● Sets and venn diagrams

○ Sets
■ Sets are a collection of distinct objects, called elements
● A universal set is a set that contains all elements we are
interested in. this would have to be defined by the context.
● A subset of Set A is another set that only contains elements from
Set A but may not contain all elements of Set A
● A proper subset is a subset that is not identical to the original set
as it contains fewer elements.
■ A set can be defined by describing the contents or by listing the elements
in brackets.
○ Union, Intersections, and complements of sets
■ A union of two sets contain all the elements contained in either set or both
sets.
■ The intersection only contains elements that are in both sets.
■ The complement of set A contains everything that is not in Set A.
○ Notations
■ ∊ means is an element of.
■ ∅ or { } is called the empty set, which means a set that
contains no elements.
■ ⊆ is used to describe subsets
■ ⊂ is used to describe proper subsets
■ ⋃ is used to describe a union of sets
■ ⋂ is used to describe the intersection of sets
■ A’, Ac, or ~A is used to describe the complete set of A
○ Example
■ Consider the sets: A = {red, green, blue}; B = {red, yellow, orange}; C =
{red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple}
● Is set A ⊆ B? Is set A ⊂ B? No and no.
● Is set A ⊆ C? Is set A ⊂ C? Yes, and Yes.
● Find A ⋃ B Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue.
● Find A ⋂ B. red
● Find Ac ⋂ C Orange, blue, yellow, Purple
● Consider these three sets: A = the set of all even numbers; B = {2,
4, 6}; C = {2, 3, 4, 6}
■ Consider these three sets: A = the set of all even numbers; B = {2, 4, 6};
C = {2, 3, 4, 6}
● Is set B ⊆ A? Is set B ⊂ A? Yes, and yes.
● Is set C ⊆ A? Is set C ⊂ A? No, and no.
● Find A ⋃ B 2,4,6,8,10
● Find A ⋂ B. 2, 4, 6
● Find Ac ⋂ C. 3
 ○ Operations with Sets
■ Set Operations can be grouped together. Grouping Symbols can be used
like Arithmatic to create an order of operations.
○ Example
■ Suppose H = {cat, dog, rabbit, mouse}, F = {dog, cow, duck, pig, rabbit}
W = {duck, rabbit, deer, frog, mouse}
● a) Find (H ⋂ F) ⋃ W Dog, rabbit, Duck, Frog, mouse.
● b) Find H ⋂ (F ⋃ W) {Dog, rabbit, mouse)
● c) Find (H ⋂ F)c ⋂ W {Duck, deer, Frog, mouse}
○ Venn diagrams
■ For the visualization of sets, in 1880 John venn would begin the use of
using overlapping circles, building on the ideas established by Leonard
Euhler in the previous century, to create what we now call venn diagrams.
■ A Venn diagram represents a set as a circle, usually in a box containing
the universal set, overlapping areas represent elements common to the
sets.
○ Examples
■ A survey asks 200 people “What beverage do you drink in the morning”,
and offers choices: (1) Tea only, (2) Coffee only, and (3) Both coffee and
tea. Suppose 20 report tea only, 80 report coffee only, 40 report both.
Use a Venn Diagram to answer the following questions:How many people
drink tea in the morning? How many people drink neither tea or coffee?
● 60 drink tea, with 60 drinking neither.
■ A survey asks: Which online services have you used in the last month:
Twitter, Facebook, Have used both. The results show 40% of those
surveyed have used Twitter, 70% have used Facebook, and 20% have
used both. how many people have used neither Twitter or Facebook?
● 30%

