Locate the singularities

Identify the critical singularities
Determine the behaviour at these critical points
Sum over contributions

The text is organized in two parts: In the first, we develop com-

binatorial notions and understanding of properties and families of
discrete objects. The second part moves to the analysis of combina-
torial generating functions via contour integrals. The main goal is to
develop asymptotic formulas for counting sequences.
Symbolic methods First we recall the formalisms of combinatorial
structures, and the link between basic combinatorial constructions
and the corresponding operations on generating functions.
Multivariate generating functions We consider additional combina-
torial parameters, and track this additional information into mul-
tivariable generating functions
Derived and transcendental classes We go beyond S-regular and
algebraic classes and consider combinatorial classes defined by
combinatorial extraction methods. We introduce the diagonal op-
eration on generating functions, which is a convenient method to
handle an important family of transcendental classes.
Coefficient asymptotics of univariate generating functions We con-
sider how to extract information about the large-scale (asymptotic)
properties of combinatorial objects from the behaviour of their
generating functions around their singularities.
Singularity structure of multivariate rational functions Once we
understand notions of convergence domains and singularities of
multivariable rational functions, we can localize singularities.
Welcome to Analytic Combinatorics xxi

Integral theorems for multivariable coefficient asymptotics We

write coefficients as generalized Cauchy integrals and show how
they can be modified into templates which lead to approximation
formulas.

Examples in detail We illustrate the multidimensional methodology

on two classic combinatorial problems.

Counting lattice paths restricted to cones

Estimating polytope point enumerators

This text is an introduction to the theory, and as such we focus on

pedagogical examples coming from combinatorics. In our simplified
setting, the rational functions we encounter are highly structured –
they are mainly algebraic combinations of geometric series. The gen-
eral theory is much richer, and having mastered this case, the reader is
encouraged to investigate. Similarly, while it is well within the scope
here to discuss analysis and geometry, readers will receive only a
glimpse, enough to understand the main features.
More than simply a technique-driven manual, we examine classi-
fication schemes both of combinatorial classes and of their generating
functions. Insights flow in both directions. Series with positive inte-
ger coefficients are special in the world of analytic functions, and we
understand some special properties by looking at the combinatorial
classes.
 Part I

