School of Graduated studies

Department of Biology

Honey bee production practices, constraints and honey qualities in

Sigmo District, Jimma zone, Southwestern Ethiopia

By: Zinetu Sado

Advisors;
Main advisor: Eba Alemayehu(PhD)
Co advisor: Gadisa Natea (MSc)

A Thesis paper Submitted to Department of Biology, College of Natural

Sciences, Jimma University, In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the
Degree of Master of Science in Biology (Ecological and Systematic Zoology)

Jimma, Ethiopa

June 2021

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 Acknowledgement
Above all I thank my almighty God, for his help in giving me courage to cope up all pains and
challenges I faced for pursuing this study.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to my main advisor Eba
Alemayehu (PhD) for his invaluable guidance, comments, suggestions, and encouragements in
the success of my thesis work. In addition, I express my deepest thanks to my co advisor Gadisa
Natea (MSc.) for his invaluable and unreserved comments, suggestions and helping me by
reference material in my thesis work.

My grateful acknowledgements are extended to Sigimo District Livestock development resource

office team, especially a livestock office head, for his co-operation and to the sample respondent
beekeepers who unreservedly co-operated with me in supplying relevant information and
providing me with sample honeybee colonies. All experts, including DAs who participated in
this study deserve appreciation for their volunteer participation, for their patience to complete the
questionnaires, interview and for their contribution in this study generally. Thus, I would like to
say thank you. Also I would like to say thanks to Aminu Jibril for helping me by different things
such as SPSS software, while I‘m doing this research.

I will give my supreme thank to all my partners and my family who support me financially and
other instrument during study period. I am very much indebted to Environmental health science
laboratory technician Mr. Seyoum and Biology laboratory technician Mr. Soressa for the overall
support. Lastly, I would like to express my deepest thanks to my husband, Gazali Ahmed for his
shouldering the full responsibilities of our family issues, particularly looking after our children;
he also deserves special appreciation for the interest he had in my academic progress.

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 Table of contents
Contents pages
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................... i

Table of contents .............................................................................................................................ii

Lists of table .................................................................................................................................... vi

List of Figure ................................................................................................................................... vii

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... viii

List of Acronyms .............................................................................................................................. ix

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1

1.1. Background........................................................................................................................... 1

1.2. Statement of the problem.................................................................................................... 3

1.3. Objectives of the study ....................................................................................................... 5

1.3.1. General objective........................................................................................................... 5

1.3.2. Specific Objectives ......................................................................................................... 5

1.4. Significance of the study ...................................................................................................... 5

1.5. Scope of the study ................................................................................................................ 5

2. Literature Review ........................................................................................................................ 6

2.1. Races and Species of Honeybees ......................................................................................... 6

2.2. History of honey bee production ......................................................................................... 6

2.2.1. World Honey bee Production and honey Marketing Overview .................................... 6

2.2.2. African Beekeeping Practices ........................................................................................ 8

2.2.3. Overview of Honey bee production in Ethiopia ............................................................ 8

2.3. System of Honey bee Production in Ethiopia. ..................................................................... 9

2.3.1. Traditional beekeeping .................................................................................................. 9

2.3.1.1 Honey hunting ........................................................................................................... 10

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 2.3.2. Transitional System of Beekeeping ............................................................................. 10

2.3.4 Modern system of beekeeping ..................................................................................... 10

2.4. Honey hive practices and products .................................................................................... 11

2.4.1. Hive products harvesting and post handlings ............................................................. 11

2.4.2. Honey bee flora ........................................................................................................... 12

2.4.3. Honey Bee Products Demand and Consumptions ...................................................... 13

2.4.4. Economic Importance of Beekeeping in Ethiopia ....................................................... 14

2.5. Major Constraint of Honey Bee Production ....................................................................... 15

2.5.1. Shortage of Bee Forage ............................................................................................... 16

2.5.2. Honeybee Pests and Predators ................................................................................... 16

2.5.3. Honeybee Disease ....................................................................................................... 17

2.5.4. Agrochemical ............................................................................................................... 18

2.6. Honey Quality ..................................................................................................................... 18

3. Materials and Method .............................................................................................................. 20

3.1. Study Area .......................................................................................................................... 20

3.2. Study Design ....................................................................................................................... 21

3.3. Population of the study ...................................................................................................... 21

3.4. Sample and sampling techniques....................................................................................... 21

3.5. Instruments of Data Collection .......................................................................................... 22

3.5.1. Questionnaire .............................................................................................................. 22

3.5.2. Interview ...................................................................................................................... 22

3.5.3. Focus group discussions .............................................................................................. 22

3.6. Secondary data ................................................................................................................... 23

3.7. Data Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 23

3.7.1. Some components of honey quality analysis .............................................................. 23

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 3.7.2. Descriptive statistical analysis ..................................................................................... 24

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................... 25

4.1.1 Demographic information of the study participants ....................................................... 25

4.1.2. Practices of honey bee hives ........................................................................................... 27

4.1.2.2. Type of Hive Owned by respondents and Colony Distribution ................................ 27

4.1.2.3. Sources of bee hives, bee colonies and Reason to engage in bee keeping activities
............................................................................................................................................... 28

4.1.2. 6. Honey productivity, Household income and prices of crude honey and wax ........ 35

4.1.2.7 Supplementary feeding, Sources of water and migratory beekeeping practice ...... 37

4.1.2.8 Trends of bee keeping production ............................................................................ 39

4.1.3. Major constraints of honey bee productions ................................................................. 40

4.1.3.1. Pest and predator found in the study area .............................................................. 40

4.1.4.1. Traders perception on honey storage qualities ....................................................... 42

Table.21 honey storage qualities .......................................................................................... 42

4.1.4.2. Customers preference and quality of honey ............................................................ 44

4.1.5. Honey quality laboratory result................................................................................... 44

4.2.1. Type of Hive Owned and Colony Distribution ............................................................. 45

4.2.3. Sources of bee hives, bee colonies and Reason to engage in bee keeping activities . 46

4.2.3. Duration of honey bee stay in hive and harvesting frequency ................................... 48

4.2.4. Types of hive products and season harvest, and kinds of honey produced ............... 48

4.2.5. Honey productivity, Household income and prices of crude honey and wax ............ 49

4.2.6 Supplementary feeding, Sources of water and migratory beekeeping practice ......... 51

4.2.7 Trends of bee keeping production ............................................................................... 52

4.2.8. Major constraints of honey bee productions ................................................................. 53

4.2.9. Pest and predator found in the study area ................................................................. 53

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 4.2.10.1. Traders perception on honey storage qualities ..................................................... 54

4.2.10.2. Customers preference and quality of honey .......................................................... 54

5. Conclusion and Recommendation ............................................................................................ 56

5.1. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 56

5.2. Recommendation ............................................................................................................... 57

References .................................................................................................................................... 58

Appendices.................................................................................................................................... 65

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 Lists of table
Table 1 .Demographic information of the participants.......................................................... 26
Table2 land holdings and beekeeping experiences of study participants .............................. 27
Table 3 hive owned and colony distribution ......................................................................... 28
Table 4 sources of bee hives bee keeping activities .............................................................. 29
Table5 Sources of bee colony to start beekeeping activity.................................................... 31
Table 6 Reason to engage in beekeeping activity.................................................................. 31
Table 7 Placement of hives .................................................................................................... 32
Table 8 Duration of honey bee stay in hive and harvesting frequency ................................. 34
Table 9 Hive products and season of harvest, and kinds of honey produced……………….35
Table 10 Major bee flora found in Sigimo district …………………………………………36
Table 11 Honey production per hive in Kg…………………………………………….. 37
Table 12 Different kinds of Honey productivity in kg per household................................... 38
Table 13 Prices of colony, hives and types of honey ............................................................ 38
Table 14 Supplementary feeding source ............................................................................... 39
Table 15 Hive inspection trend of study respondent ............................................................ 40
Table 16 Trends of bee keeping practice …….…………………………………………..41
Table17 Constraints of honey bee production …….……………………………………….42
Table 18 Pest and predator found in the area ……………………………………………..42
Table 19 Traditional control method of pest and predators……………………………43
Table 20 Agrochemical ……………………………………………….........................44
Table.21 honey storage qualities………………………………………………………..44
Table 22 customer preference and quality of honey……………………………………46
Table 23 honey quality laboratory results of highland and lowland area…………………47

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 List of Figure

Plate 1 Types of materials used to construct hives…………………………………………30

Plate 2 Transitional hives constructed from bamboo trees…………………………………30
Plate 3 Modern hive found in Yadeso kebele………………………………………………..31
Plate 4 Hives kept under the eaves of the house…………………………………………….33
Plate 5 Back yard and forest beekeeping in Sigimo………………………………………….33
Plate 6 Major bee flora found in Sigimo district……………………………………………..37
Plate 7 Production of wax and transferring of bee……………………………………………40
Plate 8 wax destroyed by wax moths in modern hives………………………………………..43
Plate 9 Honey storage materials in Sigimo district……………………………………………45

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 Abstract
The study was carried out on Honey bee production practices, constraints and honey qualities in
Sigmo District, Jimma zone, Southwestern Ethiopia, in four selected kebeles of Sigmo district.
Beekeeping is the practice of rearing bees with the aim of exploiting its products. The objective
of this study was to asses honey bee production system, its constraints and honey quality
produced in the study area. From each districts 120 beekeepers and 25 traders of honey were
randomly selected and 8 key informant and 2 experts from office were purposively selected and
interviewed. In general, a total of 155 respondents participated in this study. The selected
beekeepers were interviewed using structured questioners, discussion and formal survey method.
Quality of honey produced in the study area was analyzed in the laboratory. The result of the
study showed that majority of the respondents in the study area followed traditional production
system but only few beekeepers started transitional and modern beekeeping production system.
Based on the result of this study, the existence of pests and predators were a major challenge to
the honeybees and beekeepers in the study area. In all surveyed areas, the beekeepers reported
the presence of ants, wax moth, honey badger, mites, spider, lizard and bee-eating birds in order
of their decreasing importance. Traditionally, the beekeepers used their own methods of pests
and predators control like application of ash under the stand of the hive, hanging hives on long
trees, cleaning around the apiary site, using dog for large predators like honey badger, fencing
their apiary site and etc. Laboratory analysis revealed that the quality of honey within the range
of moisture content of highland honey was 17.1 while the midland honey was 18.99., Ash
contents of highland honey was 1.9 while the midland was 1.70., pH of highland honey was 3.67
while mid land was 3.7. Almost all samples of honey examined were within the acceptable range
of world and national standard. To sustain the beekeeping activity introducing affordable and
appropriate beekeeping technologies with all accessories, strengthening the appropriate
beekeeping management practices, and creating awareness specially to women is important

Key words: Sigimo, honey quality, production practices, constraints, Agro-ecology, bee
colonies.

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 List of Acronyms
AFB American Foul Brood
BC Before Christ
CAC Codex Alimentherius Commission
CACC Central agricultural census commission
CSA Central Statistical Authority
DA Development Agents
EFB European Foul Brood
ETB Ethiopian Birr
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
HBRC Holeta Bee Research Center
KTBH Kenya Top Bar Hives
LFRA Livestock and Fishery Resource Agency
MBH Mud Block Hives
MOARD Ministry of Agricultural and Rural development
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
QSAE Quality and Standard Authority of Ethiopia
TTBH Tanzania Top Bar Hives

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 1. Introduction

1.1. Background

The domestic honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) is an insect, (Hymenoptera, Apoidea). At present,
Honey bees are considered to constitute one of the most complex societies among invertebrates,
with a strict caste division and a highly developed communication capacities. Caste and sexual
dimorphism are well pronounced, so that within the colony we can easily distinguish the queen
bee, the drones and the worker bees. The queen bee, characterized by a well-developed abdomen,
is the only fertile female of the colony, mating once in life with different drones. The female
progeny will origin from fecundated eggs, whereas non fecundated eggs will give origin to
males. All the other females in the colony are worker bees. They accomplish different tasks
through their life, depending on age and colony necessity (Michener, 1975). Beekeeping or
apiculture entails the rearing or keeping of bees with the aim of exploiting its products (such as
honey, pollen, wax, propolis and brood) (Onwumere, et al., 2012).

The practice of beekeeping is believed to be evolved in ancient Egypt as one of the oldest
practices next to the evolution of agriculture dating back to about 5,000 years (kritsky, 2015).
Until the beginning of 19th century people simply rear honeybee and finally kill the entire colony
at the time of honey harvest. This trend was changed some 200 years back when Thomas
Wildman the English man (Writer and beekeeper) introduced new beehive with multi frame
which is closely similar to the modern beehive being used at present (Baessler, 2017).

World honey production is estimated to 1.4 million tons, in the year 2006 (CBI, 2008), and the
leading producers according to their production shares are China (22%), the USA (6%),
Argentina (6%) and Turkey (5%). According to FAO (2005) estimate, Ethiopia ranked 10th in
honey production in the world. According to MoARD (2003), Ethiopia accounts for about
23.58% of the total African and 2.13% of the world honey production.

Africa has been fortunate as it contains a large endemic wild population of honeybees (Allsopp
et al., 2009; Dietemann et al., 2009). Ethiopia is one of the countries in the continent, which own
huge honey production potential. Owing to its varied ecological and climatic conditions, Ethiopia

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is home to some of the most diverse flora and fauna in Africa. (Agonafir Johannes, 2005 and
Tessega Belie, 2009)

Beekeeping in Ethiopia is a long-standing agricultural practice. It has been exercised as sideline

activity by many of the rural farming communities for its honey and beeswax production that
contributes to income generation (MoARD, 2010). It also provides job opportunity in the sector.

In Ethiopia over 10 million honeybee colonies and has been considered the heart of honey and
bees wax production in Africa (MoARD, 2010 and Tessega Belie, 2009).Due to its wide climatic
and edaphic variability, Ethiopia is a home to some of the most diverse flora and fauna in Africa
that provide surplus nectar and pollen source to foraging bee colonies Tessega Belie, (2009).
Despite the favorable agro ecology for honey production and the number of bee colonies the
country is endowed with, the level of honey production and productivity in the country is remain
low. One of the prominent factors for this low honey and productivity is traditional hives.
During the years of 2014-2016, it was increased to 5458.3 tons. The currents annual beeswax
production is estimated at 5700 tons. This makes Ethiopia the fourth largest beeswax producing
country in the world after China, Mexico and Turkey (Negash, 2018).

The knowledge and skill of honey and beeswax production of Ethiopian farmers is still very
traditional and 95% of beekeepers follow traditional method of beekeeping practice with no
improved techniques or technology (Oxfam, 2008). The most important honey producing regions
are Oromia (38%), Amhara (26%), SNNPR (18%) and Tigray (7%) AAU (2015). However the
country is suffering from the ecological degradation of its natural resources and this means the
basis for any honey production is threatened and affected in many regions of the country,
beekeeping is considered as one of the income generating activities for resource poor farmers
including women, youth and the unemployed sectors of the community (CSA, 2015).

Ethiopian honey differs in color, taste and quality, not only this also it differs in the quantity
produced and the timing of harvesting seasons that vary by region and type of honey (Oxfam,
2008). In Ethiopia, honey was harvested once or twice and in some cases even three times
(Beyene and Phillips, 2007). There are two major honey harvesting periods, November to
December in the lowlands and midlands and from April to May in the highlands. However, in
addition to these major harvesting periods, there are many small harvesting periods which
depend on the availability of bee forage and rainfall patterns in different agro – ecologies as

2
reported by Nuru (2007) and Beyene and Phillips (2007) and Haftu and Gezu ,(2014) in Hadiya
Zone of southern Ethiopia; (Tessega,2009) in Western Amhara region), which experienced
beekeepers and local people easily associate the harvesting season with the botanical origin of
honey in their locality Tesfa et al., (2013).

Moreover, beekeepers in Ethiopia are facing a range of challenges including bee disease such as
Nosema, wax moth, fungal, viral and bacterial disease, bee pests, predators, indiscriminate use of
pesticides and herbicides, pathogens and poor extension services, absence of coordination
between research extension and farmers, and inadequate research institutions to address the
problems pesticide impacts that stifle the beekeeping sector. Moreover, indiscriminate use of
pesticides and herbicides has negative effects on the environment and the life of all pollinating
insects (Amsalu Bezabeh et al., 2012). Therefore, in this study the practices and constraints of
honeybee production and honey quality in apiculture sub-sector in Sigmo district were assessed.

1.2. Statement of the problem

Beekeeping is a traditionally well-established household activity in almost all parts of the

country. But, the benefit from the sub sector to the nation as well as to the beekeepers, traders,
processors and exporter is not satisfactory (Beyene and David, 2007).