● Inductive and deductive reasoning

○ Arguments
■ A logical argument is a claim that a set of premises support a conclusion.
There are two general types of arguments:inductive and deductive
arguments.
● An inductive argument is one that uses a collection of specific
examples as it’s premise and uses them to propose a general
conclusion. An inductive argument is strong or weak based off it’s
premises.
● A deductive argument is one that uses a collection of general
statements as it’s premises and uses them to propose a specific
situation as the conclusion. A deductive argument is sound if it’s
premises are true. If the premises are all true, then the conclusion
must be true.
 ● Eurler diagrams can be used to see if a deductive argument is
true. Draw a venn diagram based on the premises of the
argument. If the diagram includes the conclusion, then the
argument is valid.
● Types of fallacies
○ Appeal to popularity:something must be true because a large amount of people
believe in it, or that it must be good because people like it.
○ False cause:assuming a casual relationship between two or more events or
things, when there is little to no evidence for it. Also known as post hoc, where
you believe that because two happens sequentially, they must be related.
○ Appeal to ignorance:when someone claims that something must be true because
it hasnt been disproven.
○ Hasty Generalization:drawing a conclusion despite a very small sample fo
evidence for a large population.
○ Appeal to emotion:when someone bases their argument purely off of emotion
rather than evidence.
○ Ad Hominem/Personal attack:attacking the person themself rather than their
argument.
○ False dilema/limited choice:when a choice is falsely framed as either/or, when
the two options could be compatible, or there could be other options.
○ Circular reasoning:An argument that assumes the conclusion is true, and rather
than providing any evidence, just repeats the conclusion.
○ diversion/red herring:An attempt to divert the argument by bringing up something
unrelated.
○ Strawman:distorting an opponent’s argument in order to make it easier to defeat
and also to make it seem weaker than it actually is.
○ Appeal to authority;using’s one status or authority to make their argument
stronger when said status or authority is irrelevant. IE:A climate scientist is
typically not guilty when using their position when talking about climate change
but a security expert is.
○ Appeal to consequence:an argument that ignores if a premise is valid or not, but
is more focused on the consequences and if they are desirable or undesirable.
○ Correlation implies causation:related top post hoc, but does not require there to
be sequential events. It is one assumes that because two things are related or
may look to be, that one causes the other, when there could be a third or more
factors behind it.
● Propositions and truth tables
○ Logic
■ Logic is the study of valid reasoning. When using the internet, boolean
logix is often used, using terms such as “like” and “or” to help us find the
specific web pages that fit the sets we are interested in.
○ Boolean logic
■ Boolean logic combines multiple statements that are either true or false
into an expression that is either true or false. In connection to sets, a
search is true if the element is part of the set.
■ Connections to set operations.
● A and B: Elements in the intersection A n B
● A or B: Elements in the union A U B
● Not A:elements in the complaint Ac
● Note that OR is not exclusive. It is like being presented with two
options you can ask for both.
■ Sometimes statements can be ambiguous. Use parenthesis in boolean
logic to show precedent.
○ Statements and conditions
■ A statement is either true or false
■ A conditional is a compound statement of the form “If P then Q” or “If P
then Q, else S”
■ When an action is taken or not depending on the value of the statement,
then it forms a conditional.
○ Quantified statements
■ Words that describe an entire set, such as all, every, or none, are called
universal quantifiers because that set could qualify as a universal set.
Meanwhile, words and phrases such as some, one, or at least one, are
called existential quantifiers because they describe the existence of at
least one element in a set.
● Universal quantifiers states that an entire set of things share a
characteristic
● Existential quantifiers states that a set contains at least one
element.
■ Negating a quantified statement
● The negation of “All A are B” is “at least one A is not B”
● The Negation of “No A are B’ is “at least one A is B”
● The negation of “at least one A is B” is “No A are B”
● The negation of “at least one A is not B” is “All A are B”
○ Conjunction(and), Disjuction(or), Negation(not)
■ The Symbol ⋀ is used for And: A and B is notated as A⋀B
■ The Symbol V is used for Or: A or B is notated as AVB
■ The symbol ~ is used for Not: Not A is notated as ~A
○ Truth tables
■ Truth tables can be used to keep track for truth values for the simple
statements that make up complex statements, and see if the complex
statement is true or false. It shows the truth value of a complex statement
by showing the varying truth values of the complex statements
■ Example
S C S or C

True True T

True False T

False True T

False False F
■ Here, this table shows the truth value of the complex statement by
showing the truth values of the simpler statements. As it is an “Or”
statement, it can be true is both statements are true, or if only one is true.
If both are false, then it is false.
○ Inverse, Converse, Contrapositive
■ The Original conditional is “if P then Q” (P->Q)
● The Converse then is “If Q then P”(Q ->P)
● The inverse is “If not P then not Q”(~P -> ~Q)
● The contrapositive then is “If not Q then not P” (~Q -> ~P)
○ Equivalence
■ A conditional statement and it’s contra positive are logically equivalent
■ The converse and inverse of a statement are logically equivalent then
■ The negation of a conditional statement is logically equivalent to a
conjunction of the antecedent and the negation of the consequent
■ ~(P->Q) is equivalent to P⋀~Q or Not (P then Q) is equivalent to
P and Not Q