Enumerative Combinatorics
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adept lodged with his friend in the Abbey of Westminster, where he
worked, and perfected the stone which Cremer had so long
unsuccessfully sought. He was duly presented to the King, who,
previously informed of the talents of the illustrious stranger, received
him with regard and attention.
When he “communicated his treasures,” the single condition which
he made was that they should not be expended in the luxuries of a
court or in war with a Christian prince, but that the King should go in
person with an army against the infidels.
Edward, under pretence of doing honour to Raymond, gave him
an apartment in the Tower of London, where the adept repeated his
process. He transmuted base metal into gold, which was coined at
the mint into six millions of nobles, each worth three pounds sterling
at the present day. These coins are well known to antiquarians by
the name of Rose Nobles. They prove in the assay of the test to be a
purer gold than the Jacobus, or any other gold coin made in those
times. Lully in his last testament declares that in a short time, while
in London, he converted twenty-two tons weight of quicksilver, lead,
and tin into the precious metal.
His lodging in the Tower proved only an honourable prison, and
when Raymond had satisfied the desires of the King, the latter
disregarded the object which the adept was so eager to see
executed, and to regain his own liberty Lully was obliged to escape
surreptitiously, when he quickly departed from England.
Cremer, whose intentions were sincere, was not less grieved than
Raymond at this issue of the event, but he was subject to his
sovereign, and could only groan in silence. He declares his extreme
affliction in his testament, and his monastery daily offered up prayers
to God for the success of Raymond’s cause. The Abbot lived long
after this, and saw part of the reign of King Edward III. The course of
operations which he proposes in his testament, with apparent
sincerity, is not less veiled than are those in the most obscure
authors.[N]
Now, in the first place, this story is not in harmony with itself. If
Raymond Lully were at Vienna in 1311, how did John Cremer
contrive to meet him in Italy at or about the same time? In the
second place, the whole story concerning the manufacture of Rose
Nobles is a series of blunders. The King who ascended the throne of
England in 1307 was Edward II., and the Rose Nobles first appear in
the history of numismatics during the reign of Edward IV., and in the
year 1465.
“In the King’s fifth year, by another indenture with Lord Hastings,
the gold coins were again altered, and it was ordered that forty-five
nobles only, instead of fifty, as in the last two reigns, should be made
of a pound of gold. This brought back the weight of the noble to one
hundred and fifty grains, as it had been from 1351 to 1412, but its
value was raised to 10s. At the same time, new coins impressed with
angels were ordered to be made, sixty-seven and a half to be struck
from one pound of gold, and each to be of the value of 6s. 8d.—that
is to say, the new angel which weighed eighty grains was to be of the
same value as the noble had been which weighed one hundred and
eight grains. The new nobles to distinguish them from the old ones
were called Rose Nobles, from the rose which is stamped on both
sides of them, or ryals, or royals, a name borrowed from the French,
who had given it to a coin which bore the figure of the King in his
royal robes, which the English ryals did not. Notwithstanding its
inappropriateness, however, the name of royal was given to these
10s. pieces, not only by the people, but also in several statutes of
the realm.”[O]
In the third place, the testament ascribed to John Cremer, Abbot of
Westminster, and to which we are indebted for the chief account of
Lully’s visit to England, is altogether spurious. No person bearing
that name ever filled the position of Abbot at any period of the history
of the Abbey.
The only coinage of nobles which has been attributed to alchemy
was that made by Edward III. in 1344. The gold used in this coinage
is supposed to have been manufactured in the Tower; the adept in
question was not Raymond Lully, but the English Ripley.
Whether the saint of Majorca was proficient in the Hermetic art or
not, it is quite certain that he did not visit the British Isles. It is also
certain that in the Ars Magna Sciendi, part 9, chapter on Elements,
he states that one species of metal cannot be changed into another,
and that the gold of alchemy has only the semblance of that metal;
that is, it is simply a sophistication.
As all the treatises ascribed to Raymond Lully cannot possibly be
his, and as his errant and turbulent life could have afforded him few
opportunities for the long course of experiments which are generally
involved in the search for the magnum opus, it is reasonable to
suppose that his alchemical writings are spurious, or that two
authors, bearing the same name, have been ignorantly confused.
With regard to “the Jewish neophyte,” referred to by the Biographie
Universelle, no particulars of his life are forthcoming. The whole
question is necessarily involved in uncertainty, but it is a point of no
small importance to have established for the first time the fabulous
nature of the Cremer Testament. This production was first published
by Michael Maier, in his Tripus Aureus, about the year 1614. The two
treatises which accompany it appear to be genuine relics of Hermetic
antiquity.

The “Clavicula, or Little Key” of Raymond Lully is generally

considered to contain the arch secrets of alchemical adeptship; it
elucidates the other treatises of its author, and undertakes to declare
the whole art without any fiction. The transmutation of metals
depends upon their previous reduction into volatile sophic argent
vive, and the only metals worth reducing, for the attainment of this
prima materia, are silver and gold. This argent vive is said to be
dryer, hotter, and more digested than the common substance, but its
extraction is enveloped in mystery and symbolism, and the recipes
are impossible to follow for want of the materials so evasively and
deceptively described. At the same time, it is clear that the
operations are physical, and that the materials and objects are also
physical, which points are sufficient for our purpose, and may be
easily verified by research.
 Moreover, the alchemist who calls himself Raymond Lully was
acquainted with nitric acid and with its uses as a dissolvent of
metals. He could form aqua regia by adding sal ammoniac, or
common salt, to nitric acid, and he was aware of its property of
dissolving gold. Spirit of wine was well known to him, says Gruelin;
he strengthened it with dry carbonate of potash, and prepared
vegetable tinctures by its means. He mentions alum from Rocca,
marcasite, white and red mercurial precipitate. He knew the volatile
alkali and its coagulations by means of alcohol. He was acquainted
with cupellated silver, and first obtained rosemary oil by distilling the
plant with water.[P]