In Ethiopia there are many constraints in the beekeeping sub sector. Those include the behaviors
of bees, lack of skilled manpower and training institutions, low level of technology used, high
price of improved beekeeping technologies, drought and deforestation of natural vegetation, poor
postharvest management of beehive products and marketing constraints, indiscriminate
application of agrochemicals, honeybee disease, pest and predators, poor extension services,
absence of coordination between research extension and farmers, shortage of records and up to
date information, and inadequate research institutions to address the problems. Nevertheless, all
these problems may not be constraints to all parts of the country and may not be equally pressing
to every place. (HBRC, 1997; Ayalew, 2001; Edessa, 2005).

Due existence of those constraints, the honey sub sector production and productivity is low and it
is now contributing much lower than its potential to the regional and national economy. Even if
the intervention of the government to minimize the sub sector constraints is taken as a good
practice, the beekeepers are not still producing the amount what they are supposed to produce

3
(Gidey and Mekonen, 2010). In most cases, beekeeping has remained traditional and never
rewarding. Because of this, the yield of honey and other hive products have been constantly the
same over the past years. It did not exceed 45 kg per modern hive per year and not more than 7
kg from traditional hive per year (REST, 2004).

There are different studies conducted by researchers in different area of Ethiopia. Temesgen
Terefe (2018) in Chiro District of West Hararghe Zone on practices and challenges of honey
production; (Yirga, Koru, Kidane, and Mebrahatu, 2012) conducted on honey production in
Gamo Gofa zone; (Yemane, and Taye, 2013), in Illubabor zones of Oromia Regional State;
Haftu and Gezu, 2014 in Hadiya Zone of southern Ethiopia; Nuru (2002) honey production in
Amahra and Tigray Regions; Tessega (2009) in Amhara region, Chala et al,. (2012) in Gomma
district of Jimma zone, South-west Ethiopia, Nebiyu and Messele (2013) in Gamo Gofa zone of
southern Ethiopia, Tariku and Mechthild (2013) in Sidama Zone, Southern Ethiopia and Tesfaw
(2012) in Ada’a district of east Shoa Oromia region, Ethiopia. However, there is no any research
conducted regard honey bee production and related issues in Sigmo district.

Sigmo district is believed to have diversified type of vegetation and cultivated

crops and expected to have good potential for beekeeping activities. In Sigmo district in addition
to different agricultural activities, the practices of honey production exercised by large number of
households. Even though in Sigimo district there are different types of honey production
activities and the district is known by providing large amount of honey production for local and
national markets, but, there is no any research done on the honey production in the district. So,
this research was done to fulfill the research gap of honey production practices in the district
based on the following research questions.

1. What mechanisms used in honey bee production practices in Sigimo district?

2. What are the major constraints of bee production in the area?
3. How we explore beekeepers understanding on existing honeybee major constraints?
4. What is the quality of honey produced in the study area?

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1.3. Objectives of the study

1.3.1. General objective

The general objectives of this study were to assess the practices and constraints of honeybee
production, their potential risk factors and honey quality in Sigmo district.

1.3.2. Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this study were:

 To assess honey bee production practices in Sigmo district.
 To identify major constraints of honey bee production in the area.
 To explore beekeepers understanding on existing honeybee major constraints.
 To determine the quality of honey produced in the study area.

1.4. Significance of the study

This study is believed to be significant in the following ways:

 The findings of this study will provide base line information to the concerned bodies
like government officials, non-governmental organizations, DA and farmers to give
due attention for the solutions of the existing constraints related with the honey
productivity and beekeeping.
 The results of the study will motivate other researchers to carry out further studies.

1.5. Scope of the study

This study was conducted in South Western part of Ethiopia, Oromia regional State, Jimma
zone, Sigmo district which is found at a distance of 128km from capital of Jimma town and
464km from Addis Ababa, Capital of Oromia Regional state. This study focuses on major
constraints within beekeeping and honey quality. Moreover this study was done focusing on
the honey production related data obtained from beekeeping cooperative members and non-
members. It was done by dividing the district into two; Moist Dega and Moist woina Dega by
selecting 2 kebeles (Yadeso and Aterkeda) from moist Dega and 2 kebeles (Seriti and Onja)
from moist Woina Dega.

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 2. Literature Review

2.1. Races and Species of Honeybees

About 20,000 bee species collect nectar, convert into honey and store as a food source. Only
honey bees that live together in large colonies store appreciable quantities of honey; these
include bees of the genera Apis (honeybees), Trigona and Melipona (stingless bees) that people
have recognized throughout the ages as sources of honey (Bradbear, 2003).

Since the late 1700s about 9 species of honeybees have been recognized (Roubik, 1989). These
are: Apis and reniformis, Apis cerana, Apis cerana indica, Apis dorsata, Apis dorsatabinghami,
Apis florea, Apis laboriosa, Apis mellifera and Apis vechti. Among these the following are the
major honeybee species: Apis cerana/indica, Apis dorsata, Apis florea and Apis mellifera.
Among the four commonly recognized species of Apis, only Apis cerana and Apis mellifera are
kept commercially by man.

The most widely used honeybees are European races of Apis mellifera, a species of honeybee
also indigenous to Africa and the Middle East. Apis mellifera is not indigenous to the Americas,
Australia, New Zealand or the Pacific islands, but during the last four centuries European races
of bees have been introduced to these regions (Bradbear, 2003).

There are five distinct races of honeybees in Ethiopia namely, Apis millifera jementica, A. m.
scutellata, A. m. bondasii, A. m. monticola and A. m. woyi-gambella (Amsalu et al., 2004).
African bees are much more active in collecting nectar than temperate-zone bees. They produce
wax readily, possibly in response to their need to build new combs frequently. They are very
adapted and can live in tropical climates ranging from semi desert to tropical rain forests.

2.2. History of honey bee production

2.2.1. World Honey bee Production and honey Marketing Overview

Honeybees are essential organisms that contribute to global nutrition and food security and
provide large ecosystem services. However, dramatic increase in abnormal honeybee colony
decline in contemporary beekeeping has brought about extensive research and glowed public

6
interest in honeybee health (Neuman, 2009; Genersch et al., 2010; Rohr et al., 2013). The
decline in honeybee numbers is alarming given their important role in ecosystem services and
diversification of income (Neumann and Carreck 2010; Vanbergen et al., 2013).
Starting in late 2006, commercial migratory beekeepers along the East Coast of the United States
began reporting sharp declines in their honeybee colonies (OIE, 2011). Beekeeping in most of
the states has been affected (Laurent et al., 2015). In the winters of 2007/2008 and 2006/2007
alone, the drop in the number of managed honeybee colonies was estimated to 31.8% and 35.8%
respectively (Bianco et al., 2014).

The annual colony losses have created problems and bee pollination services have severely
hampered, specially, in the western regions (Paudel et al., 2015). Recent studies predict the
phenomenon of decline in bee numbers is not restricted to be the problem of western region
alone (Jacquetta, 2013). It have been suggested that colony losses do occur in Africa at
comparable levels like that of Europe or North America (Wanjama et al., (2016). It has also been
noted that bee population in East Africa is on the decline (Musyimi , 2014).

World honey production is estimated to 1.4 million tons, in the year 2006 (CBI, 2008), and the
leading producers according to their production shares are China (22%), the USA (6%),
Argentina (6%) and Turkey (5%). According to FAO (2005) estimate, Ethiopia ranked 10th in
honey production in the world. According to MoARD (2003), Ethiopia accounts for about
23.58% of the total African and 2.13% of the world honey production.

The five biggest honey exporting countries in the world are: China, Argentina, Mexico, Germany
and Brazil, accounted for more than 65% of world honey exports in 2004(CAP, 2008). World
honey exports increased nearly2%per year from 1990 to 2004 (CAP, 2008). Germany and the
United States was the biggest honey importing countries in 2004 with more than 20% market
share (CAP, 2008). Germany is by far the leading honey market in the EU. Honey is produced in
small quantities in many countries and primarily used for domestic consumption.

Of the total world annual honey production about 67% is marketed in its country of production
and about 23% is traded in the export market (ITC, 2003 in MoARD, 2007). China has also
become the world’s biggest honey consumer, significantly increasing its share of the global
market from 8% in 1993 to 16% in 2004 (CAP, 2008).

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2.2.2. African Beekeeping Practices

Beekeeping in Africa is mostly carried out using traditional methods. In these methods, beehives
are made out of logs, bark, reeds, gourds and pots among other materials. The enterprise is quite
adaptable to various environments and circumstances although farmers are unable to access
better markets due to the poor quality and low quantity of honey produced.

Beekeeping is a source of food (e.g. honey, pollen and brood), raw materials for various
industries (e.g. beeswax candles, lubricants), medicine (honey, propolis, beeswax, bee venom)
and provides income for beekeepers (James .A, 2007). Most of African honey is harvested by
smallholder farmers, and the selling of bee products is one of the feasible practices which
contribute to get out of poverty (Bee for development, 2006).

A study from Tanzania shows beekeeping activities involved both genders at different stages of
honey and beeswax processing and marketing. Traditionally, men are responsible for honey
harvesting which is normally carried out at night because they are scared of honey bees during
the day (Lalika, 2008).

Beekeeping can add to the livelihoods of many different sectors within a society including
village and urban traders, carpenters who make hives and stands, tailors who make veils,
clothing and gloves and those who make and sell tools and containers (Brad, 2003). East African
nations export tremendous quantities of wax. Ethiopia and Tanzania produce about2.5% and
1.15% of total world honey production, respectively. Keeping bees in beehives as practiced in
Egypt, Kenya, Tanzania, is not well known in other part of Africa (Hussein, 2000).

2.2.3. Overview of Honey bee production in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia currently, bee keeping is being exercised traditional (Kassaye, 1990). It is

characterized mainly by forest beekeeping that is common in forest covered South and
Southwest Ethiopia and back yard beekeeping which is practiced in majority of the country
(Nuru, 2007). The productivity of traditional hives is extremely low and the average yield is only
about 5–8kg/per colony/per annum (MOARD 2007).

Even though it is one of the important and oldest farming activities in the country, there are no
available records, which confirm when and where beekeeping was first started. Extension

8
activities on beekeeping started in Ethiopia in 1978 (Melaku Girma et al., 2008). Since then,
considerable efforts have been made to improve apiculture production through training,
introduction of new technologies, production and distribution of equipment and institutional
capacity building at the then Holeta Beekeeping Training Center (MOARD,2008).

Apiculture is practiced as an integral part of farming activities. It is also a source of additional

income for urban communities. Other than areas with extreme climatic conditions, beekeeping is
common in every village and at virtually all smallholder farms. Total honey production in 2008/9
is estimated at 39,650 tons and there are three different hive types by which the honey is
produced: traditional, transitional (intermediate) and movable frame hives.
There are 5,013,848 traditional, 34,552 transitional and 100,843 frames hives in Ethiopia (GDS,
2009). Ninety-three percent of honey production comes from traditional hives. Oromia, Amhara,
Southern Nation Nationalities and People (SNNP), and Tigray are the major honey producing
regions with production quantities of 15,492 tons, 10,834 tons, 5, 847 tons and 3904.6 tons,
respectively, (GDS, 2009).

One of the improved beekeeping practices is a transitional beekeeping. It is a type of beekeeping

intermediate between traditional and modern beekeeping methods. Generally, top bar hive is a
single story long box with slopping sidewalls inward toward the bottom (forming an angle of
1150 with the floor) and covered with bars of fixed width, 32 mm for east African honeybees
(Segeren, 1995; Nicola, 2002 and Tessega Belie, 2009).

2.3. System of Honey bee Production in Ethiopia.

Ethiopia is blessed with plenty of water resources and a range of honeybee floras, which make
productive ground for the development of beekeeping. Honey hunting and beekeeping have been
practiced in the country for the exploitation of honey. In areas where wild colonies of bees living
in hollow trees and caves are found, honey hunting is still a common practice in Ethiopia.
Presently, in Ethiopia Traditional, Transitional and Modern beekeeping methods are exercised.

2.3.1. Traditional beekeeping

Traditional beekeeping is the oldest and the richest practice, which has been carried out by the
people for thousands of years in Ethiopia. This beekeeping practice is extensive and closely tied
to swarm management: beehives are hung up in trees to catch swarms and are then transferred
and placed in the backyards with some kinds of hive sheds that protects them from the hot
9
temperature and rain. Traditional beekeeping is of two types: forest beekeeping and backyard
beekeeping. In some places, especially in the western and southern parts of the country, forest
beekeeping by hanging a number of traditional hives on trees is widely practiced. In other most
parts of the country backyard beekeeping with relatively better management is common (Nuru,
2002).

2.3.1.1 Honey hunting

The earliest honey hunting evidence comes from rock paintings, equipment used and
anthropological studies obtained first in Spain, which is dated back to 30,000-10,000 B.C. This
practice (honey hunting), as a beekeeping system, is also widely practiced by some tribes of the
south and southwest Ethiopia (like Messenger tribe in Gambela).

2.3.2. Transitional System of Beekeeping

This type of beekeeping is intermediating between traditional and modern beekeeping methods.
It is one of the improved methods of beekeeping practices. The types of hives are Kenya Top Bar
Hive (KTBH) and Tanzania Top Bar Hive (TTBH). The hives can be constructed from timber,
mud or locally available materials. Each hive carries 27-30 frames on which honeybees attach
their combs. The top bars have 3.2cm and 48.3cm width and length, respectively (HBRC, 2004).
Transitional beekeeping has its own disadvantages such as top bar hives are relatively more
expensive than traditional beehives, and combs suspended from the top bars are more suitable to
break off (HBRC, 2004). Thus, as reported by, HBRC (1997) the types of beehives used more
frequently in this system are the Kenyan top-bar hives (KTBH), Tanzania top-bar hives (TTBH)
and Mud- block hives (MBH). Among these, KTBH is widely known and commonly used in
many parts of the country.

2.3.4 Modern system of beekeeping

Modern beekeeping methods intend to gain the maximum honey, season after season, without
harming bees (Nicola, 2002). Modern movable- frame hive consists of precisely made
rectangular box hives (hive bodies) superimposed one above the other in a tier. The number of
boxes is varied seasonally according to the population size of bees. Practical movable- frame
hive was invented in 1851 by Lorenzo Lorraine Langstroth in U.S.A. (Crane, 1976; Vivian,
1985). Later on different countries developed their own movable frame hives (for instance

10
Zander, Dadant) and Langstroth was the prototype of movable frame hives used today. In many
countries Langstroth hive boxes have proved to be convenient for handling and management.

As reported by, HBRC (1997) these box hives have an advantage over the others in the volume
and quality of honey harvested (averagely 15-20 kg/year and in potential areas up to 50-60 kg
harvested). Moreover, the hives allows swarm control through supering and colony management,
it is easy to transport and allows the use of higher level technologies. However, equipment in this
beekeeping system are relatively expensive, require skilled manpower, very less wax production
only 1-2% of the honey yield Gezahegne Tadesse (2001) and needs very specific precaution.

2.4. Honey hive practices and products

2.4.1. Hive products harvesting and post handlings

The frequency and amount of honey harvested varied depending on flowering condition of major
bee forage, colony management practices and number of beehive Kajobe et al., (2009). In the
study area, honey harvesting periods were from March to April and July to August where
harvesting periods correlate with availability of moisture and peak flowering period. During
honey harvested, beekeepers cut and pull the fixed combs one by one and then pollen, brood and
honey combs were removed, and kept in a container and covered with a lid which affects quality
of honey in relation to length of storage. According to Gichora (2003), plastic container is the
ideal one for the quality of honey. Accordingly plastic bucket and plastic sack were highly used
and in some case they use nickels to store honey for both short and long period and which result
rusting; deteriorates the honey and technically not appropriate for storage facilities.

Honey can be harvested once or twice, while in some cases even three times in a year largely
depending on the availability of bee forage as reported by (Haftu and Gezu, 2014 in Hadiya Zone
of southern Ethiopia; Tessega, 2009 and Tesfa et al., 2013 in Western Amhara region). Haftu
and Gezu (2014) indicated even though the majority (75%) of the households do not store honey
primarily because of high demand for cash but some farmers keep some amount for different
purposes and store using plastic containers, gourd, tin and clay pots until consumption or sale..
Beekeepers sell the largest proportion of their honey during harvest at low price mainly to meet
their demand for cash for social obligations Beyene and Phillips (2007).

11
Teferi et al., (2011) indicated on average 33 and 16 kg of honey per hive was harvested from
modern and traditional hives in the northern Ethiopian highlands respectively. Honey production
is very low, only about an average of 8 to 15kg of honey could be harvested per hive per year but
in areas where improved technology has been introduced, an average of 15 to 20 kg/hive/year
has been harvested (Beyene and David, 2007). Addis and Malede (2014) and Chala et al., (2012)
reported that the average honey yield per year/colony was 7.20, 14.70 and 23.38kg for
traditional, transitional and moveable frame hives, in around Gondar and in jimma zone, south-
west Ethiopia respectively. Haftu and Gezu, 2014 in Hadiya Zone of southern Ethiopia also
indicated 3.04, 4.9 and 8.2kg for traditional, transitional and moveable frame hives, respectively.