FOOTNOTES:
[K] This illness is referred to by another writer, with details of a
miraculous kind. “About 1275 (the chronology of all the
biographers is a chaos of confusion) he fell ill a second time, and
was reduced to such an extremity that he could take neither rest
nor nourishment. On the feast of the Conversion of St Paul, the
crucified Saviour again appeared to him, glorified, and
surrounded by a most exquisite odour, which surpassed musk,
amber, and all other scents. In remembrance of this miracle, on
the same day, in the same bed and place where he lived and
slept, the same supernal odour is diffused.”
[L] The following variation is also related:—“Finding him still
alive when they bore him to the ship, the merchants put back
towards Genoa to get help, but they were carried miraculously to
Majorca, where the martyr expired in sight of his native island.
The merchants resolved to say nothing of their precious burden,
which they embalmed and preserved religiously, being
determined to transport it to Genoa. Three times they put to sea
with a wind that seemed favourable, but as often they were forced
to return into port, which proved plainly the will of God, and
obliged them to make known the martyrdom of the man whom
they revered, who was stoned for the glory of God in the town of
Bugia (?) in the year of grace 1318.” From this account it will be
seen that the place of Lully’s violent death, as well as the date on
which it occurred, are both involved in doubt. He was born under
the pontificate of Honorius IV., and died, according to Genebrand,
about 1304; but the author of the preface to the meditations of the
Hermit Blaquerne positively fixes his decease on the feast of the
martyrdom of SS. Peter and Paul, June 29, 1315, and declares
that he was eighty-six years old.
[M] E.g., Jean-Marie de Vernon, who extends the lists to about
three thousand, and, following the Père Pacifique de Provence,
prolongs his life by the discovery of the universal medicine.
[N] “Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers,” ed. 1815.
[O] Kenyon, “Gold Coins of England,” pp. 57, 58.
[P] Gruelin, Geschichte der Chemie, i. 74.
 ARNOLD DE VILLANOVA.
The date and the birthplace of this celebrated adept are alike
uncertain. Catalonia, Milan, and Montpellier have been severally
named for the locality, and 1245 is, on the whole, the probable
period.
Arnold studied medicine at Paris for twenty years, after which for
ten more he perambulated Italy, visiting the different universities. He
subsequently penetrated into Spain, but hearing that Peter d’Apono,
his friend, was in the hands of the Inquisition, he prudently withdrew,
and abode under the patronage of Frederick, King of Naples and
Sicily, writing his tracts on medicine and his “Comment on the School
of Salerno.” He is said to have perished in a storm during the year
1314, but a circular letter written by Pope Clement V. in 1311
conjures those living under his authority to discover, if possible, and
send to him, the “Treatise on Medicine,” written by Arnold, his
physician, who promised it to the Holy Father, but died before he
could present it. In this case the date of his decease may be more
accurately fixed at 1310.
Arnold was, according to the custom of the period, charged with
magical practices. François Pegna declares that all his erudition in
alchemy was derived from the demon. Mariana accuses him of
attempting to create a man by means of certain drugs deposited in a
pumpkin. But he is justified by Delrio from these imputations, and the
orthodox Dictionnaire des Sciences Occultes considers that Clement
V. would not have chosen an initiate of magical arts as his physician.
In 1317 the Inquisition of Tarragona condemned his books to be
burned, but this was for the heretical sentiments which they
contained. He wrote strictures on the monastic state and the service
of religion, and maintained that works of divine faith and charity were
more agreeable to God than the Sacrifice of the Mass.
 His skill in Hermetic philosophy has been generally recognised.
His contemporary, the celebrated Jurisconsult, John Andre, says of
him:—“In this time appeared Arnold de Villeneuve, a great
theologian, a skilful physician, and wise alchymist, who made gold,
which he submitted to all proofs.” Arnold has also the character of
writing with more light and clearness than the other philosophers. His
alchemical works were published in 1509, in one folio volume. His
Libellus de Somniorum Interpretatione et Somnia Danielis is
excessively rare in its original quarto edition. Several alchemical and
magical works are gratuitously ascribed to him. Among these must
be classed the book called De Physicis Ligaturis, supposed to be
translated from the Arabic—De Sigillis duodecim Signorum, which is
concerned with the zodiacal signs—and the book of the “Three
Impostors,” which the Dictionnaire des Sciences Occultes
denominates “stupid and infamous.”
The Thesaurus Thesaurorum and the Rosarium Philosophorum,