2.4.2. Honey bee flora

Beekeeping is more dependable on ecological suitability of an area than any other livestock
production Adgaba(2002) and, honey bee population and their productivities in general are
mainly influenced by the nature of honey bee flora. Vegetation characteristics of the study areas
are considered to be an important indicator for the potentialities of the area for beekeeping.
Survey conducted showed that, the potential of cultivated and natural honey flora makes it very
favorable for beekeeping. The respondents pointed that, even though there are different types of
bee plants and flora seasons, there is a shortage of bee feed during the dry seasons where ground
and surface water resources are limited. They also indicated that bee forages become declined as
compared with the past period due to forest degradation, use of herbicides and expansion of
cultivated lands in the area.

Some important local honeybee plants (trees, shrubs, herbs and cultivated crops are known as a
source of nectar and pollen in Ethiopia, namely Tebeb (Becium grandiflorum), Girbiya
(Hypoestes forskaolii), siwakerni (Leucas abyssinica), kiliow (Euclea schimperi), Awhi (Cordia
Africana), Bahirzaf (Eucalptus spp) Girawa (Vernonia amygdalina), Wanza (Cordia africana),
Woyira (Olea Africana), Meche (Guizotia scabra), dogma (Syzygium guineese), Bisana (Croton
machrostachyus) and, beles (Opuntia ficus-indica) identified as the major bee forage in different
parts of the country (Yetimwork et al., 2015 in eastern part of Tigray; Haftom et al., 2013 in
Debrekidan and Begasheka Watersheds of Tigray; Haftu and Gezu, 2014 in Hadiya zone of
southern Ethiopia).

12
According to Tesfa et al., (2013) reported in Western Amhara region beekeepers supplement
sugar syrup, hot pepper, roasted pea flour, water, honey syrup, roasted bean flour, and roasted
barley flour during dearth period. Yetimwork et al., (2015) reported Supplementary feeding and
migratory beekeeping practices to overcome the feed shortage at the dry season is a common
practice. Majority of the beekeepers provide besso (roasted and grounded barley flour), shiro
(roasted spiced pulses flour), sugar syrup and honey with water mainly from February to May in
eastern part of Tigray.

2.4.3. Honey Bee Products Demand and Consumptions

The estimate of total honey production in Ethiopia in 2011 is about 40 million kilograms of
which the greater portion is harvested from traditional hives (CSA 2012). Recently, attempts
have been made to address problems associated with production and marketing of honey. About
13% (of 169,000 holders contacted) have practiced honey and wax development package
according to a survey by the same source. Currently, honey is produced in its crude form and
consumed domestically largely by Tej (honey wine). However, Crude honey could be processed
into several important marketable products. These products include purified honey, beeswax,
propels, pollen, bee venom, and royal jelly. But, only a few enterprises are engaged in the
processing of honey in Ethiopia and the processed products of those are limited to purified honey
and beeswax (Gallmann and Thomas, 2012). Yetimwork et al., (2015) in eastern part of Tigray
declared that both in traditional and framed hive, honey production is increasing from time to
time.

At present, supermarkets, grocery shops and hotels are some of the major buyers of processed
honey. According to the information obtained from supermarkets, the increasing expat
community is also expected to constitute significant consumption of the product. Though there is
no comprehensive consumption data for processed products in the country, an attempt has been
made to arrive at an estimate of present demand. Processed honey is considered to be a
commodity whose demand arises from urban population. According to CSA (2016), the
population is 82 million out of which 13.75 million is urban dwellers. On the other hand, the per
capita natural honey consumption is 60 grams. The apparent consumption of the product will
therefore be 825,000 kg (825 tons). Hence, this figure has been taken as the present domestic
effective demand (for year 2012) for processed honey. Future domestic demand for processed

13
honey grows with the growth in urban population and income rise. Hence, the urban population
growth rate, that is 4 %, is applied in projecting the future demand.

2.4.4. Economic Importance of Beekeeping in Ethiopia

Beekeeping in Ethiopia is a long-standing agricultural practice. It has been exercised as a

sideline activity by many of the rural farming communities for its honey and beeswax production
that contributes to income generation. The role it plays in enhancing food security, poverty
reduction and food production through pollination of crops has become substantial in the recent
years (MoARD, 2007).

It has been scarce information to generalize the economic benefits of beekeeping in Ethiopia due
to not uniform data presentations from different bodies and lack of concrete knowledge to
estimate properly Gidey et al., (2010) it has been understood that beekeeping has a great role in
supporting beekeepers’ life and allows lots of business to people and establish their life.

Apiculture has also a great role in natural resource protection. Beekeeping is environmentally
friendly activity and beekeepers are more aware about the importance of conservation of natural
resource than any ordinary farmers (Nuru, 2007). Integrating natural resource conservation
programs with income generating options like utilizing the forest resources, in the form of honey
and beeswax, while maintaining the natural vegetation would be an appropriate approach Nuru,
(2007).

Comparing with other agricultural activities beekeeping has many relative advantages because of
several reasons Nuru, (2007). The investment and running costs are relatively low with minimal
risk. Beekeeping is possible even for people with few resources; bees can be obtained from the
wild, equipment can be made locally, and in most cases bees do not need the beekeepers’ help.
Unlike cultivation of crops and animal husbandry, beekeeping does not disturb the ecological
balances of an area. Instead, it is an environmentally friendly activity. Beekeeping does not
compete for resources with other agricultural activities. Hence, it can be integrated with annual
and perennial crop production, animal husbandry and natural resource conservation. Beekeeping
is light work; it can be done by women, aged men and persons with disabilities. Moreover, it is
less labor intensive; it can be done as part time and side line activity. Beekeeping assists to
utilize resources like pollen and nectar which otherwise are wasted. Man cannot utilize these
resources without bees. Beekeeping can be run in areas which are not suitable for cultivation of

14
crops and animal husbandry such as hills and escarpments. The honeybee produces honey,
beeswax and propolis. These commodities have long shelf life and can be marketed locally or
abroad. Beekeeping can be run with little or no land, because bees can forage in any place
around their foraging distances and it is useful for intensification of land and also in areas where
there are shortage of land.

2.5. Major Constraint of Honey Bee Production

The most important constraints present in Ethiopia were bee forage, pests and predators,
beekeeping equipments, absconding, honeybee colony, pesticides and herbicides, death of
colony, water shortage, honey storage materials and swarming Yetimwork et al., (2015) in
eastern Zone of Tigray; Haftu and Gezu, 2014 in Hadya Zone of southern Ethiopia. Similarly,
Kerealem et al., (2009) declared that the major constraints that affect beekeeping sub-sector in
Ethiopia are: lack of beekeeping knowledge, shortage of skills man power, shortage of bee
equipments, pests and predators, pesticide threat, poor infrastructure development, shortage of
bee forage and lack of research extension.

A study conducted by Tesfaye (2007), on honey production system in Adami Tulu to identify
opportunities and threats on beekeeping and the results shows that most of the respondents
(beekeepers) do not visit their bees regularly. Farmers did not have any type of beekeeping
equipments and did not bother about their colonies while harvesting. The place where beekeepers
put their beehives also considered as the major constraints. According to the beekeepers of
Tigray Region, the critical constraints and problems affecting honey production include
inadequate production technologies, limited availability of bee flora mainly due to deforestation,
lack of beekeeping knowledge/skill, and marketing accessibility. And farmer’s access to
trainings is generally poor Gidey and Mekonen, (2008).But all these problems may not be
constraints to all parts of the country and may not be equally pressing to every place. So it
requires characterizing the constraints in their respective places to take an appropriate
development measure.

The existing production constraints in the beekeeping development of Ethiopia are complex and
to a large extent vary between agro-ecological zones and production systems (EARO, 2000).
Most research reports that the pests and predators, shortage of bee forage, lack of skill and
knowledge, low level of technology and honey bee disease, agro-chemical, are the top major

15
constraints in most part of the country Kerealem et al., (2009);Workneh and Puskur,2011; Gidey
et al., (2012).

In addition, unpleasant behaviors of bees (aggressiveness, swarming tendency, and absconding

behaviors), lack of skilled manpower and training institutions, low level of technology used, high
price of improved beekeeping technologies, drought and deforestation of natural vegetation, poor
hive products’ postharvest management, misuse of agrochemicals, honeybee disease, pests and
predators, poor extension services, absence of coordination between research, extension and
farmers, lack of policy application in apiculture, shortage of records and up-to- date information,
and inadequate research institutions to address the problems were also identified potential
constraints in the previous year’s HBRC, (2010); Ayalew Kassaye, (2001); Edessa Negera,
(2002).

2.5.1. Shortage of Bee Forage

Shortage of Bee Forage: Beyene and Verschuur (2014) in south west shoa zone of Oromia
indicated shortage of bee forage is directly related with deforestation of forest coverage from
time to time for timber making, construction, fire wood and expansion of agricultural lands. To
solve this problem beekeepers migrating their bee colonies from their area to other area during
the dry season for searching bee forage., similarly, Haftu and Gezu (2014) in Hadiya zone
southern Ethiopia declared shortage of bee forage was the most serious problem affect bee
colony. The elimination of good nectar and pollen producing tree species in many areas make it
difficult to maintain bee colonies without feeding (Kerealem et al., 2009).Due to deforestation
and poising of agro-chemicals, the honey bee population is in state of continues declining. As a
result, it has become a serious challenge to get honey bee colonies to start and expand
beekeeping (Nuru, 2007).Beekeeping sector is dependent on healthy flora and a healthy
environment. Recent years have seen environmental changes in Ethiopia in terms of erratic rain
fall patterns and deforestation.

2.5.2. Honeybee Pests and Predators

The honey bee colony is not immune from predation and it can take a variety of forms, from
destruction of a comb by wax moth to physical dismembering of a colony by a hungry black
bear. According to Yetimwork et al., (2015) and Adeday et al., (2012) honey badger, ants, wax
moth, spider are pests and predator that was reported by in other parts of the country Tessega

16
(2009) in Amhara region, Chala et al., (2012) in Gomma district of Jimma zone, South-west
Ethiopia, Nebiyu and Messele (2013) in Gamo Gofa zone of southern Ethiopia, Tariku and
Mechthild (2013) in Sidama Zone, Southern Ethiopia and Tesfaw (2012) in Ada’a district of east
Shoa Oromia region, Ethiopia. Ants are most disturbing to honey bees and bee keeping sector.

Ants (Dorylus fulvus) are one of important honey bees’ enemies Desalegn (2001).They feed on
honey, brood, bee wax, pollen and lead to absconding of bees and destroying the entire bee
colony Tesfaye (2014) In Ethiopia ants were the series problem in bee keeping as reported by
Awraris et al., (2012) in Keffa, Shaka and Bench- Maji zone; Tesfaye (2007 in Adami Tulu). In
Tigray, Amhara, SNNPR and Oromia regional states in Jimma zone, bee keepers consider it is a
serious problem Amsalu et al., (2010). Bees are the first and most victim of the attack with ants
followed by honey Desalegn, (2007).

2.5.3. Honeybee Disease

Honey bees diseases, pests and predators are causing a significant economic loss in honey bees
and their products. The most commonly known honeybee diseases reported to exist in Ethiopia
are Nosema, Amoeba and Chalk brood diseases Kerealem et al., (2009)

Nosema is caused by Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae. It is a microsporidian fungal disease
that infects the intestinal tract of adult bees. Nosema cause detrimental effects on honey bees,
colony development, queen performance and honey production. In Ethiopia Nosema was
reported in low infestation rate in the survey conducted by the initiation of FAO, (1989).and also
reports Addis Abeba reported prevalence rate of 53.3% Desalegn and Yosef, (2005). In Ethiopia
Nosema was also reported from different regions with varying prevalence rate such as 58% in
Oromia, 60% Benishangul-Gumuz and 47% in Amhara regions Aster et al., (2007).

Amoeba is diseases of honeybee caused by a single celled parasite called malpighamoeba

mellificae. The parasite affects malphigian tubules of honey bees and shortens the life cycle of
bees FAO, (1989). Survey conducted in the year of 2000, Amoeba was reported in South and
South parts of the country Amsalu and Desalegn, (2001). Diagnosis made on honey bees in field
and laboratory at Addis Abeba reported a prevalence rate of 73% of amoeba infestation
(Desalegn and Yosef, (2005). The diseases was also reported with high prevalence rate in
different regional state of Ethiopia such as; Oromia region with prevalence rate (88%), Amhara
region (95%) and 60 % in Benishangul- Gumuz Aster et al., (2007).

17
Chalk brood is an infectious disease of honeybee larvae caused by a fungus Ascosphaeraapis,
which causes death and mummification of sealed brood of honeybee with consequent weakness
of the colony .The occurrence of this disease in Ethiopia for the first time was reported around
Holeta and at Gedeo demonstration (Desalegn, 2006). In Ethiopia the study reported an infection
rate of 37.12%, 19.89%, 17.93% and distribution rate of 87.50%, 56.56% and 33.33% in
Amhara, Oromia and Benshangul- gumuz Aster et al., (2010). American foulbrood (AFB) is an
infectious disease of the larval stage of the honeybee Apis mellifera. It is caused by a Gram
positive bacterium called Paenibacillus(Heyndrickx, (1996). European foulbrood (EFB) is
caused by the bacterium Melissococcus plutonius (Bailey 1983).

Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsoni are parasitic mites that feed on the bodily fluids of
adult, pupal and larval bees. Varroa mites can be seen with the naked eye as a small red or
brown spot on the bee's thorax. Varroa mites are carriers for many viruses that are damaging to
bees. For example, bees infected during their development will often have visibly wings.
Varroa mites have led to the virtual elimination of feral bee colonies in many areas, and are a
major problem for kept bees in apiaries. Some feral populations are now recovering it appears
they have been naturally selected for Varroa resistance Juliette et al., (2006).

2.5.4. Agrochemical

The use of different agro-chemicals or pesticides is an important and common practice in crop
production to fight against most crop damaging pest populations and diseases to produce high
quantity of food around the world. However, if they are not used properly (according to their
prescription for time of application and dosage), they bring about very crucial damage to
pollination fauna (the honeybees in our case), environment and human health. As a result,
reduction in pollinating insect population, quantity and quality reduction in hive products and
crop yield reduction are some of the associated risks encountered.

2.6. Honey Quality

Honey contains a complex mixture of carbohydrates, mainly glucose and fructose; other sugars
are present as traces, depending on floral origin. It also contains small quantities of organic acids,
lactones, amino acids, minerals, vitamins, enzymes, phenolic compounds, volatile compounds,
pollen, wax and pigments (Crane, 1980). The contents of these components in honey are the

18
most important quality criteria of honey and indicate some important deterministic quality
properties of the honey Sahinler and Gul, (2004).

Chemical composition of honey mainly depends on the vegetation sources from which it derives,
though external factors like climate, harvesting conditions and storage can also influence it
(Crane, 1980). Careless handling of honey can reduce its quality. Amongst the factors that most
influence quality is high temperature, length of storage and moisture content greater than 21%
All these factors lead to fermentation, high levels of Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), loss of
enzymatic activity, changes in flavor, darkening and microbial growth Moguel et al., (2005).
Moisture content is one of the most commonly monitored parameters as international quality
standards for honey Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2001; Ethiopian Quality Standard
Authority, (2005).

Ethiopian honey differs not only in color, taste and quality but also in the quantity produced and
the timing of harvesting seasons that vary by region and type of honey. In Ethiopia, honey was
harvested once or twice and in some cases even three times Beyene and Phillips, (2007). There
are two major honey harvesting periods, November to December in the lowlands and midlands
and from April to May in the highlands. However, in addition to these major harvesting periods,
there are many small harvesting periods which depend on the availability of bee forage and
rainfall patterns in different agro – ecologies as reported by Nuru (2007) and Beyene and Phillips
(2007) and Haftu and Gezu ,(2014) in Hadiya Zone of southern Ethiopia; Tessega,(2009) in
Western Amhara region), which experienced beekeepers and local people easily associate the
harvesting season with the botanical origin of honey in their locality Tesfa et al., (2013).

Moreover Teferi and his co-authors, (2011) reported that the main harvesting seasons in Tigray
and Lalibela honey are October through December, with an additional harvest period for
Tigray’s white honey in June and July; November and December for yellow honey; April and
May for white honey from the southwest and southeast Highlands and February, March, May
and June for dark-brown varieties of honey. This shows the possibilities of harvesting and
supplying different types of honey at different time implying the possibility of continuous supply
of honey along the market chain.

19
 3. Materials and Method

3.1. Study Area

The study was carried out in Sigmo district Oromia Regional State, Jimma zone which is located
at a distance of 128 Km South west from Jimma town and 474 km South west from Addis Ababa
and bordered by SNNPR in the South west, Setema in the North east, Gera in the South east and
Ilubabor Zone in the North west.

Topography of this district ranges from gently sloping to hilly lands with ridges and valleys in
between the lands. The total areas of the district are about 158,551 hectares. Among this area
110,202(69.5%) hectares are covered by both government and individual forest. The remains
48,349 (30.5%) hectares are used for cultivation of crops, swamp and shrubs, grass land,
settlement (urban and rural) and construction for social services.

The number of total population of the district is about 124,497. The number of male and female
are 61,817(49.7 %) and 62,680 (50.3%), respectively. In the present restructuring the district has
19 peasant associations & one urban center Sigimo. According to Sigimo district socio
demography (2019) the dominant religion in the district is Islam religion. The most economic
activities performing in the district are crop production (teff, maize, wheat, sorghum, barely etc),
animal rearing (cattle, sheep, goat, horse, etc), rarely beekeeping and local trade of different
commodities. This district grouped under dega and woina dega climatic zone. Its elevation lies
between 2050 and 3200m.a.s.l. thus, the district found on highland area.

The mean annual rainfall of the district ranges from 2100mm-1600mm moist dega and woina
dega respectively. Gaba, Bodeche, Pallo, Bishata, Onja and Suduma rivers are flowing through
the district. According to the district agricultural office information, the major soil types, in the
district include red soil, black soil and brown soil. High forest, Woodland, riverine and man-
made forests are available in the district. Gaba, Timba, meti jara and Kullo forests are some of
the forest found in the district.

20
3.2. Study Design
A cross-sectional study was carried out from January 2019 to June 2021 in South-West Jimma
Zone, Sigimo district on honey bee colonies managed under traditional, transitional and modern
beekeeping methods to investigate honey bee production systems and identifying of the major
constraints and its quality by observing and collecting samples from the colonies and from
beekeepers. For the purpose of this study, different data were collected from beekeepers, apiaries
and honey bee colonies. Secondary data related to beekeepers, honey production and honeybee
colonies were collected from Livestock and Fishery Resources Agency (LFRA) office of Sigimo
district through desk discussion with office experts and reviewing of official records.

For this study, the district was divided into two using elevation as a criteria and it is generally
believed that and revealed in many studies that farming systems, mode of life and many more
characteristics vary across altitude zones (Cochran, 1973). The two altitude strata were highland
(3200m above sea level) and midland (2020m above sea level).

3.3. Population of the study

The populations of study participants were all traditional, transitional and modern honey
beekeepers in Sigimo district, experts working related with honey production and key person
who had better knowledge and experience of honey bee practice.

3.4. Sample and sampling techniques

There are 21 districts in Jimma zone, Sigimo is one of the districts found in it and have higher
potential for honey production than other districts. There are 19 rural and 1 urban kebele
administrations in Sigmo district. Among 20 kebeles of the district 4 kebeles Sarity, Onja,
Yaddesso and Aterkeda were selected purposively based on their agro- ecology and beekeeping
practices. A total of 120 respondents (70 respondents from moist dega and 50 from moist
woinadega) and 25 traders were randomly selected. Moreover, 8 key informant interviews based
on their knowledge and experiences 2 from each kebeles and 2 experts who were working with
honey production were also included in the study. For key informants interview was held with
issue related honey practice, honey qualities and constraints of honey production in the district.
Generally, 155 respondents i.e. 120 beekeepers, 25 traders of honey, 8 key informants and 2
experts working related with honey bee productions were included for this study.

21
3.5. Instruments of Data Collection

Questionnaire was developed in order to collect data about honey bee practices, qualities and
constraints from honey beekeepers households and traders. Interviews also held with key
informant individuals who had better knowledge and experiences of honey production and
experts working with honey production.

3.5.1. Questionnaire

Questionnaire was used to collect data from beekeepers and honey traders about potential,
challenges and opportunities of beekeeping in the area: harvesting time, amount of honey
harvested, honey storage facilities, potential honeybee plants and flowering time, water resources
availability, honeybee pests and predators , agrochemicals and other chemicals applications was
collected. These study questionnaires were translated into local language (Afan Oromo) by
language expert in the study area.

3.5.2. Interview

Participants were interviewed to find out things that may not covered by questionnaires and to
get deep responses. The interview was held with key informant individuals who were model
beekeeper household and who had better knowledge and experiences of honey production and
experts working with honey production. Key informant participant were interviewed at their
farm gate by using their languages (Afan Oromo) for 1 hrs. Also experts were interviewed in
their office for four days 2hrs in each day during study period.

3.5.3. Focus group discussions

In order to carry out this field survey study, discussion was undertaken initially with Sigimo
district agriculture office head to tell them aim of the research to get permission. Some
institutions were communicated before hand to receive permission and get required data from
concerned bodies. Then the aim of study was explained to participants in order to get their full
consent and agreement to be part of the study. Each focus group discussion consisted of 6 to 8
individuals and 2 group discussions were undertaken in the study area.

22
3.6. Secondary data
In the study, primary and secondary data were used to generate qualitative and quantitative
information. In addition, the secondary data that has relevance to this study was collected from
different recorded data from livestock office.

3.7. Data Analysis

3.7.1. Some components of honey quality analysis

This study was done with the help of laboratory to determine honey quality some components of
honey such as moisture content, sugar content, ash content, and other physicochemical properties
like pH was analyzed at Jimma University Environmental Health Science Laboratory. However,
because of lack of instrument other chemical analysis of honey was missed.

Moisture content: Moisture content is the most important parameter of honey quality. It was
obtained by drying 15 gram of honey sample in a hot air oven at 105°C until a constant weight
was attained. Electrical conductivity of a solution of some gram dry matter of honey in 100 ml
distilled water was measured using electrical conductivity cell at 20°C

Ash Content: First crucibles were washed, rinsed with distilled water and oven dried at 105oC.
Twenty gram of honey samples was weighed and placed in a furnace first at 110oC for half an
hour and then at 550 0C for two hours to constant weight. Then the honey samples were kept in
open air for cooling and the constant masses after heating was measured. Finally ash content was
calculated as g ash/100 g of honey (AOAC, 1995).

Ash% = M1-M2 * 100,

M0

Where M0=weight of honey, M1=weight of crucible + ash and, M2=weight of crucible.

pH: For determination of pH of honey samples, two honey samples from Dega and Woinadega
were collected. Ten gram of the honey samples was taken and dissolved in 75 ml of distilled
water in 250 ml beaker and stirred with magnetic stirrer. Then the pH was measured with pH
meter calibrated at pH 4.0 and 7.0 buffer solutions (QSAE, 2009).

23
Reducing sugars ;The reducing sugar composition of two honey samples was collected in
Sigimo district fallen with in recommended range by Codex Almentarious Commission (1969)
which is greater than 65%.
Reducing sugar content was determined by the modified method of the Lane and Eynon
involving the reduction of Soxlet modification of Fehling solutions by titrating at boiling point
(600 0C) against a solution of reducing sugars in honey using Methylene blue as indicator
(Pearson, 1971). Sample of 20 g of honey was taken to 100 ml volumetric flask and 5 ml alumina
cream was added to the flask. The honey was homogenized by stirring the honey with glass rode.
The sample was diluted with water to the volumetric capacity (100 ml) of the flask at 20 0C and
was filtered using asbestos.10 ml of this solution was diluted to a final volume of 500 ml with
distilled water (diluted honey solution). The mixture was heated to boiling over wire gauze and
maintained at moderate boiling for 2-3 min. Finally the result was calculated as:

C = (2/W) * (1000/Y)

Where C = g invert sugar per 100 g honey, W = weight (g) of honey sample, Y = volumes (ml)
of diluted honey solution.

3.7.2. Descriptive statistical analysis

Statistical analysis was used in the study varied depending on the type of variables and
information required. Descriptive statistics such as means, standard deviation, frequency and
percentages were used to analyze the quantitative data using SPSS version 20 software were
applied.

24
 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Results

4.1.1 Demographic information of the study participants

Out of the total respondents, about 92 (76.7%) were male and 28 (23.3%) were female. This
implies that both sexes are participating in honey bee production practices in the study area. The
survey result indicates that bee keeping activity in the study area is dominated by male.

Bee keepers involved in honey production had age ranged from 20 to 76 years old. Majority of
study participant 89.2% were Muslim religious follower while the remaining percent 10.8% were
Christian religious followers. Concerning to marital status more than average 64.2% were
married and the remaining ones 35.8 were single, widow and divorce. Concerning the
educational background of the respondents, only 13.3% of the beekeepers had education level of
Certificate up to diploma while 41.6% had education level of primary to secondary school.
About 22.5% of the beekeepers had only basic education (read and write) whereas 22.5% were
illiterate. The beekeepers that have different family size were engaged in beekeeping activity.
The minimum and maximum family sizes of the respondents were 3 and 10 respectively.

Table 1 Socio demographic characteristics of study participants

Socio Response Agro ecology
demographic Highland Midland
variables F % F % Overall F Overall P
Sex Male 54 77.14 38 76 92 76.7
Female 16 22.85 12 24 28 23.3
Age 20-30 14 20 10 20 24 20.0
31-40 19 27.14 13 26 32 26.7
41-50 19 27.14 14 28 33 27.5
51-60 10 14.28 8 16 18 15.0
above60 8 11.42 5 10 13 10.8
Total 70 100 50 100 120 100.0
Religion Orthodox 6 8.57 4 8 10 8.3
Muslim 62 88.57 45 90 107 89.2
Protestant 2 2.85 1 2 3 2.5
Total 70 100 50 100 120 100.0
Marital status Married 45 64.28 32 64 77 64.2

25
 Single 16 22.85 11 22 27 22.5
Widow 5 7.14 4 8 9 7.5
Divorced 4 5.71 3 6 7 5.8
Total 70 100 50 100 120 100.0
Education Illiterate 16 22.85 11 22 27 22.5
background Basic education 16 22.85 11 22 27 22.5
Primary 18 25.71 13 26 31 25.8
Secondary 11 15.71 8 16 19 15.8
Certificate 8 11.42 5 10 13 10.8
Diploma 2 2.85 1 2 3 2.5
Total 70 100 50 100 120 100.0
Family below 3 22 31.42 16 32 38 31.7
member 3-7 21 30 15 30 36 30.0
7-10 26 37.14 19 38 45 37.5
Above 10 1 1.42 0 1 .8
Total 70 100 50 100 120 100.0

Where F=is the number of respondent, %=is percentage

Majority of the study participants (48.57%, highland and 14% midland) were holding land 2.5-
5ha and (37.14%, highland and 8% midland) that of land holding above 5 hectors and (14.28%
highland, 78% midland) had 0.5-2ha. This indicates there was used large land for honey bee
production, cultivation of crop and poultry in highland area. The survey result indicated (50%
highland and 52% midland) of the respondents had 16-20 years of experiences in beekeeping and
(40% highland and 12% midland) had above 20 years experience and (2.85% highland and 22%
midland) of respondents had less than 10 years of experience in beekeeping.

Table 2, land holdings and beekeeping experiences of study participants

Variable Response Highland Midland
frequency percentage frequency Percentage
Land Holding 0.5-2hec 10 14.28 39 78
2.5-5 hector 34 48.57 7 14
Above 5 hector 26 37.14 4 8
Total 70 100.0 50 100.0
1-5 0 0 2 4
6-10 2 2.85 9 18
Experience in 11-15 5 7.14 7 14
beekeeping 16-20 35 50 26 52
activity (years) Above 20 28 40 6 12
Total 70 100.0 50 100.0

26
4.1.2. Practices of honey bee hives

4.1.2.2. Type of Hive Owned by respondents and Colony Distribution

Three types of hives are used in the study area, namely traditional, transitional and modern
hives. Traditional hive is the richest and oldest practice which has been used by people for
thousands of years. Transitional hive is intermediating between traditional and modern hives and
is of three types include Kenya top bar, Tanzania top bar and mud block hive. Modern hive is the
method intends to gain maximum of honey season after season without harming bees. It is the
improved bee hive and is less in the district because of its high cost.

According to study respondents a total of 8927 traditional, 226 transitional, and 314 modern
beehives, respectively, were owned by the 120 respondents. The average traditional 74.39%,
transitional 1.88% and modern 2.67% beehives owned per respondent respectively. Also 45.85%
of the traditional hives, 88.11% of the transition hives and 88.65% the modern hives were
colonized bees while the remaining were empty. A total of 4577 bee colonies with an average of
38.14% colonies per households were owned by the study participants.

Table 3, hive owned and colony distribution

Number of bee hive owned by Min Max F % Mean Std. Dev
respondent
Number of colonized traditional hives 20 70 4093 45.85 34.11 13.64
Number of empty traditional hives 26 92 4834 54.15 40.28 18.89
Total 8927 100 74.39
Number of colonized transition hives 3 7 202 88.11 1.7 1.14
Number of empty transition hives 0 2 24 11.89 0.18 0.61
Total 226 100 1.88
Number of colonized modern hive 3 8 282 88.65 2.35 1.66
Number of empty modern hives 0 2 32 11.35 0.32 0.70
Total 314 100 2.67

27
4.1.2.3. Sources of bee hives, bee colonies and Reason to engage in bee keeping activities

Table4 sources of bee hives to start beekeeping activity.

Variables Types of bee hives Sources F %
Traditional Constructed by him/her self 87 72.5
Constructed locally and bought 27 22.5
Sources of bee Heritage from ancestor 6 5
hives Total 120 100.0
Transitional Constructed locally and bought 34 28.3
beehives Constructed by him/her self 14 11.7
Supplied by Government on credit - -
Supplied by GOs - -
Total 48 40.0
Modern beehives Supplied by GOs on credit 42 35
Bought from market 17 14.2
Supplied by GOs on free - -
Total 59 49.2

According to table 4, Regarding to sources of traditional hives, 87(72.5%) of respondents

reported that they constructed by them self; 27(22.5%) reported they bought locally constructed
and 6(5%) reported started beekeeping by heritage from their ancestors. Existences of huge
indigenous knowledge on practicing beekeeping hive which might differ from beekeepers to
beekeepers.

Plate: 1 Types of materials used to construct bee hives in the study district. (Photo by the
author 2020)

28
Concerning to transitional hive, 34(28.3%) bought locally constructed and 14(11.2%)
constructed by them self. There was no supply of transitional hive either by government or by
NGO in the study area. This implies the attention of both governments and NGO on improving
this hive type was low.

Plate 2: Transitional hive constructed from bamboo trees (photo from livestock office 2021)

Sources of modern hive reported by study participants showed that. 42(35%) of them that owned
from governments on credit and 17(14.2%) reported they bought from market. The number of
modern hive in the study area was less.

Plate3: Modern bee hive found in Yadeso kebele (photo from livestock office 2020)

29
Table 5.Source of bee colonies to start beekeeping activities in the study area
Variables Agro ecology Overall F Overall
Highland Midland %
F % F %
Natural bee migrant in the area 31 44.28 23 46 54 45.0
Gift from parents 9 12.85 7 14 16 13.3
By catching swarms 27 38.57 19 38 46 38.3
Buying the honeybee colony 2 2.85 2 4 4 3.3
Through inheritance
Total 70 100.0 50 100.0 120 100

As presented in table5, 31 (44.28%) highland, 23(46%) midland of respondents revealed that

they started beekeeping by natural bee migrant in the area; 27(38.57%) highland, 19(38%)
midland by catching swarms; 9(12.85%) highland, 7(14%) midland by getting gift from parents
and 2(2.85%) highland, 2(4%) midland buy honey bee colony.

Table 6 Reason to engage in beekeeping activities

Agro ecology Overall Overall %
Variables Highland Midland F
F % F %
Income generating 48 68.57 34 68 82 68.3
Easy to perform with other activity 6 8.57 4 8 10 8.3
Inherited from parents 6 8.57 4 8 10 8.3
House expense 10 14.28 7 14 17 14.2
As indication of wealth 1 1.42 0 1 0.8
Total 70 100 50 100 120 100

Where F=is the number of respondent, %=is percentage

As indicated in table 6, sampled beekeepers reported as they engaged in beekeeping activities for
different reasons. 48(68.57%) of highland, 34(68%) midland of respondents were reported as
they engaged in beekeeping practice to generate income; 10(14.28%) highland, 7(14%) midland
to cover house expense; 6(8.57%) highland, 4(8%) midland due to its easy nature to perform
with other activities and 6(8.57%) highland, 4(8%) midland inheriting from parent, respectively
while only 1(1.42%) highland of beekeepers gave their reason of being engaged in beekeeping
because it is an indication of wealth.

30
Table 7 Placements of bee hives
Agro ecology Overall F Overall %
Variables Highland Midland
F % F %
Back yard 10 14.28 7 14 17 14.1
Under the eaves of the house 15 21.42 10 20 25 20.8
In area closure 17 24.28 12 24 29 24.2
Hanging near home stead 7 10 5 10 12 10
Hanging in the forest 22 31.42 15 30 37 30.8
Total 70 100 50 100 120 100.0

Where F=is the number of respondent, %=is percentage

According to the result, Majority of beekeepers in the study area kept their traditional bee hives
(31.42% highland, 30% midland) hang in the forest around their areas; (24.28% highland, 24%
midland) in area closure to their home;(21.42% highland, 20% midland) kept under the eaves of
the house; (14.28% of highland and 14% of midland) backyard and (10% of high land, 10% of
mid land) beekeepers in the study area kept their traditional bee hives around their homestead.