the Speculum Alchemiæ and the Perfectum Magisterium, are the
most notable of all his alchemical treatises. To these the student
should add his Scientia Scientiæ and brief Testamentum. The
editions are various, but the tracts will be found in collected form in
the Bibliotheca Chemicæ Curiosa of J. J. Mangetus.
Arnold asserts that argent vive is the medicine of all the metals,
that vulgar sulphur is the cause of all their imperfections, that the
stone of the philosophers is one, and that it is to be extracted from
that in which it exists. It exists in all bodies, including common argent
vive. The first physical work is the dissolution of the stone in its own
mercury to reduce it to its prima materia. All the operations of the
magnum opus are successively described, including the composition
of the white and the red elixirs, and the multiplication of the metallic
medicine.
The marcasite frequently mentioned by Arnold is thought to be
identical with bismuth. He was acquainted with the preparation of oil
of turpentine, oil of rosemary, and performed distillations in a glazed
earthen vessel with a glass top and helm.
 JEAN DE MEUNG.
Poet, alchemist, and astrologer, a man of some fortune, and
issued from an ancient family, Jean de Meung was one of the chief
figures at the Court of King Philippe le Bel. He was born, according
to the latest authorities, about the middle of the thirteenth century,
and his continuation of the Roman de la Rose, which Guillaume de
Lorris had begun some time before the year 1260, was undertaken
not in his nineteenth year, as generally stated, but about or a little
before the age of thirty, and at the instance of the French King.
The Romance of the Rose, “that epic of ancient France,” as
Éliphas Lévi calls it, has been generally considered by alchemists a
poetic and allegorical presentation of the secrets of the magnum
opus. It professes, at any rate, the principles of Hermetic Philosophy,
and Jean de Meung was also the author of “Nature’s Remonstrances
to the Alchemist” and “The Alchemist’s Answer to Nature.” Hermetic
commentaries have been written upon the romance-poem, and
tradition has ascribed to the author the accomplishment of great
transmutations. The sermon of Genius, chaplain and confessor to
Dame Nature, in the Romance, is an exhibition of the principles of
chemistry, as well as a satire on the bombastic and unintelligible
preaching which was in vogue at that period. From verse 16,914 to
verse 16,997 there is much chemical information.
The year 1216 is the probable period of the poet’s death. The
story told of his testament has only a foundation in legend, but it is
worth repeating as evidence of the general belief in his skill as an
alchemist.
He chose by his will, says the story, to be buried in the Church of
the Jacobins, and, as an acknowledgment, left them a coffer that
appeared, at least by its weight, to be filled with things precious,
probably with the best gold which could be manufactured by the skill
of the Hermetists. He ordered, however, that this coffer should not be
opened till after his funeral, when, touched with the piety of the
deceased, the monks assembled in great numbers to be present at
its opening, and to offer up thanks to God. They found to their great
disappointment that the coffer was filled with large pieces of slates
beautifully engraved with figures of geometry and arithmetic. The
indignation of the fathers was excited by the posthumous imposture,
and they proposed to eject the body of Jean de Meung from their
consecrated precincts; but the Parliament being informed of this
inhumanity, obliged the Jacobins, by a decree, to leave the
deceased undisturbed in the honourable sepulchre of their
conventual cloisters.
In “Nature’s Remonstrance to the Alchemist,” who is described as
a foolish and sophistical souffleur, making use of nothing but
mechanical arts, the complainant bitterly abuses the fanatical
student who diffuses over her beautiful domain the rank odours of
sulphur, which he tortures in vain over his furnaces, for by such a
method he will assuredly attain nothing. The alchemist in his “Reply”
figures as a repentant being, convinced of his errors, which he
ascribes to the barbarous allegories, parabolic sentences, and
delusive precepts contained in the writings of the adepts.
 THE MONK FERARIUS.
About the beginning of the fourteenth century, this Italian artist
gave to the world two treatises—De Lapide Philosophorum and
Thesaurus Philosophiæ, which are printed in the Theatrum
Chimicum.
The “admirable spectacle” of the palingenesis of plants is
described by this Jesuit. “Immediately consequent on exposing to
the rays of the sun the phial, filled with quintessence of the rose,
there is discovered within the narrow compass of the vase a perfect
world of miracles. The plant which lay buried in its ashes awakes,
uprises, and unfolds. In the space of half-an-hour the vegetable
phœnix is resuscitated from its own dust. The rose issues from its