Plate4: Hives kept under the eaves of the house found in Seriti kebele (by Gezali Ahmed

31
Plate 5: Back yard and forest bee keeping in Sigimo district (photo by the author 2020

4.1.2.4. Duration of honey bee stay in hive and harvesting frequency

Table 8 Duration of honey bee stay in hive and harvesting frequency
Description Total Mean &Std. Dev
Duration of honey bee remains in the hive. F % Mean Std. Dev
Traditional 6 month to 1 years 38 31.7
1-2 years 9 7.5 2.26 1.25
1-3 years 19 15.8
1-4 years 21 17.5
Transitional 6 month to 1 years 4 3.3
beehives 1-3 years 21 17.5 3.37 0.94
1-4 years 20 16.7
more than 4 years 3 2.5
Modern 6 month to 1 years 4 3.3
1-3 years 13 10.8 4.1 1.17
1-4 years 11 9.2
more than 4 years 31 25.8
Harvesting frequency per year Maximum per years Minimum per years
Traditional 3 1
Transitional beehives 2 1
Modern 4 2

As table 8, above indicates, the average traditional 2.26, transitional 3.37 and modern 4.1
beehives stayed in their hives, respectively. Also, majority of tradition hive honey bee
32
38(31.7%) stayed in their hives only for 6 month to 1 years, in modern hives 31(25.8%)
honey bee stayed for more than 4 years and in transitional hive 21(17.5%) stayed for 1-3 years.
This implies traditional hive were used migrant hive which stayed no more years in their hive
while transitional and modern hives catch bee and make to stay in the hive for more years.

Regarding to harvesting frequency, from traditional hive honey harvested for 1- 3 time in a
years , transitional honey 1- 2 time per years while modern honey 2- 4 time per years.

4.1.2.5. Types of hive products and season harvest, and kinds of honey produced
Table 9 Hive products and season of harvest, and kinds of honey produced

Type of hive products produced Over all Percentage

frequency
Honey 8 6.7
Bees wax 3 2.5
Honey and beeswax 80 66.
Honey and bee colony 29 24.2
Peak season of production
October to December 15 12.5
January to February 6 5.0
May to April 75 62.5
June to July 24 20.0
Season of honey harvesting in quality and quantity
1 kello (yellow) during November- December 28 23.3
2 Buto during April May 71 59.2
3 Sendere during June –July 21 17.5
Among honey kinds demanded by consumer.
1 Kello (yellow ) 19 15.8
2 Buto during April –May 87 72.5
3 Sendere during June –July 14 11.7
Price of honey by their color type
Kello 135-150
Buto 150-200
Sendere 100-130

1 ‘Kello honey’ yellow color honey produced from in Afan Oromo called kellow flower in
Amharic Aday abeba during October to December
2 ‘Buto honey’ mostly white and red color honey produced from flower of tree called in Afan
Oromo ‘Gatamaa’ in Amharic Gatam during April to May

33
3 ‘Sendere honey’ white and red color honey produced from flower of tree called in Afan Oromo
‘makkaniisa’ in Amharic ‘bisana’ during June to July.

As it is showed on table 9, majority 80(66.7%) of beekeepers in the study areas reported that
they were practice honey bee hive for the production of honey and wax; 8(6.7%) for honey
production only and 3(2.5%) for bees wax production only.

In line with results interview conducted with Sigimo district, annually 1222 tone of honey from
traditional hive, 437tone of honey from modern hive and 317tones from transitional hive
produced. In the district from traditional, transitional and modern honey production total of 1976
tone honey produced. Also the amount of wax produced in the district from traditional 122.2
tones, from modern 43.7tone and from transitional 37.7tone of wax produced per year. So in the
district annually total of 197.6 waxes was produced from traditional, transitional and modern
honey production according to Sigmo Agriculture office report (2020)
Table10. Major bee flora found in Sigimo district from study respondent and secondary
data from livestock office.

No. Local name Scientific name Flowering time

1 Kelo (adey abeba) Bidens macroptera September to December
2 Gatama Schefflera abyssinica March to May
3 Wadesa(Wanza) Cordia Africana October to March
4 Makanisa(Bisana) Croton macrostachys April to July
5 Lafto(girar) Acacia Species January to May
6 Ambabesa(Sasa) Albizia gummera January to April
7 Walensu(qorch) Erythrina brucei November to February
8 Bargamo(bahirzaf) Eucalyptus species Throughout the year
9 Badesa Syzygium guineense December to May
10 Kerero Aningeria altissima November to January
11 Gravillea Gravillia robusta April to May
12 Buna(coffee) Coffee Arabica Throughout the year
13 Seo Allophyllus abyssinica May to November
14 Ebicha(Grawa) Vernonia amygdalina January to February
15 Lolchisa(Azamr) Bersama abyssinica December to May
16 Kefo(Beso bila) Ocimum bacilicum Throughout the year
17 Tenadam Ruta chalepensis Throughout the year
18 Baqela(beans) Vicia faba September to December
19 Avocado Persea Americana October to December
20 Ater(pea) Pisum sativum September to October
21 Boloke Phaseolus volguris L. August to September
22 Metti(zimbaba,selien) Pheonix reclinata October to December

34
According to the report of Sigimo district Agriculture office, there are different bee plants in the
district and their flowering time is varies from season to season. Kefo (besobila), tenadam,
coffee, bahirzaf (Eucalyptus species) are produce flower throughout the year while the remaining
are produce flower through the season.

Plate 6: Some of major bee flora found in Sigmo district (photo by livestock office expert)

4.1.2. 6. Honey productivity, Household income and prices of crude honey and wax

Table 11 Honey production per hive in Kg and frequency from respondent beekeeper
Honey production per hive in Kg Minimum Maximum Mean Std.dev.
Traditional per hive in (Kg) 3 10 6.8 2.79
Transitional per hive in (Kg) 10 15 7.89 2.97
Modern hives per hive in (Kg) 11 18 14.17 2.71

According to table 11, the mean average of the honey production per hive of tradition,
transitional and modern honey was 6.8kg, 7.9kg and 14.17kg, respectively. The minimum honey
per hive from traditional hive was 3kg and maximum was 10kg; the minimum honey per hive of
transitional honey was 11kg and maximum was 15kg and the minimum and maximum honey per
hive of modern honey production was 15kg and 18kg respectively

35
Table 12, Different kinds of Honey productivity in kg per household
Variable Agro ecology
High land Midland
Min. Max. Mean Min. Max. Mean
Traditional per household in (kg) 70 600 359 20 200 110
Transitional per household in (kg) 32 96 63.02 12 52 32
Modern hives per household in (kg) 24 140 93.10 30 120 75

The average annual honey production per household of the surveyed beekeepers of highland
traditional honey was 359Kg; highland transitional honey was 63.02 kg and the mean highland
modern honey production per households was 93.1kg. The average annual honey production per
household of the surveyed beekeepers of Midland traditional honey was 110kg, midland
transitional honey was 32 kg and the mean modern honey production per households in the
midland was 75kg.The minimum annual honey production of traditional honey was 70kg and the
maximum honey per households was 600kg; the annual production of transitional honey
mimimum32kg and maximum96kg and the minimum and maximum annual honey production of
modern honey were 24kg and 140kg respectively in the highland.

Table 13 Prices of colony, hives and types of honey from respondent beekeeper, trader and
experts
Prices minimum Maximum Mean Std.dev
Prices of colonies (ETB) 50 150 107.0 3.81
Price of one transitional bee hive (ETB) 50 100 78.55 16.5
Price of modern bee hive (ETB) 2000 2500 2288.3 200.91
Prices of white honey 150 200 160.09 1.63
Prices of red honey 70 170 96.24 1.71
Prices of mixed honey 85 190 10.84 2.3
Prices of yellow honey 130 165 148.62 1.36

The minimum and maximum prices of transitional hive were 50ETB and 100ETB respectively
while the minimum price of modern hive was 2000 birr and its maximum was 2500birrs. The
mean of transitional hive was 78.55 while the modern hive was 2288.33. The minimum prices of
bee colonies were reported 50 birr and the maximum price was 150 birr (from study respondent
and from livestock office expert).

36
4.1.2.7 Supplementary feeding, Sources of water and migratory beekeeping practice

Table 14Supplementary feeding, Sources of water and migratory beekeeping practice

Agro ecology Over Overal
Variables Highland Midland all F l
F % F %
Supplementary Basso 11 15.71 8 16 19 15.8
feeding of honeybees Shiro and other
for dry season used by 19 15.8
powder 11 15.71 8 16
the respondent
Sugar syrup 10 14.28 8 16 18 15.0
honey and water 9 12.85 6 12 15 12.5
Grain flour 13 18.57 9 18 22 18.3
over all 16 22.85 11 22 27 22.5
Sources of water for River 29 41.42 20 40 49 40.8
honeybees Well 15 21.42 10 20 25 20.8
Ponds 9 12.85 6 12 15 12.5
Streams 13 18.57 9 18 22 18.3
Lakes 3 4.28 2 4 5 4.2
Water harvest
structure 2 2.85 1 2 3 2.5
Taps water 1 1.42 0 1 .8
Occurrence of Yes 70 100 50 100 120 100
migration of bee in No
the area 0 0 0 0
reason for bee Fetch of forage and 42 35.0
colonies migration water 24 34.28 18 36
Honey production 46 65.71 32 64 78 65.0
Total
70 100 50 100 120 100.0

As indicated in above table 14, Supplementary feeding of honeybees for dry season especially
for transitional and modern honey bee used by the study respondent were, powders of basso,
shiro and other powder, sugar syrup, honey and water and other grain flour

As results of table 14 showed, Sources of water for honey bees reported by study participants
was river, well, streams, ponds, leaks and etc. Regarding occurrence of migration of bees in their
areas, all 120 participants were answered yes and reason for bee colonies migratory practice was
reported78(65%) for honey production and 42(35%) for fetch of forage and water.

37
Plate 7: Production of wax and transferring of bee from traditional hive to modern ones
(photo from district livestock office, 2020)
Table 15 Hive inspection trend of study respondent
Trend of hive inspection Overall frequency Percentage
Every day 8 6.67
Every week 14 11.67
Every two week 31 25.83
Every month 40 33.33
During honey harvest 27 22.7
Total 120 100

As result indicates, majority of study respondent 71(59.16%) inspect their hives every two weeks
and every months. While the remaining respondents 49(40.84) inspect their hives every day,
every week and during honey harvest.

38
4.1.2.8 Trends of bee keeping production

Table 16, Trends of bee keeping practice

Description Response Agro ecology Over Overal
Highland Midland all F l%
F % F %
Trend of bee Sharply increased 12 17.14 9 18 21 17.4
keeping product Decreased 9 12.85 7 14 16 13.2
since starting bee Increased 13 18.57 9 18 22 18.2
keeping activity significantly decreased 3 4.28 3 6 6 5.0
no change 1 1.4 0 1 .8
Total 38 28 66 54.5
Reason for increase Good market price 7 10 5 10 12 10
in trend in number Use of new technologies 4 5.71 3 6 6 5
of bee colonies and Added more bee colonies 7 10 5 10 12 10
honey yield over the Government helps 3 4.28 2 4 5 4.1
years Total 20 28.57 15 30 35 28.9
Reason for decrease migration 1 1.42 1 2 2 1.6
in trend in the Pest and predator 4 5.71 3 6 7 5.8
number of bee Chemical application 6 8.57 5 10 11 9.1
colonies and honey
yields lack of water 4 5.71 2 4 6 5.0
death of colony 7 10 5 10 12 9.9
Drought 10 14.28 8 16 18 14
Disease 2 2.85 2 4 4 3.4
Lack of budget 1 1.42 1 2 2 1.6
lack of bee forage 2 2.85 2 4 4 3.4
Total 39 55.71 27 54 66 54.5

Were F=is frequency, %=is percentage

Table 16 showed that decreased trend of bee keeping product was reported by 12(17.14%)
highland and 9(18%) midland of the respondent sharply increased, 13(18.57%) of highland and
9(18%) of midland increased, 3(4.28%) of highland and 3(6%) of midland significantly decreased
9(12.85%) of highland and 7(14%) of midland decrease and 1(0.8%) of highland and none of
midland reported no changes. From study participants the reason of increased production was
reported as 11(15.17%) highland, 8(16%) midland because of good market price and use of new
technology while 7(10%) highland, 5(10%) midland said because of added more bee colonies
and 3(4.28%) highland, 2(4%) midland said due to government helps.

39
4.1.3. Major constraints of honey bee productions
Table 17 constraints of honey production
Major constraints of honey bee productions Rank Frequency Percentage
st
Shortage of bee colony 1 17 14
Lack of training/skill of beekeeper 2nd 16 13.2
Careless handling 3rd 14 11.5
Lack of government intervention 4th 13 10.7
Storage material 4th 13 10.7
Marketing 4th 13 10.7
Harvesting condition 5th 12 9.9
High temperature 6th 11 9.1
Bee flora 6th 11 9.1
Total 120 100

Nowadays, beekeepers are facing a number of difficulties and constraints that limit the efficiency
of honey production. Respondents raised a number of constraints that hinder beekeeping in their
area. The major challenges and constraints recognized in the target area are listed in table 14
were shortage of bee colony, lack of training/skills of bee keeper, careless handling, storage
materials, lack of government intervention and marketing, harvesting condition, bee flora,
climate and high temperature.

4.1.3.1. Pest and predator found in the study area

Table 18 Pest and predator found in the area from study respondent

No Pest and predator Frequency Percentage Rank

1 Ants 57 47.5 1st
2 Wax moth 19 15.8 2nd
3 Honey badger 19 15.8 2nd
4 Mites 15 12.5 3rd
5 Spider 10 8.35 4th
6 Lizard 10 8.35 4th
7 Birds 9 7.5 5th

According to table 18, majority of study participants rank and responded 57(47.5%) ants was 1st
of the most pest and predators; honey badger and wax moth 19(15.8%) 2nd; mites 15(12.5%) 3rd;
spider and lizard 10(8.35%) 4th and last was birds 9(7.5%) pets and predators of honey bee in the
study area respectively.

40
Plate 8: wax moths which is found in movable frame hives (photo by bee expert)
Table19. Traditional control method of pest and predators used by the respondent

Pest and predators Traditional control method used by study beekeeper

Ants Place ash as natural repellent and clean apiary, plastering hive stands
with plastics and use of green eucalyptus tree as fumigation,
destroying ant’s home, plastering of thin rubber sheet and metal
between the hive and hive stands.
Wax moth Making the colonies to be strong, giving additional foods, reduce
hive entrance, smoking/fumigating the hive
Honey Badger Use of chasing dogs, use of “wotmed” to kill, fencing the apiary site
with strong fence, hanging hives by rope on long trees.
Spider Cleaning apiary site always, removing the spider webs, putting ash
around hive stand
Bee-eating birds Placing a pole seems the image of humans around the hive(by using
cloth, plastic materials), spin around the hive, killing using stone or
other materials
Mites Cleaning apiary, destructing its home, burning.
Lizard Lengthening hive stand and fixing smooth iron sheet on hive stand,
cleaning apiary site, coating legs of the hives with engine oil.
As table 19 indicates they use their own traditional control method for pest and predator that
challenge them in bee keeping activities. They use chasing dog and wotmed for larger predator,
cleaning apiary, narrowing hive entrance, using plant leaves for fumigation, lengthening hive
stand, coating legs of the hives with engine oil, using ash to remove ants and so on for smaller
predator like ants, spider, mites, lizard, wax moth and wasps.

41
Table 20 Agrochemical
Types of agrochemicals used by the respondent Frequency Percentage
Herbicide 32 26.67
Pesticide 25 20.8
Both herbicide and pesticide 43 35.8
Others 20 16.67
Total 120 100

The respondent interview and farmers in the study area uses different agrochemicals for weed
control and crop pest control herbicide and pesticide respectively. Also others use fertilizer and
round up in the first growth stage of farming crop. Indiscriminate uses of those agrochemicals
have side effect on honey bees and other pollinating insects. According to table 15 26.67% of
respondent use herbicide for weed control, 20.8% use pesticide for crop pest control, 35.8% use
both and 16.67% use others such as fertilizer and round up.

4.1.4 Quality of honey production

4.1.4.1. Traders perception on honey storage qualities
Table.21 honey storage qualities

Description Response Frequency Percentage

Honey storage situation for a long time
Yes 25 100
No 0 00
Years of honey storage taken by One to six month 12 48.0
respondent One to two years 8 32.0
More than two years 5 20.0
Honey storage materials used by the Plastered sac 13 52.0
respondent Plastic container 8 32.0
Barmel 8 32.0
Animal skin 2 8.0
Pot 2 8.0
factors influence honey quality Careless handling 6 24.0
responded by participants Temperature 5 20.0
Climate 5 20.0
Storage materials 4 16.0
Harvesting condition 3 12.0
bee flora 2 8.0

As table 21 above indicated, for the question do you store honey for a long time majority or
trader 25(100%) said they had stored honey. 12(48%) reported they had stored honey for one to
six month, 8(32%) they had stored for one to two years and 5(20%) they had stored for more
than two years. On the other hand majority of traders reported they had stored honey in plastic

42
sack some of the traders reported they had stored honey in plastic container and Barmel, pot and
animal skin which is locally known as qalqalloo. The way and materials in which honey stored
can affect the quality of honey. Among the traders study participants honey quality may affected
by careless handling, temperature, climate, storage materials, harvesting condition and bee flora
in order of decreasing importance.

Plate 9: Honey storage materials used in Sigimo district

43
4.1.4.2. Customers preference and quality of honey

Table 22 customer preference and quality of honey

Description Response Frequency Percentage
factors that govern the price of honey Color and taste of honey 15 60.0
in your localities Distance from market 4 16.0
Season of the year 4 16.0
Traditional ceremonies 2 8.0
Customers of the honey Consumers 8 32.0
Retailers 6 24.0
Whole sellers 6 24.0
Cooperatives 5 20.0
Honey preferred by customers Pure white honey 14 56
Any pure extracted honey 6 24.0
Any crude honey 3 12.0
Pure red honey 2 8.0

Table 22 above indicated factors that govern the price of honey in locality were color and tastes
of honey, distance from market, season of the year and traditional ceremonies. Regarding to
customer of their honey traders reported that majority of their customer were consumers and less
are retailers, whole sellers and were cooperatives respectively. According to trader respondents
types of honey more wanted by customer were responded as 14(56%) were reported pure white
honey, 6(24%) reported any pure extracted honey, 3(12%) said any pure honey and 2(8%) said
pure red honey.

4.1.5. Honey quality laboratory result

Physicochemical properties of honey produced in the study area were analyzed compared to
Quality and Standards Authority of Ethiopia (QSAE), Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC)
and European Union (EU).

44
Table 23 honey quality laboratory results of highland and lowland area

Types of Parameters Unit Current study Mean and SD

honey(agro- Minimu Maximu Range
ecology) m m
Highland Ash g/100g 73.71 75.61 1.90 74.67+1.05324
Moisture g/100g 70.21 87.30 17.10 78.77+7.55011
PH g/100g 3.66 3.68 0.02 3.67 +.00816
Reducing sugar g/100g 66.03 66.92 0.89 66.47 ± 0.780
Midland Ash g/100g 71.82 73.52 1.70 72.67 +.96611
Moisture g/100g 67.93 86.92 18.99 77.4 +7.98265
PH 3.69 3.71 0.02 3.7 +.00957
Reducing sugar g/100g 66.5 67.04 0.54 66.77 ± 0.890

4.2 Discussion

4.2.1. Type of Hive Owned and Colony Distribution

The minimum and maximum of bee colonized hive of transitional hives was 3 to 7 with mean
1.7. The minimum and maximum bee colonized hives of modern hives was 3 to 8 with mean of
2.35 were bee colonies owned of transitional and modern hives respectively. 54. 15% of
traditional owned hive were empty while only 11.89% transitional hives and 11.355 modern
hives were without bee colonies. This result implies that even if the number of transitional and
modern hives were small in the study area, more than 88% of both transitional and modern hives
had bee colonies. In contrast, numbers of traditional hives were large and below average 45.85%
hive only had bee colonies while more than average 54.15 of traditional hives were without bee
colonies due to different factors. Among the factors number of hive in the districts and number
of bee colony was equal, the way and experiences of hive holders handle their hive was another
problems, absconding due to the prolonged temperature coldness happen sometimes killed large
number of bee colony and the migratory nature of bee colony was also main problems of
emptiness of traditional hives. This indicates that beekeepers are not aware of intensive colony
management during the shortage of availability of honeybee forage, on the one hand there is less
follow-up by extension workers when problem emerged.

Regarding to transitional and modern hives experts working on the area reported that, the
numbers of both transitional modern hives were small when compared with traditional hives.
This interview related with research results of Temesgen et al., (2018) in Chiro district of West
Hararghe Zone total of 502 bee colonies with an average of 4.22 colonies per head were owned

45
by the farmer respondents. The number of bee colonies owned in traditional hives ranged from 1
to 50 with an average of 4.04. Only 15.2% of the respondents had modern hives with and without
bee colonies and none of the respondents had transitional hives. The relatively lower numbers of
modern hives owned that traditional hives owned could be attributed to the respondents’
inadequate level of awareness and know-how on its operation (39.7%), high costs of modern
hives (40.5%), and unavailability of modern hives in the area (19.8%).

4.2.3. Sources of bee hives, bee colonies and Reason to engage in bee keeping activities

According to table 4, Regarding to sources of traditional hives, 87(72.5%) of respondents

reported that they constructed by them self; 27(22.5%) reported they bought locally constructed
and 6(5%) reported started beekeeping by heritage from their ancestors. Existences of huge
indigenous knowledge on practicing beekeeping hive which might differ from beekeepers to
beekeepers.

Concerning to transitional hive, 34(28.3%) bought locally constructed and 14(11.2%)

constructed by him/herself. There was no supply of transitional hive either by government or by
NGO in the study area. This implies the attention of both governments and NGO on improving
this hive type was low. Teklu and Dinku (2016) said the only problem for constructing top-bar
hive (KTBH) by beekeepers were inabilities keeping the specific size of top-bars. Due to this
problem the hive distribution was very low.

Sources of modern hive reported by study participants showed that. 42(35%) of them that owned
from governments on credit and 17(14.2%) reported they bought from market. The number of
modern hive in the study area was less. Birhanu et al., (2016), the main reasons for low adoption
rate of modern bee hives in the study area were lack of finance to buy input and provide short
training for farmers, shortage in supply of beehive accessory. Movable frame hives allow
appropriate colony management and use of a higher level technology, with larger colonies, and
can give higher yield and quality honey but are likely to require high investment cost and trained
man power.

As presented in table5, 31 (44.28%) highland, 23(46%) midland of respondents revealed that

they started beekeeping by natural bee migrant in the area; 27(38.57%) highland, 19(38%)
midland by catching swarms; 9(12.85%) highland, 7(14%) midland by getting gift from parents
and 2(2.85%) highland, 2(4%) midland buy honey bee colony.

46
This means there is a potential in the area for natural migrant honey bees starting beekeeping
activities. This results contrary with findings of (Kalayu et al., 2017), 38.3% of respondents
revealed that they started beekeeping by catching swarms. This means there is a potential in the
area for starting beekeeping activities because of there is high migrant honey movements in the
areas.

This finding which is different from the result reported in other parts of northern Ethiopia, where
88.8% of the beekeepers collect their colonies by catching either flying or jangle swarms (Yirga
et al., 2012). More than 96% of the beekeepers in the Gamo Gofa zone, Ethiopia, also collected
their foundation colony by catching swarms Yemane et al., (2013). A study report in the Jimma
and Illubabor zones of Oromia Regional State indicated that more than 50% of beekeepers start
their bee farms by catching swarming colonies Welay et al., (2017). These generally indicate that
the result is different when compare to this finding.

As indicated in table 6, sampled beekeepers reported as they engaged in beekeeping activities for
different reasons. 48(68.57%) of highland, 34(68%) midland of respondents were reported as
they engaged in beekeeping practice to generate income; 10(14.28%) highland, 7(14%) midland
to cover house expense; 6(8.57%) highland, 4(8%) midland due to its easy nature to perform
with other activities and 6(8.57%) highland, 4(8%) midland inheriting from parent, respectively
while only 1(1.42%) highland of beekeepers gave their reason of being engaged in beekeeping
because it is an indication of wealth. Beekeepers revealed as they practiced beekeeping for
getting cash income, consumption, dowry or gift and for breeding in descending order. This was
similar with the findings of Yemane and Taye (2013) who reported that the main purpose of
beekeeping was for both income and household consumption depending on their importance.

According to the result, Majority of beekeepers in the study area kept their traditional bee hives
(31.42% highland, 30% midland) hang in the forest around their areas; (24.28% highland, 24%
midland) in area closure to their home;(21.42% highland, 20% midland) kept under the eaves of
the house; (14.28% of highland and 14% of midland) backyard and (10% of high land, 10% of
mid land) beekeepers in the study area kept their traditional bee hives around their homestead.
In contrast Kalayu, et al., (2017), reported 47% beekeepers in the study area kept their traditional
bee hives around their homestead (backyard); 20.2% put inside the house; 15.4% put under the
eaves of the house; 7.8% put in the area closure; 6.6% hanging near homestead whereas 3%

47
hanging their beehives in the forest. On the other hand, beekeepers of transitional and modern
hives kept 58.4% in backyard and 41.6% in area closure. This result is in agreement with (Belie,
2009) who reported that 47.1% of beekeepers kept their traditional hives in the backyard mainly
to enable close supervision of colonies.

4.2.3. Duration of honey bee stay in hive and harvesting frequency

As result indicated, the average traditional 2.26, transitional 3.37 and modern 4.1 beehives
stayed in their hives were, respectively. Also majority of tradition hive honey bee 38(31.7%)
stayed in their hives only for 6 month to 1 years, in transitional hive 21(17.5%) stayed for 1-3
years and in modern hives 31(25.8%) honey bee stayed for more than four years. This implies
traditional hive were used migrant hive which stayed no more years in their hive while
transitional and modern hives catch bee and make to stay in the hive for more years.

Regarding to harvesting frequency report of study participants shows , traditional honey hive
harvest maximum 2 time in years and minimum 1 time per years; transitional honey hive
maximum 3 time and minimum 1 time per years while modern honey hives maximum 4 time
and minimum 2 time per years. Bekele et al., (2017) reported about 82.8% of study participants
harvest honey twice within the year, whereas only 7.2, 5.6 and 4.4% of the sample farmers
responded that they harvest once, more than three, three times, respectively in a year.
According to CACC (2003) report the average frequency of production for all the three type of
hives used in Amhara region were once and ranged from one to two.

4.2.4. Types of hive products and season harvest, and kinds of honey produced

As it is showed on table 7, majority 80(66.7%) of honey beekeepers in the study areas reported
that they were practice honey bee hive for produce honey and wax; 8(6.7%) for honey
production only and 3(2.5%) for bees wax production only.

In line with results interview conducted with Sigimo district agriculture office bee experts show
that, in the annually 1222 tone of honey from traditional hive, 317 tones from transitional hive
and 437 tone of honey from modern hive produced. In the district from traditional, transitional
and modern honey production total of 1976 tone honey produced per year. Also the amount of
wax produced in the district from traditional 122.2 tones, from transitional 31.7tone and from

48
modern 43.7 tone of wax produced per year. So in the district annually total of 197.6 waxes was
produced from traditional, transitional and modern hives.

Regarding to season of honey production majority of respondents 75(62.5%) reported they

harvest their honey during month of May to April. On the other hand 71(59.2%) of participants
responded that they got more honey from ‘Buto’ honey types which was harvest during April to
May time. This data revealed that majority of honey type produced in the study area was ‘buto.’
24(20%) of participants responded they were harvest their honey during months of June to July
While 15(12.5%) of respondents were reported they were harvest their honey during months of
October to December. 28(23.3%) of participants reported they got honey type called sendere in
local name and 21(17.5%) reports they got honey type called ‘kello’(yellow) honey. However
Kalayu et al., (2017) reported majority of the respondents (73%) collect large amounts of honey
once during November to December in a year followed by twice (25%) during the mentioned
time and May and June. Similarly, Teferi et al., (2011) reported that the main harvesting seasons
in Tigray and Lalibela honey are October through December, with an additional harvest period
for Tigray’s white honey in June and July; November and December for yellow honey; April and
May for white honey from the southwest and southeast Highlands; and February, March, May
and June for dark-brown varieties of honey. Harvesting period is different from region to region.
This shows the possibilities of harvesting and supplying different types of honey at different time
implying the possibility of continuous supply of honey along the market chain.

Regarding honey kinds (kello, buto and sendere), more demanded honey by consumer, majority
of respondents 87(72.5%) reported ‘buto’ honey at first demanded, 19(15.5%) ‘kello’ honey
second demanded and lastly 14(11.7) participants responded ‘sendere’ demanded.

4.2.5. Honey productivity, Household income and prices of crude honey and wax

The mean average of the honey production per hive of traditional, transitional and modern
honey was 6.8kg, 7.9kg and 14.17kg respectively. The minimum honey per hive from traditional
hive was 3kg and maximum was 10kg; the minimum honey per hive of transitional honey was
11kg and maximum was 15kg and the minimum and maximum honey per hive of modern honey
production was 15kg and 18kg respectively. Similarly, research finding by different researchers
by Teferi et al., (2011) indicated on average 33 and 16 kg of honey per hive was harvested from
modern and traditional hives in the northern Ethiopian highlands respectively. Honey production

49
is very low, only about an average of 8 to 15kg of honey could be harvested per hive per year but
in areas where improved technology has been introduced, an average of 15 to 20 kg/hive/year
has been harvested (Beyene and David, 2007). Addis and Malede (2014) and Chala et al., (2013)
reported that the average honey yield per year/colony was 7.20, 14.70 and 23.38kg for
traditional, transitional and moveable frame hives, in around Gondar and in jimma zone, south-
west Ethiopia respectively. Haftu and Gezu, 2014 in Hadiya Zone of southern Ethiopia also
indicated 3.04, 4.9 and 8.2kg for traditional, transitional and moveable frame hives, respectively.

According to study participant and livestock office expert, the minimum and maximum prices of
transitional hive were 50ETB and 100ETB respectively while the minimum price of modern hive
was 2000 birr and its maximum was 2500birrs. The mean of transitional hive was 78.55 while
the modern hive was 2288.33. The minimum prices of bee colonies was reported 50 birr and the
maximum price was 150 birr.

The average annual honey production per household of the surveyed beekeepers of highland
traditional honey was 359Kg; highland transitional honey was 63.02 kg and the mean highland
modern honey production per households was 93.1kg. The average annual honey production per
household of the surveyed beekeepers of Midland traditional honey was 110kg, midland
transitional honey was 32 kg and the mean modern honey production per households in the
midland was 75kg.The minimum annual honey production of traditional honey was 70kg and the
maximum honey per households was 600kg; the annual production of transitional honey
mimimum32kg and maximum96kg and the minimum and maximum annual honey production of
modern honey were 24kg and 140kg respectively in the highland.

Honey beekeepers reported as they got revenue from different types of beekeeping practice such
as income from selling crude honey, crude bees wax’s and from the sale of bee colonies.
According to beekeepers response, the average annual income per household from selling the
crude honey was 7876.77ETB; the average annual income per household from selling crude bee
wax was 5610.23ETB; the average annual income per household from selling bee colonies was
1363.71ETB. The minimum and maximum income beekeepers got from selling of crude honey
was 1, 800 and 20,000 respectively; the minimum and maximum income bee keepers got from
selling of crude wax was 420 and 17,000 ETB respectively.

50
The minimum and maximum price of white honey was 150birr and 200birr; The minimum and
maximum price of red honey was 70birr and 170birr; the minimum and maximum price of
mixed honey was 85birr and 190birr; and the minimum and maximum price of yellow honey
was 130birr and 165birr; respectively. The mean income household got from selling white honey
was 160.09; the mean income from selling of red honey 96.24; the mean income of selling mixed
honey 108.4 and the mean income of yellow honey was 146.62 respectively. Similarly, Yirga,
Koru, Kidane, and Mebrahatu, 2012) reported that domestic honey prices in Ethiopia differ
substantially by region and type of honey. The highest prices for honey are observed in Tigray,
where the white honey that is most popular with Ethiopians is produced. In this region, as of July
2012, farm-gate prices for white honey reached 120 ETB to 130 ETB/kg, with observed
differences depending on micro regional honey-quality characteristics, such as purity of wax
content and intensity of white color.

4.2.6 Supplementary feeding, Sources of water and migratory beekeeping practice

Supplementary feeding of honeybees for dry season especially for transitional and modern honey
bee, 27(22.5%) of honey beekeepers reported they provide their honey bee powders of basso,
shiro and other powder, sugar syrup, honey and water and other grain flour. Among honey
beekeepers participants 19(15.8%) feed their honey bee basso; 19(15.8%) feed shiro and other
powder; 18(15. %) feed sugar syrup; 15(12.5%) feed honey and water and 22(18.3%) feed grain
flour respectively. Similarly, Kalayu et al., (2017) as reported by beekeepers honeybee feed
shortage occurred mainly during January to May (65.7%) followed by February to August
(23.9%), June to August (7.5%) and September to January (2.9%). To address this challenge,
beekeeper replied as they provide supplementary feed in the dry season such as: basso, shiro,
sugar syrup, honey and water as well as grain flour as indicated. During dry period, 47.59% of
the respondents provide supplementary feeds to their bee colonies (Beyene, and David, 2007).