sepulchre and assumes a new life. It is the floral symbol of that
resurrection by which mortals lying in darkness and in the shadow of
death will pass into beautiful immortality.”
The treatise on the philosophical stone very pertinently remarks
that in alchemy the first thing to be ascertained is what is really
signified by the myrionimous argentum vivum sapientum, a point on
which the author gracefully declines information. Both works are
exceedingly obscure and vexatious. The Thesaurus Philosophiæ
testifies that the plain speaking of the philosophers is completely
illusory, and that it is only in their incomprehensible profundities that
we must seek the light of Hermes.
Alchemy is the science of the four elements, which are to be found
in all created substances, but are not of the vulgar kind. The whole
practice of the art is simply the conversion of these elements into
one another. The seed and matter of every metal is mercury, as it is
decocted and otherwise prepared in the bowels of the earth, and
each of them can be reduced into this prima materia, by the help of
which they are also, one and all, susceptible of augmentation and
multiplication, even to infinity.
 POPE JOHN XXII.
This pontiff is claimed as an adept by the alchemists, a fact which
is denied, but not disproved, by his orthodox biographers. That he
believed in the power of magic is shown by the accusation which he
directed against Géraud, Bishop of Cahors, whom he accredited with
the design of poisoning him, together with the entire college of
cardinals, and with having in particular contrived sorceries and
diabolical enchantments against all of them. He was the
contemporary of Raymond Lully and Arnold de Villanova, and is said
to have been the pupil and friend of the latter. Nevertheless, the
mischief occasioned at that period by the impostures of pretended
alchemists led him to issue a bull condemning the traders in this
science as charlatans who promised what they were unable to
perform. Hermetic writers assert that this bull was not directed
against veritable adepts, and his devotion to his laboratory at
Avignon seems a fairly established fact. Franciscus Pagi, in his
Breviarum de Gestis Romanorum Pontificum, has the following
passage:—Joannes scripsit quoque latino sermone artem
metallorum transmutorium; quod opus prodiit Gallici incerto
translatore Lugduni, anno 1557 in 8vo. It is allowed that he was a
writer on medicine. His Thesaurus Pauperum, a collection of recipes,
was printed at Lyons in 1525, and he was the author of a treatise on
diseases of the eye, and of another on the formation of the fœtus.
He was born at Cahors, according to the general opinion, of poor but
reputable parents; he showed at an early period his skill in law and in
the sciences. The circumstances of his life are exceedingly obscure
until his consecration as Bishop of Fréjus in 1300. Subsequently he
was promoted to the see of Avignon, and Clement V. created him
cardinal-bishop of Porto. He was raised to the pontificate at Lyons,
and reigned at Avignon till his death in 1334. He left behind him in
his coffers the sum of eighteen million florins in gold and seven
millions in jewels, besides valuable consecrated vessels. Alchemists
attribute these vast treasures to his skill in their science, and assert
in addition that he manufactured two hundred ingots, apparently on a
single occasion. By a calculation of one of his biographers, this
quantity of the precious metal was equivalent to £660,000, British
sterling. A treatise entitled “The Elixir of the Philosophers, or the
Transmutatory Art of Metals,” is attributed to him. It was translated
from the Latin into French, and published in duodecimo at Lyons in
1557. It is written ad clerum, and for this reason is probably the more
misleading. It represents the constituents of the perfect medicine to
be vinegar, salt, urine, and sal ammoniac, with the addition of an
undescribed substance called sulphur vive.
 NICHOLAS FLAMEL.
The name of this alchemical adept has been profoundly venerated
not only in the memory of the Hermetists but in the hearts of the
French people, among whom he is the central figure of many
marvellous legends and traditions. “Whilst in all ages and nations the
majority of hierophants have derived little but deception, ruination,
and despair as the result of their devotion to alchemy, Nicholas
Flamel enjoyed permanent good fortune and serenity. Far from
expending his resources in the practice of the magnum opus, he
added with singular suddenness a vast treasure to a moderate
fortune. These he employed in charitable endowments and in pious
foundations that long survived him and long sanctified his memory.
He built churches and chapels which were adorned with statues of
himself, accompanied by symbolical characters and mysterious
crosses, which subsequent adepts long strove to decipher, that they
might discover his secret history, and the kabbalistic description of
the process by which he was conducted to the realisation of the
Grand Magisterium.”
Whether Flamel was born at Paris or Pontoise is not more
uncertain than the precise date of his nativity. This occurred some
time during the reign of Philippe le Bel, the spoliator of the grand
order of the Temple, and, on the whole, the most probable year is
1330. His parents were poor, and left him little more than the humble
house in Paris which he continued to possess till his death, and
which he eventually bequeathed to the Church. It stood in Notary
Street, at the corner of Marivaux Street, opposite the Marivaux door
of the Church of Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie.
Authorities disagree as to the amount of education that Flamel
obtained in his youth, but it was sufficient to qualify him for the
business of a scrivener, which, in spite of his wealth and his
accredited wisdom, he continued to follow through life. He was
proficient in painting and poetry, and had a taste for architecture and
the mathematical sciences; yet he applied himself steadily to
business, and contracted a prudent marriage, his choice falling on a
widow, named Pernelle, who, though handsome, was over forty
years, but who brought a considerable dowry to her second
husband.
In his capacity as a copyist before the age of printing, books of all
classes fell into the hands of Flamel, and among them were many of
those illuminated alchemical treatises which are reckoned among the
rarest treasures of mediæval manuscripts. Acquainted with the Latin
language, he insensibly accumulated an exoteric knowledge of the
aims and theories of the adepts. His interest and curiosity were
awakened, and he began studying them in his leisure moments. Now
tradition informs us that, whether his application was great, his
desire intense, or whether he was super-eminently fitted to be
included by divine election among the illuminated Sons of the
Doctrine, or for whatever other reason, the mystical Bath-Kôl
appeared to him under the figure of an angel, bearing a remarkable
book bound in well-wrought copper, the leaves of thin bark, graven
right carefully with a pen of iron. An inscription in characters of gold
contained a dedication addressed to the Jewish nation by Abraham
the Jew, prince, priest, astrologer, and philosopher.
“Flamel,” cried the radiant apparition, “behold this book of which
thou understandest nothing; to many others but thyself it would
remain for ever unintelligible, but one day thou shalt discern in its
pages what none but thyself will see!”
At these words Flamel eagerly stretched out his hands to take
possession of the priceless gift, but book and angel disappeared in
an auriferous tide of light. The scrivener awoke to be ravished
henceforth by the divine dream of alchemy; but so long a time
passed without any fulfilment of the angelic promise, that the ardour
of his imagination cooled, the great hope dwindled gradually away,
and he was settling once more into the commonplace existence of a
plodding scribe, when, on a certain day of election in the year 1357,
an event occurred which bore evidence of the veracity of his
visionary promise-maker, and exalted his ambition and aspirations to
a furnace heat. This event, with the consequences it entailed, are
narrated in the last testament of Nicholas Flamel, which begins in the
following impressive manner, but omits all reference to the legendary
vision:—
“The Lord God of my life, who exalts the humble in spirit out of the
most abject dust, and makes the hearts of such as hope in Him to
rejoice, be eternally praised.
“Who, of His own grace, reveals to the believing souls the springs
of His bounty, and subjugates beneath their feet the crowns of all
earthly felicities and glories.
“In Him let us always put our confidence, in His fear let us place
our happiness, and in His mercy the hope and glory of restoration
from our fallen state.
“And in our supplications to Him let us demonstrate or show forth a
faith unfeigned and stable, an assurance that shall not for ever be
shaken.
“And Thou, O Lord God Almighty, as Thou, out of Thy infinite and
most desirable goodness, hast condescended to open the earth and
unlock Thy treasures unto me, Thy poor and unworthy servant, and
hast given into my possession the fountains and well-springs of all
the treasures and riches of this world.
“So, O Lord God, out of Thine abundant kindness, extend Thy
mercies unto me, that when I shall cease to be any longer in the land
of the living, Thou mayst open unto me the celestial riches, the
divine treasures, and give me a part or portion in the heavenly
inheritance for ever.
“Where I may behold Thy divine glory and the fulness of Thy
Heavenly Majesty, a pleasure, so ineffable, and a joy, so ravishing,
which no mortal can express or conceive.
“This I entreat of Thee, O Lord, for our Lord Jesus Christ, Thy well-
beloved Son’s sake, who in the unity of the Holy Spirit liveth with
Thee, world without end. Amen.