As results indicated, Sources of water for honey bees reported by study participants mostly
49(40.8%) was river, 25(20.8%) was well, 22(18.3) was streams, 15(12.5%) was ponds
respectively. Only 5(4.2%) reported as leaks was sources of water for bee; 3(2.5%) reported
water harvest structure and 1(0.8%) reported taps water used for honey bees.

Regarding occurrence of migratory beekeeping practice in their areas, all 120 participants were
answered yes and reason for bee colonies migratory practice was reported78(65%) for honey

51
production and 42(35%) for fetch of forage and water. Nuru (2002) reported that beekeepers of
Amahra and Tigray Regions, unlike other areas, move their colonies for better forage. This
sources add, in some places of Gojjam beekeepers move their colonies to other places not only
for better forage but also to protect them from certain seasonal diseases. For maximization of
honey production and efficient utilization of resources, migratory beekeeping can be exercised in
areas where honey forages provide rich honey flows in succession (Kerealem et al., 2005).

4.2.7 Trends of bee keeping production

Table 16 showed that decreased trend of bee keeping product was reported by 21(30%) highland
and 12(24%) midland of the respondent sharply increased, 20(28.57%) of highland and 6(12%)
of midland increased, 6(8.57%) of highland and 18(36%) of midland significantly decreased
22(31.4%) of highland and 14(28%) of midland decrease and 1(0.8%) of highland and none of
midland reported no changes. From study participants the reason of increased production was
reported as 26(63.4%) highland, 6(33.32) midland because of good market price and use of new
technology while 10(24.39%) highland, 8(44.44%) midland said because of added more bee
colonies and 5(12.19%) highland, 4(22.22%) midland said due to government helps. Similarly,
Kerealem et al., (2005) reported that 34.0%, 33.3% and 39.0% in traditional, intermediate and
modern hive respectively of the respondents have replied that the trends of bee products in the
given years have increased. These respondents assumed the increased trend of bee products to be
getting of additional colonies, adoption of improved beekeeping practices and afforestation
programs.

Among study participants who said there was decreasing trends honey production, by indicating
different reason (35.71% highland and 25% midland) due to bee migration,(28.57% highland
and21.87% midland), because of pest and predators, (10.71% highland and 12.5% midland)
different chemical applications, (3.57% highland and 15.62% midland) due to death of colony,
(10.71% highland, 15.62% midland) because of disease and (7.14% highland, 9.37 midland) due
to lack of budget. The current result is similar with Beyene and Verschuur (2004) reported that
out of the total respondents, about 67% beekeepers were replied as honey yield has decreased
continuously due to different challenges such as deforestation, agrochemical application, pest
and predators etc. Also Kerealem (2005) reported that the mean amount of honey produced over
the years of 2000-2004 in Amaro district declined while that of Enebse was relatively constant.
Also (Bekele, Genet, and Temaro,2017) reported about 72.6% of the respondent reported that

52
beekeeping production decreased with regards to the yields of hives and the number of
honeybees populations, this is because of climatic change from time to time as they said
flowering plants found in the area previously diminished.

4.2.8. Major constraints of honey bee productions

Nowadays, beekeepers are facing a number of difficulties and constraints that limit the efficiency
of honey production. Respondents raised a number of constraints that hinder beekeeping in their
area. The major challenges and constraints recognized in the target area are listed in table 12 1 st
shortage of bee colony, 2nd lack of training/skills of beekeeper , 3rd careless handling, 4th storage
materials, lack of government intervention and marketing, 5th harvesting condition, 6th bee flora,
climate and high temperature. The most important constraints present in Ethiopia were bee
forage, pests and predators, beekeeping equipment, absconding, honeybee colony, pesticides and
herbicides, death of colony, water shortage, honey storage materials and swarming (Yetimwork
et al., 2015 in eastern Zone of Tigray; Haftu and Gezu, 2014 in Hadya Zone of southern
Ethiopia). Similarly, Kerealem et al., (2009) declared that the major constraints that affect
beekeeping sub-sector in Ethiopia are: lack of beekeeping knowledge, shortage of skills man
power, shortage of bee equipments, pests and predators, pesticide threat, poor infrastructure
development, shortage of bee forage and lack of research extension. According to Adeday et al.,
(2012) conducted in Wukro district Eastern Zone of Tigray indicated that water scarcity or
drought to be one of the main problems of beekeeping. According to SOS-Sahel-Ethiopia the
major constraints in Ethiopia are lack of beekeeping knowledge, shortage of trained manpower,
shortage of beekeeping equipment, pests and predators and inadequate research and extension
services to support apiculture development programmes Wilson RT (2006).

4.2.9. Pest and predator found in the study area

According results, majority of study participants rank and responded 57(47.5%) ants was 1 st the
most pest and predators; honey badger and wax moth 19(15.8%) 2nd; mites 15(12.5%) 3rd; spider
and lizard 10(8.35%) 4th and last was birds 9(7.5%) pets and predators of honey bee in the study
area respectively. Similarly, different research findings mentioned the same pets and predators
of honey such as Yetimwork et al., (2015) and Adeday et al., (2012) honey badger, ants, wax
moth, spider, birds, lizard and snake are identified as pests and predator to the bees in eastern
part of Tigray. Similar honeybee pests and predator was reported by in other parts of the country
Tessega (2009) in Amhara region, Chala et al., (2012) in Gomma district of Jimma zone, South-

53
west Ethiopia, Nebiyu and Messele (2013) in Gamo Gofa zone of southern Ethiopia, Tariku and
Mechthild (2013) in Sidama Zone,Southern Ethiopia and Tesfaw (2012) in Ada’a district of east
Shoa Oromia region, Ethiopia.

4.2.10 Quality of honey production

4.2.10.1. Traders perception on honey storage qualities

Concerning honey storage for a long time majority or trader 25(100%) said they had stored
honey. 12(48%) reported they had stored honey for one to six month, 8(32%) they had stored for
one to two years and 5(20%) they had stored for more than two years. On the other hand
13(52%) of traders reported they had stored honey in plastic sack, equally 8(32%) of traders
reported they had stored honey in plastic container and Barmel and equally 2(8%) of traders
responded as they had stored honey in pot and animal skin. The way and materials in which
honey stored can affect the quality of honey. Among the traders study participants honey quality
may affected 6(24%) by careless handling, 5(20%) by temperature, 5(20%) by climate, 4(16%)
by storage materials, 3(12%) by harvesting condition and 2(8%) by bee flora. Beekeeping is still
operating in the old traditional ways implying the need for modernization. Low productivity and
poor quality of bee products are the major economic impediments for rural beekeepers (Nuru,
1999); however, they face another primary economic concern; i.e. lack of skill to manage their
bees and bee products. Most of the rural beekeepers cannot afford to invest in modern
beekeeping inputs, processing, packaging, and transport their products to market to maximize
profit.

4.2.10.2. Customers preference and quality of honey

Table 21 above indicated that factors that govern the price of honey in the study area were
15(60%) color and tastes of honey, 4(16%) distance from market, 4(16%) season of the year and
2(8%) traditional ceremonies. Regarding to customer of their honey traders reported that 8(32%)
of their customer were consumer, 6(24%) retailers, 6(24%) whole sellers and 5(20%) were
cooperatives respectively. For the question which honey is more wanted by your customers? The
traders responded that 14(56%) were reported pure white honey, 6(24%) reported any pure
extracted honey, 3(12%) said any pure honey and 2(85) said pure red honey.

54
4.2.11. Honey quality laboratory result

According to the result of the current study Average of honey ash contents of highland was
1.90% while the honey ash contents of lowland was 1.70%. The highland honey ash mean
contents were 74.67% and that of lowland was 72.67%.

Honey moisture contents of highland was minimum 70.21 to 87.30 maximum with range of
17.10% while the moisture contents of lowland honey was minimum 67.93 to 86.92 maximum
with range of 18.99%. The highland honey moisture mean was 78.77 and that of lowland was
77.41. This result indicates both honey samples are with the ranges of world standards. PH of
honey contents of highland was minimum 3.66 to 3.68 maximum with range of 0 .02 while the
PH of honey contents of midland was minimum 3.69 to 3.71 maximum with range of 0.02. The
PH of highland honey mean was 3.67 and that of low land was 3.70.

The reducing sugar composition of two honey samples was collected in Sigimo district fallen
with in recommended range by Codex Almentarious Commission (1969) which is greater than
65%, from highland ranging from 66.03% – 66.92% with mean value of 66.5% (Table 23).
Reducing sugar of midland honey was ranging from 66.5-67.04% with the mean value of
66.77%. Total reducing sugar contents in all honey samples are within quality requirement limits
(≥65%) (QSEA; CAC; EU). All honey samples had a total reducing sugar content above the
minimum limits of local and international honey quality standards.
Almost all samples of honey examined were within the acceptable range of world and national
standard. So, honey produced in the study area is good in its quality.

55
 5. Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1. Conclusion

Sigimo district have adequate natural resources and a long tradition and culture of beekeeping.
However, because of lack of technological changes, institutional supports and access to market
and value chain development, the district in general and the rural beekeeping households in
particular have not been sufficiently benefited from the sub sector. The most widely used type of
beekeeping in the study area is traditional due to the high cost of the improved hives and their
accessories. From the study it was understood that the colony population is decreasing from time
to time due to destruction of forest areas for crop cultivation and different constraints particularly
pesticides, predators and bee diseases.

The majority of district beekeepers still used traditional methods not getting benefit that matches
with their efforts. This is because traditional methods wait for migratory bees which have low
probability to get bee colony. Despite all the constraints and challenges currently facing the
beekeeping subsector, there are still enormous opportunities and potentials to boost the
production and quality of honey products in Sigimo district.

The area is suitable for honeybee production because of availability of honeybee colony,
different bee forages in different season and better experience in rearing beekeeping. An increase
in honeybee colony and honey price triggers the farmers to participate in this sector. However,
the majority of beekeepers in study area did not use improved beekeeping technologies instead,
they practiced traditionally. Most beekeepers have limited attention for different operational
beekeeping activities. Moreover, consecutive drought, lack of bee forage associated with
deforestation, prevalence of pest and predators, poor farmer’s awareness and indiscriminate
agrochemical utilizations, shortage of beekeeping equipment were reported by the respondent
households as the most important constraints of honey production in the districts

The major constraints to exploit the untapped potential of beekeeping activity in the district are
lack of beekeeping equipment, lack of skill or knowledge, agrochemical bee poisoning, shortage
of bee forage, incidence of pest and diseases. Majority of the beekeepers follow traditional
colony management, harvesting and processing methods to produce honey and most are not in
use.

56
5.2. Recommendation

Based on the result of this study the following recommendations are forwarded.
• Improving and encouraging increased use of transitional and introducing modern bee-
hives with full packages (sufficient training of the use and availing all the required
accessories), facilitating participatory research and extension with relevant organizations
operating in the area such as field days, enhancing farmers knowledge and skills about
beekeeping management (including colony multiplication techniques) and pre- and post-
harvest handling of hive products, encouraging more farmers to participate in beekeeping
and enhancing the capacity of the exiting beekeepers to increase sustainable and adequate
supply of quality honey are important for rapid promotion of apiculture to the district.
• Increasing the productivity, production and quality of honey by improving the
management of the traditional hives and introducing improved beehives, increasing the
productiveness of bee colonies by improving bee forage and providing feed and water
and introducing bee plants is very important.
• Since the majority of beekeepers are unable to transfer their colonies, unable to harvest,
some are not trained, and 56% box traditional hives are empty. These all indicates the
importance of adequate and practical training and strong extension both for beekeepers
and development agents. Therefore, establishing and supporting regular training
programs to develop experienced and skilled experts, development agents and farmers in
beekeeping management and marketing should be the major concern.
• Efforts should also be geared to alleviate the main constraints that hindered beekeeping
development in the district. Therefore, there is a great need for attention in providing
beekeeping equipment, minimizing of the effect of chemicals with involvement of
regional government by developing strategies, and planting multipurpose and drought
resistant honey bee flora, conservation of existing vegetation, integrating beekeeping with
agro forestry and crop production is important.

57
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 Appendices
JIMMA UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMNET OF BIOLOGY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
Questionnaire to Be Completed By Honey Beekeeper for Honey Bee Production Practices
and Honey Quality
PART ONE: INTRODUCTORY PART
Objective: This questioner aims to collect data for master‘s thesis in partial fulfillment of
Masters of Sciences in Biology. The study focuses on Honey bee production practices and
Honey quality in Sigmo district of Jimma zone Southwestern Ethiopia. Your information will be
worth and very helpful for the success of the study. Therefore, the information you reveal will be
used for academic purpose. I kindly request you to give your correct experience. Please complete
it as per the instructions.

Thank you for co-operation

65
PART TWO: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
Direction: This part focuses on identifying the demographic information of the participants.
Please read each question and give your answers accordingly.
1. Sex: A. Male Female
2. . Age: A. 20- 30
B. 31- 40
C. 41- 50
D. 51- 60
E. Above 60
3. Religion of household, A. Orthodox B. Muslim C. Protestant
D. Other specify______
4. Marital status: A. Married B. Single C. Widowed D. Divorced
5. Education level of house hold:
A. Illiterate B. Basic education C. Primary school
E. Secondary school F. Certified
6. Family number
A. Below 3 B. 3-7 C. Above 7
7. Land holding
A. 0.5- 2 hectares
B. 2.5.- 5 hectares
C. Above 5 hectares
8. Experience in beekeeping activity (years)
A. 1-5
B. 6-10
C. 11-16
D. 16-20
E. above 21 years

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Part Three: Bee keeping production practices
Instruction:
 Write clear answer in the blank space and use “√“tick mark in the given box.
 Use pen or pencil and finish at the given time.
9. Types and honeybees number per household head
Types of bee hive With colony Empty Total
Traditional hives only owned/households
Transitional hive only owned/HH
Framed hive only owned/ HH

Traditional and Transitional hive owned/households

Traditional and Modern hive owned/households

Transitional and Modern hive owned per households

Traditional, Transitional and Modern hive owned/HH

10. Where did you get bee hives?

Sources of bee hives

Traditional 1. beehives Constructed by him/her self

2. Constructed locally and bought

3. Heritage from ancestor

Transitional Constructed by him/her self

Constructed locally and bought

Supplied by Government on credit

Supplied by GOs on free
Supplied by NGO on credit
Supplied by NGO on free
Modern beehives Bought from market

Supplied by GOs on credit

Supplied by GOs on free

Supplied by NGO on credit

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 11. Sources of bee colonies to start bee keeping activities
Source of bee colonies to start By catching swarms
beekeeping activities in the
study area Gift from parents

Natural bee migrant in the area

Buying the honeybee colony

Through inheritance

From Agriculture office

NGO

Placements, sources of bee colonies and reason for engaging

12. Where did you keep your bees?

No Site or Placement of the hives Traditional Transitional Modern
1 Backyard
2 Inside the House
3 Under the eaves of the house
4 Hanging on the trees near the house
5 Hanging on trees in the forest
6 In area closure
7 Others

13. What is the reason to engage in beekeeping activities?

0A. Income generating B. Easy to perform to gather with other activity

C. House expense D. Inherited from parents
E. Training F. As indication of wealth
Duration of honey bee stay in hive and harvesting frequency
14. For how long your honey bee remains in the hive?
1. Traditional: Minimum ______years Maximum ______years
2. Transitional: Minimum ______years Maximum ______years
3. Modern: Minimum ______years Maximum ______years

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15. Harvesting frequency per year.
No. Types of hives Maximum time in years Minimum time in years
1 Traditional
2 Transitional
3 Modern
Hive products and season of harvest, and harvesting frequency
16. Type of hive products produced
Honey
Bees wax
Honey and beeswax
Honey and colony
17. Peak season of production
October to December
January to February
May to April
June to July
18. In which season do you get more honey in quality and quantity?
Yello (keello) during November- December
Buto during April –may
Sendere during June –july
19. Among honey kinds listed on question 19 which one more demanded by
consumer in order. indicate by writing first, second and third
Yello (keello)
Buto during April –may
Sendere during June –july
20. Price of honey by their type (kello, buto and sendere) by honey keepers
Kello
Buto
Sendere

Honey productivity, Household income and prices of crude honey in color

21. Honey production per hive in Kg and frequency Minimum Maximum
Traditional per hive in (Kg)
Transitional per hive in (Kg)
Modern hives per hive in (Kg)
22. Different kinds of Honey productivity in KG per household
Traditional per house hold in (Kg)
Transitional per household in (Kg)
Modern hives per household in (Kg)
Prices of colonies (ETB)
Price of one transitional bee hive (ETB)
Price of modern bee hive (ETB)
Honey production per house hold
23. Household income and prices of crude honey in color (Ethiopian Minimum Maximum

69
 birr).
Household income for sale of crude honey
Household income for sale of crude bees wax
Household income for sale of bees colonies
Prices of white honey
Prices of red honey
Prices of mixed honey
Prices of yellow honey
24. Does water available for your honeybees at all the time? 1. Yes 2. No
25. If yes, where do your honeybees get water?
A. Streams B. Ponds C. Rivers D. Lakes E. well Tap water
E. Others: specify________________________________
26. If your response is no, how do you provide water to your bee colonies?
27. Do you provide additional feed to your honeybee during shortage of feed?
Yes No
28 If yes, what do you feed your honeybees?
A. Sugar B. Barely flour C. Shiro D. Honey
E. grain flour F. Others_______________
29. Is there occurrence of migratory beekeeping practice in your area?
A. Yes B. No
30. What is the reason for bee colonies migratory practices?
A. Fetch of forage and water B. Honey production
Pest and predator
31. From the following pests and predators found in the area, which is mostly destroy your
honey bee? Rank them.