“I, Nicholas Flamel, Scrivener, living at Paris, anno 1399, in the
Notary Street, near St James, of the Bouchery, though I learned not
much Latin, because of the poorness and meanness of my parents,
who were notwithstanding (by them that envy me most) accounted
honest and good people.
“Yet, by the blessing of God, I have not wanted an understanding
of the books of the philosophers, but learned them and attained to a
certain kind of knowledge, even of their hidden secrets.
“For which cause sake there shall not any moment of my life pass,
wherein remembering this so vast a good, I will not on my bare
knees, if the place will permit of it, or otherwise in my heart, with all
the entireness of my affections, render thanks to this my most good
and precious God.
“Who never forsakes the righteous generation, or suffers the
children of the just to beg their bread, nor deceives their
expectations, but supports them with blessings who put their trust in
Him.
“After the death of my parents, I, Nicholas Flamel, got my living by
the art of writing, engrossing inventories, making up accounts,
keeping of books, and the like.
“In this course of living there fell by chance into my hands a gilded
book, very old and large, which cost me only two florins.
“It was not made of paper or parchment, as other books are, but of
admirable rinds (as it seemed to me) of young trees. The cover of it
was of brass; it was well bound, and graven all over with a strange
kind of letters, which I take to be Greek characters, or some such
like.
“This I know that I could not read them, nor were they either Latin
or French letters, of which I understand something.
“But as to the matter which was written within, it was engraven (as
I suppose) with an iron pencil or graver upon the said bark leaves,
done admirably well, and in fair and neat Latin letters, and curiously
coloured.
“It contained thrice seven leaves, for so they were numbered in the
top of each folio, and every seventh leaf was without any writing, but
in place thereof there were several images or figures painted.
“Upon the first seventh leaf was depicted—1. A Virgin. 2. Serpents
swallowing her up. On the second seventh, a serpent crucified; and
on the last seventh, a desert or wilderness, in midst whereof were
seen many fair fountains, whence issued out a number of serpents
here and there.
“Upon the first of the leaves was written in capital letters of gold,
Abraham the Jew, Priest, Prince, Levite, Astrologer, and Philosopher,
to the nation of the Jews dispersed by the wrath of God in France,
wisheth health.
“After which words, it was filled with many execrations and curses,
with this word Maranatha, which was oft repeated against any one
that should look in to unfold it, except he were either Priest or Scribe.
“The person that sold me this book was ignorant of its worth as
well as I who bought it. I judge it might have been stolen from some
of the Jewish nation, or else found in some place where they
anciently abode.
“In the second leaf of the book he consoled his nation, and gave
them pious counsel to turn from their wickedness and evil ways, but
above all to flee from idolatry, and to wait in patience for the coming
of the Messiah, who, conquering all the kings and potentates of the
earth, should reign in glory with his people to eternity. Without doubt,
this was a very pious, wise, and understanding man.
“In the third leaf, and in all the writings that followed, he taught
them, in plain words, the transmutation of metals, to the end that he
might help and assist his dispersed people to pay their tribute to the
Roman Emperors, and some other things not needful here to be
repeated.
“He painted the vessels by the side or margin of the leaves, and
discovered all the colours as they should arise or appear, with all the
rest of the work.
“But of the prima materia or first matter, or agent, he spake not so
much as one word; but only he told them that in the fourth and fifth
leaves he had entirely painted or decyphered it, and depicted or
figured it, with a desirable dexterity and workmanship.
“Now though it was singularly well and materially or intelligibly
figured and painted, yet by that could no man ever have been able to
understand it without having been well skilled in their Cabala, which
is a series of old traditions, and also to have been well studied in
their books.
“The fourth and fifth leaf thereof was without any writing, but full of
fair figures, bright and shining, or, as it were, enlightened, and very
exquisitely depicted.
“First, there was a young man painted, with wings at his ankles,
having in his hand a caducean rod, writhen about with two serpents,
wherewith he stroke upon an helmet covering his head.
“This seemed in my mean apprehension to be one of the heathen
gods, namely, Mercury. Against him there came running and flying
with open wings, a great old man with an hour-glass fixed upon his
head, and a scythe in his hands, like Death, with which he would (as