No Pest and predator Rank

1 Wax moth
2 Ants
3 Spider
4 Mites
5 Birds
6 Lizard
7 Beetle
8 Hamagot(honey badger)
9 Others

70
Trends of beekeeping activities
32. What is the trend of your colony number and honey yield?
Types of hive No harvest Decreasing Increasing Stable
Traditional
Transitional
Modern
33. If there is an increase in trend in number of bee colonies and honey yield over the years, what
is the reason behind?
A. Good market price B. Added more bee colonies
C. Use of new technologies D. Others (specify) ________________________
34. If there is a decrease in trend in the number of bee colonies and honey yields, what is the
reason behind?
No Causes Rank Season of Measures taken
occurrence
1 Lack of bee forage
2 Lack of water
3 Pesticides and herbicides application
4 Death of colony
5 Pests and predators
6 Absconding
7 Migration
8 Drought
9 Lack of budget
10 Diseases
11 Others specify
35. Did you find dead bees around the farm after you apply the chemicals A. Yes B. No
36. If yes, for what purpose do you use agrochemicals?
A. Crop pest control B. Weeds control C. Others (specify): _________
37. What are the major signs observed on honey bees related to these chemicals?
A. Massive death B. Aggressiveness C. Dead brood
D. Queen death E. worker bee’s death
38. What factors can influence honey quality?
No What factors can influence honey quality? Rank
1 Storage materials
2 Lack of government intervention
3 Climate and high temperature
4 Careless handling
5 Lack of training/skill of beekeeper
6 harvesting condition

71
Appendix 2: Questionnaires of honey quality for traders and others. Circle for question
with choice and Write your answer on the blank space for blank space questions.
1. Do you store honey for a long time? 1. Yes 2. No
2. If yes for how many years you store it?
A. One to six month B. One to two years C. More than two years
3. In what types of materials you store honey?
A. Plastic container B. Plastered sac C. Pot D. Animal skin E. Barmel
4. What factors influence honey quality?
A. Storage materials B. Temperature C. Climate D. Careless handling
E. Harvesting condition F. bee flora
5. What are the factors that govern the price of honey in your locality?
A. Color and taste of honey B. Traditional ceremonies
C. Distance from market D. Season of the year
6. Who are your customers?
A. Retailers B. Whole sellers C. Consumers D. Cooperatives
7. Which honey is more wanted by your customers?
A. Pure extracted honey from moist dega
B. Pure extracted honey from moist woinadega
C. crude honey from Dega
D. Crude honey from woinadega.

72
Appendix3. Questionnaires for Expert
1. What types of bee hives are found in the district?
2. How many hives and bee colonies are owned by beekeepers in the woreda?
I Traditional hive
II Transitional hive
III Modern hive
3. How many beekeepers are there in the district?
4. Do you have contact with beekeepers? A. Yes B. No
5. If yes, how many times do you contact per years?
A. Within a month
B. within three month
C. Within six month and above
6. How do you help the beekeepers?
A. Training
B. Improving new technologies
C. Awareness creation
D. others__________________________
7. What types of Agrochemicals may affect honey bee?
A. Herbicide
B. Pesticide
C. Roundup and fertilizer
D. Other___________
8. in what growth stage farmers use agrochemicals?
A. First growth stage
B. Mid growth stage
C. Late growth stage
9. What methods are possible to protect honey bee from agrochemicals?
10. By what methods honey quality can be improved?

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Appendix 4: Questionnaires translated to local languages.

Yuunivarsitii Jimmaatti Gaafannoo Qorannoo Yaalii Horsiisa Kanniisa Dammaafi

qulqullina dammaa aanaa Sigimoo

Ajaja:
 Deebii ifaa ta’e bakka duwwaa irratti barreessuun saanduqa kenname keessatti immoo
mallattoo “√” barreessuun guuti.
 Yeroo siif kenname fayyadamuun xumuri.
1. Haala walii Gala hirmaattotaa
1.1 Saala______ 1.2 Umurii_______

1.3 Naannoo_______ Godina______ Aanaa_________ Ganda________ Garee__________

1.4 Amantii deebii kennaa A. Muslima B. Ortodooksii C. Kaatolikii
D.Protistaantii E Kan biraa_______________
1.5 Haala fuudhaafi heerumaa A. Kan hin fuune/hin heerumne B. Kan fuudhe/ heerumte
C. kan hiike /hiikamte D.Kan abbaan warraa irraa du’e
1.6 Sadarkaa barumsaa A. kan hin baranne B. Barnoota bu’uuraa
C. sadarkaa 1ffaa
D. sadarkaa 2ffaa E. sertifikeetii
1.7 Baayina miseensa maatii A.3 gadi B. 3-7 C. 7 oli
1.8. Walii gala lafaa (heektaaraan) _______________
A. heektaara 0.5_2 B. heektaara 2-5 C. heektaara 5 ol

2. Horsiisa Kanniisaa
2.1 Kannisa ni eegdaa A. Eeyyee B. miti
2.2. Kanniisa eeguu yoom eegalte?________________
2.3. Kanniisa horsiisuu akkamitti eegalte?
A. Hoomaa kannisaa qabachuun B.Kennaa maatii
C.hoomaa kanniisaa bitachuudhaan
D. Dhaalaan kan argame E. kan biraa yoo jiraate ibsi________________
2.4 Hoomaan kanniisaa naannoo keetti ni gurguramaa?

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 A. Eeyyee B. miti

2.5 Eeyyee yoo jette gatiin hoomaa tokkoo qarshii meeqa?________________

2.6 Gaagura meeqa Qabda?
Hoomaa kanniisaa Duwwaa Waliigala
Gosa gaguraa waliin
Gaagura aadaa qofa
Gaagura ce’umsaa qofa
Gaagura ammayyaa qofa
Gaagura aadaa fi ce’umsaa
Gaagura ce’umsaa fi ammayyaa
Gaagura aadaa fi ammayyaa
Gaagura aadaa, ce’umsaafi
ammayyaa
2.7. gaagura kanniisaa eessaa argatte?
Madda gaaguraa
Aadaa Gaagura ofii hojjatachuun
Wantoota naannoo irraa hojjachuun/bitachuun
Dhaalaan kan argame
Wantoota naannoo irraa hojjachuun
Ce’umsa Bitachuudhaan
Liqiidhaan mootummaa irraa kan argame
Tolaan mootummaa irraa kan argame
Liqiidhaan miti mootummaa irraa kan argame
Gabaa irraa bitachuun
Ammayyaa Mootummaa irraa liqiin kan argame
Mootummaa irra tolaan kan argame
Dhaabbata miti mootummaa irraa kan argame

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 2.8. Eessatti hoomaa kanniisaa kee eegda?
T/L Bakka eegumsa gaaguraa Gagura Gagura Gagura
aadaa ce,umsaa ammayyaa
1 Mana keessa
2 Mana jala
3 Muka naannoo manaa irratti fannisuun
4 Muka bosona jiru irratti fannisuun
5 Naannoo manaa
6 Kan biraa
2.9 Kanniisni kee waggaa hammamiif gaagura keessa turuu danda’u?
1. Kan aadaa waggaa______ Hanga _____ 2. Kan ce’umsaa waggaa _____Hanga ____
3. Kan Ammayyaa Waggaa _____ Hanga waggaa_________
2.10 Waggaatti damma marsaa fi kilograama meeqa oomishta?
T/L Waggaa Gaagura Aadaa Gaagura Ce,umsaa Gaagura ammayyaa
Marsaa Baayina(kg) Marsaa Baayina(kg) Marsaa Baayina(kg)
1 2010
2 2011
3 2012

2.11. Gaagura duwwaa qabdaa? A. Eeyyee B. Miti

2.12. Eeyyee yoo jette baayina gaagura duwwaa jiru ibsi.
Gosa gaaguraa Baayina Sababa inni duwwaa ta’eef
Aadaa
Ce’umsa
Ammayyaa
2.13. Wantootni kanniiisa miidhuu danda’an maal fa’i jettee yaadda? Sadarkeessii ibsi.
T/L Maxxantootaafi nyaattota kanniisaa Sadarkaa Mala to’annaa
1 Mixii
2 Jirbi footuu
3 Rirma
4 Lootuu

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 5 Simbirroo
6 Billaacha gaga
7 Hamaa
8 Kan biraa
2.14 Baay’ina kannisa keetii wajjin wal qabatee bu’aan ati argattu maal fakkata?
Gosa gaaguraa Bu’aan hin jiru Xiqqaadha Olaanaadha Dhaabbataadha
Aadaa
Ce’umsa
Ammayyaa
2.15 Baay’inni kannisa keetiif bu’aan ati argattu kan dabalu yoo ta’e, Sababni isaa maali?
A. Hoomaa kannisaa itti dabaluu B. teekinoolojii haaraa fayyadamuu
C. Gatii gabaa gaarii argachuu d. Sababa biraa___________________
2.16 Baayinni kanniisa qabduufi bu’aan waggaatti argattu kan gadi bu’u yoo ta’e sababni isaa
maali?
No Sababoota Sadarkaa Waqtii itti mudatu
1 Hanqina nyaata kanniisaa
2 Dhabamuu bishaanii
3 Keemikaala garaa garaa
4 Godaansa kanniisa
5 Gogiinsa
6 Dhukkuba
7 Dhabamuu baajataa
8 Kan biraa yoo jiraate ibsi

2.17 Itti fayyadamni keemikaala qonnaa naannoo keetti ni argamaa? A. eeyyee B. miti
2.18 Eeyyee yoo jette faayidaa maaliitiif itti fayyadamu? A. Maxxantoota midhaanii ittisuuf
B.Aramaa ittisuuf C. Kan biraa yoo jiraate ibsi____________
2.19 Keemikaalicha yeroo akkamii fayyadamtu ji’a kam keessa?_______________________
2.20 Itti fayyadama keemikaalaa booda naannoo lafa qonnaatti kannisa du’an argitee beektaa?
A. eeyyee B. miti
2.21. kanniisa irratti keemikaalli qonnaa dhiibbaa qabaachuu hubattee jirta?
A. eeyyee B.miti
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1. Eeyyee yoo jette sababa keemikaalaatiin hoomaa kanniisaa meeqa dhabde?______________
2. keemikaalaan wal qabatee mallattoon kanniisa irratti mul’atu maal fa’a?
A. du’a walii galaa B. finciluu kanniisaa C. jiisaan du’uu
D. mootiin du’uu E. dalagduun du’uu F. kan biraa_____________________
3. Kannisni akka keemikaalaan hin hubamne tooftaa maaliitti fayyadamta?____________
2.22. Kannisni kee yeroo hunda bishaan argachuuf haala mijataa qabuu?
A. eeyyee B. miti
1. Eeyyee yoo jette bishaan kana eessaa argatu? A. laga B. Haroo
C. galaana D. Kan biraa yoo jiraate ibsi_________________
2. miti yoo jette bishaan haala kamiin dhiheessuufii dandeessa?_________________________
2.23. Kannisa keetiif nyaata dabalataa ni laattaafi? A. eeyyee B. Miti
1. eeyyee yoo jette gosa nyaataa maal kennitaaf? A. Sukkaara B. daakuu garbuu
C. shiroo D. damma E. Kan biraa yoojiraate______________________
2.24. Kannisni kee amala akkamii qabu? A.amala gaarii B. Amala finciluu
2.25. kannisni kee Garee kannisa biraatti akka hin makamne ni dhorkitaa?
A. eeyyee B. miti
1. eeyyee yoo jette tooftaa maaliitiin?__________________________________________
2.26. Bakka kanniisni kee itti eegamu ni qulqulleessitaa? A. eeyyee B. miti
1. eeyyee yoo jette yeroo hammamiitiin______
2. miti yoo jette, maaliif___________________
2.27. Waqtii( ji’a) kam keessa damma baay’inaafi qulqullinaan argachuu danda’ama?
A. Keelloo Ji’a November- December
B. Buto (gatamaa) April –may
C. sendere (makkanniisa) June –july
2.28. Mukkeen naannoo keetti argaman kan kanniisni damma irraa qopheessuu danda’an
tarreessi.

Maqaa gaafataa_________________________ Mallattoo________ Guyyaa__________

Galatoomaa

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Kutaa 2ffaa: Godina Jimmaa aanaa Sigimootti Gaafannoo qulqullina dammaa irratti
Daldaltoota dammaatiif qophaa’e.
Ajaja: Gaaffii filannoo qabuuf qubee deebii sirrii qabu itti marsi, akkasumas bakka duwwaa
irratti immoo deebii ifaa barrreessuun guuti.
1. Damma yeroo dheeraaf ni keessaa? A. Eeyyee B. Miti
2. Eeyyee yoo jette yeroo hammamiif tursiista?
A. Ji’a tokkoo hanga ji’a jahaa
B. waggaa tokkoo hanga waggaa lama
C. waggaa lamaa ol
3. Meeshaan damma ol kaa’uuf itti fayyadamtu maali?
A. Pilaastikii (baaldii) B. qalqalloo C.Huuroo
D. Barmeelii D. Kan biraa ______________
4. Wantootni rakkoo qulqullina dammaa ta’an maal fa’i?
A. Meeshaa itti kuusan
B. Tempireechara
C. Jijjirama qilleensa
D. qabiinsa seer malee
E. haala yeroo muramuu F. Gosa daraaraa
5. Wantootni gatii dammaa irratti dhiibbaa qaban maal fa’i?
A. Halluufi dhandhama dammaa
B. dhiheessii aadaa
C. fageenya gabaa irraa qabu
D. Waqtiiee waggaa
6. Maamilli kee eenyu?
A. daldaltoota waliigalaa B. Nyaattota C. Waldaalee
7. Gosa dammaa kamtu caala filatamaadha?
A. Damma calalamaa kan baddaa B. Damma calalamaa badda daree
C. Damma baddaa kan hin calalamin D. damma badda daree kan hin calalamin

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Kutaa 3ffaa: Godina Jimmaa aanaa Sigimootti gaafannoo horsiisa kanniisaa dammaa
irratti ogeessota kanniisaatiif qophaa’e.
A. Gosoota gaaguraa akkamiitu aanattii keessatti argama?
B. Namootni kanniisa horsiisan gaagura meeqaafi hoomaa kanniisaa meeqa qabu?
A. Gaagura aadaa__________ Hoomaa kanniisaa_________
B. Gaagura ce’umsaa ___________ Hoomaa kanniisaa_______
C. Gaagura ammayyaa__________Hoomaa kanniisaa_________
C. Aanattii keessatti namoota meeqatu kanniisa horsiisa?
D. Namoota kanniisa horsiisan wajjin qunnamtii qabdaa?
A. Eeyyee B. Miti
E. Eeyyee yoo jette, waggaatti al meeqa qunnamta?
A. Ji’a tokkoon
B. B. ji’a sadiin
C. C. ji’a jahaafi isaa ol
F. Namoota kannisa horsiisan haala kamiin deeggarta?
A. Leenjii kennuufiin
B. Teeknoolojii haaraa uumuu
C. Horsiisa kanniisaa irratti hubannoo uumuu
D. Kan biraa yoo jiraate ibsi________________________
G. Gosootni keemikaala qonnaa kanniisa miidhuu danda,an maal fa’a?
A. Qoricha farra aramaa
B. Qoricha maxxantootaa
C. Xaa’oo fi roundup
D. Kan biraa______________________
H. Sadarkaa guddina biqilootaa kamirratti qonnaan bultoonni keemikaala qonnaa
fayyadamu?
A. Sadarkaa guddina jalqabaa
B. Sadarkaa guddina gidduu
C. Sadarkaa guddina xumuraa
I. Kanniisni keemikaalaan akka hin hubamne gochuuf tooftaa maaliitu gaariidha?
J. Tooftaa maaliitiin qulqullinni dammaa fooyya’uu danda’a?

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