it were in indignation) have cut off the feet of Mercury.
“On the other side of the fourth leaf he painted a fair flower, on the
top of a very high mountain, which was very much shaken by the
north wind. Its footstalk was blue, its flowers white and red, and its
leaves shining like fine gold, and round about it the dragons and
griffins of the north made their nests and habitations.
“On the fifth leaf was a fair rose-tree, flowered, in the midst of a
garden, growing up against a hollow oak, at the foot whereof
bubbled forth a fountain of pure white water, which ran headlong
down into the depths below.
“Yet it passed through the hands of a great number of people who
digged in the earth, seeking after it, but, by reason of their blindness,
none of them knew it, except a very few, who considered its weight.
“On the last side of the leaf was depicted a king, with a faulchion,
who caused his soldiers to slay before him many infants, the
mothers standing by, and weeping at the feet of their murderers.
 “These infants’ blood being gathered up by other soldiers, was put
into a great vessel wherein Sol and Luna came to bathe themselves.
“And because this history seemed to represent the destruction of
the Innocents by Herod, and that I learned the chiefest part of the art
in this book, therefore I placed in their churchyard these hieroglyphic
figures of this learning. Thus have you that which was contained in
the first five leaves.
“As for what was in all the rest of the written leaves, which was
wrote in good and intelligible Latin, I must conceal, lest God being
offended with me should send His plague and judgments upon me. It
would be a wickedness much greater than he who wished that all
men in the world had but one head, that he might cut it off at a blow.
“Having thus obtained this delicate and precious book, I did
nothing else day and night but study it; conceiving very well all the
operations it pointed forth, but wholly ignorant of the prima materia
with which I should begin, which made me very sad and
discontented.
“My wife, whose name was Perrenelle, whom I loved equally with
myself, and whom I had but lately married, was mightily concerned
for me, and, with many comforting words, earnestly desired to know
how she might deliver me from this trouble.
“I could no longer keep counsel, but told her all, shewing her the
very book, which, when she saw, she became as well pleased with it
as myself, and with great delight beheld the admirable cover, the
engraving, the images, and exquisite figures thereof, but understood
them as little as I.
“Yet it was matter of consolation to me to discourse and entertain
myself with her, and to think what we should do to find out the
interpretation and meaning thereof.
“At length I caused to be painted within my chamber, as much to
the life or original as I could, all the images and figures of the said
fourth and fifth leaves.
“These I showed to the greatest scholars and most learned men in
Paris, who understood thereof no more than myself: I told them they
were found in a book which taught the philosophers’ stone.
“But the greatest part of them made a mock both of me and that
most excellent secret, except one whose name was Anselm, a
practiser of physic and a deep student in this art.
“He much desired to see my book, which he valued more than
anything else in the world, but I always refused him, only making him
a large demonstration of the method.
“He told me that the first figure represented Time, which devours
all things, and that, according to the number of the six written leaves,
there was required a space of six years to perfect the stone; and
then, said he, we must turn the glass and see it no more.
“I told him this was not painted, but only to show the teacher the
prima materia, or first agent, as was written in the book. He
answered me that this digestion for six years was, as it were, a
second agent, and that certainly the first agent was there painted,
which was a white and heavy water.
“This, without doubt, was argent vive, which they could not fix; that
is, cut off his feet, or take away his volubility, save by that long
digestion in the pure blood of young infants.
“For in that this argent vive being joined with Sol and Luna was
first turned with them into a plant, like that there painted, and
afterwards by corruption into serpents, which serpents, being
perfectly dried and digested, were made a fine powder of gold, which
is the stone.
“This strange or foreign discourse to the matter was the cause of
my erring, and that made me wander for the space of one and
twenty years in a perfect meander from the verity; in which space of
time I went through a thousand labyrinths or processes, but all in
vain; yet never with the blood of infants, for that I accounted wicked
and villainous.
“For I found in my book that the philosophers called blood the
mineral spirit which is in the metals, chiefly in Sol, Luna, and
Mercury, to which sense I always, in my own judgment, assented.